Gamma ray

This article is about the terms use in physics. For other ditionally, gamma rays are produced by a number of
uses, see Gamma ray (disambiguation). astronomical processes in which very high-energy elec-
trons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma
rays via bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering, and
synchrotron radiation. However, a large fraction of such
astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earths atmo-
sphere and can only be detected by spacecraft.
Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz
(or >1019 Hz), and therefore have energies above 100
keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (1012 me-
ter), which is less than the diameter of an atom. How-
ever, this is not a hard and fast denition, but rather only
a rule-of-thumb description for natural processes. Elec-
Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray () from an tromagnetic radiation from radioactive decay of atomic
atomic nucleus nuclei is referred to as gamma rays no matter its energy,
so that there is no lower limit to gamma energy derived
from radioactive decay. This radiation commonly has en-
ergy of a few hundred keV, and almost always less than
10 MeV. In astronomy, gamma rays are dened by their
energy, and no production process needs to be specied.
The energies of gamma rays from astronomical sources
range to over 10 TeV, an energy far too large to result
from radioactive decay.[1] A notable example is extremely
powerful bursts of high-energy radiation referred to as
long duration gamma-ray bursts, of energies higher than
can be produced by radioactive decay. These bursts of
gamma rays, thought to be due to the collapse of stars
called hypernovae, are the most powerful events so far
Gamma rays are emitted during nuclear ssion in nuclear discovered in the cosmos.
explosions.

Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays, and de-
noted by the Greek letter , refers to electromagnetic ra-
diation of an extremely high frequency and therefore con-
sists of high-energy photons. Gamma rays are ionizing
radiation, and are thus biologically hazardous. They are
classically produced by the decay of atomic nuclei as they
transition from a high energy state to a lower state known
as gamma decay, but may also be produced by other pro-
cesses. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, dis-
covered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radia-
tion emitted from radium. Villards radiation was named
gamma rays by Ernest Rutherford in 1903.
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma
decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes, and sec-
ondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with
cosmic ray particles. Rare terrestrial natural sources pro-
duce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, such as
lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray ashes. Ad-
1 History of discovery
The rst gamma ray source to be discovered historically
was the radioactive decay process called gamma decay.
In this type of decay, an excited nucleus emits a gamma
ray almost immediately upon formation (it is now un-
derstood that a nuclear isomeric transition, however, can
produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and
much longer half-life). Paul Villard, a French chemist
and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while
studying radiation emitted from radium. Villard knew
that his described radiation was more powerful than pre-
viously described types of rays from radium, which in-
cluded beta rays, rst noted as radioactivity by Henri
Becquerel in 1896, and alpha rays, discovered as a less
penetrating form of radiation by Rutherford, in 1899.
However, Villard did not consider naming them as a dif-
ferent fundamental type.[2][3] Villards radiation was rec-

1
2 4 NAMING CONVENTIONS AND OVERLAP IN TERMINOLOGY
ognized as being of a type fundamentally dierent from
previously named rays, by Ernest Rutherford, who in
1903 named Villards rays gamma rays by analogy with
the beta and alpha rays that Rutherford had dierentiated
in 1899.[4] The rays emitted by radioactive elements
were named in order of their power to penetrate various
materials, using the rst three letters of the Greek alpha-
bet: alpha rays as the least penetrating, followed by beta
rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating.
Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deected
(or at least, not easily deected) by a magnetic eld, an-
other property making them unlike alpha and beta rays.
Gamma rays were rst thought to be particles with mass,
like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed
that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their
failure to be deected by a magnetic eld indicated that
they had no charge.[5] In 1914, gamma rays were ob-
served to be reected from crystal surfaces, proving that
they were electromagnetic radiation.[5] Rutherford and
his coworker Edward Andrade measured the wavelengths
of gamma rays from radium, and found that they were
similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and (thus)
higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giv-
ing them also more energy per photon, as soon as the lat-
ter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was
then understood to usually emit a single gamma photon.
2 Sources of gamma rays
This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and
time, from their emission in the jet of a distant blazar to their
arrival in Fermis Large Area Telescope (LAT).
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma
decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes such as
potassium-40, and also as a secondary radiation from
various atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray parti-
cles. Some rare terrestrial natural sources that produce
gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, are lightning
strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray ashes, which produce
high energy emissions from natural high-energy voltages.
Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical
processes in which very high-energy electrons are pro-
duced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays
by the mechanisms of bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton
scattering and synchrotron radiation. A large fraction of
such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earths
atmosphere and must be detected by spacecraft. Notable
articial sources of gamma rays include ssion such as
occurs in nuclear reactors, and high energy physics ex-
periments, such as neutral pion decay and nuclear fusion.
3 General characteristics
The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has
changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromag-
netic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes almost invariably
had a longer wavelength than the radiation (gamma rays)
emitted by radioactive nuclei.[6] Older literature distin-
guished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis
of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary
wavelength, such as 1011 m, dened as gamma rays.[7]
However, with articial sources now able to duplicate any
electromagnetic radiation that originates in the nucleus,
as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths character-
istic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other types,
now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usu-
ally distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by
denition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma
rays are emitted by the nucleus.[6][8][9][10] Exceptions to
this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma de-
cay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but
other high energy processes known to involve other than
radioactive decay are still classed as sources of gamma
radiation.
4 Naming conventions and overlap
in terminology
In the past, the distinction between X-rays and gamma
rays was based on energy, with gamma rays being con-
sidered a higher-energy version of electromagnetic radi-
ation. However, modern high-energy X-rays produced
by linear accelerators for megavoltage treatment in can-
cer often have higher energy (4 to 25 MeV) than do most
classical gamma rays produced by nuclear gamma decay.
One of the most common gamma ray emitting isotopes
used in diagnostic nuclear medicine, technetium-99m,
produces gamma radiation of the same energy (140 keV)
as that produced by diagnostic X-ray machines, but of
signicantly lower energy than therapeutic photons from
linear particle accelerators. In the medical community
today, the convention that radiation produced by nuclear
decay is the only type referred to as gamma radiation is
still respected.
Because of this broad overlap in energy ranges, in
physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are
now often dened by their origin: X-rays are emitted
by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or
 3

manner as the production of X-rays. Although gamma

rays in astronomy are discussed below as non-radioactive
events, in fact a few gamma rays are known in astronomy
to originate explicitly from gamma decay of nuclei (as
demonstrated by their spectra and emission half life). A
classic example is that of supernova SN 1987A, which
emits an afterglow of gamma-ray photons from the
decay of newly made radioactive nickel-56 and cobalt-
56. Most gamma rays in astronomy, however, arise by
other mechanisms. Astronomical literature tends to write
gamma-ray with a hyphen, by analogy to X-rays, rather
than in a way analogous to alpha rays and beta rays. This
notation tends to subtly stress the non-nuclear source of
most astronomical gamma-rays.

5 Units of measure and exposure

The Moon as seen by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, The measure of gamma rays ionizing ability is called the
in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by exposure:
cosmic ray bombardment of its surface. The Sun, which has no
similar surface of high atomic number to act as target for cosmic
rays, cannot usually be seen at all at these energies, which are too The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of
high to emerge from primary nuclear reactions, such as solar nu- ionizing radiation exposure, and is the amount of ra-
clear fusion (though occasionally the Sun produces gamma rays diation required to create 1 coulomb of charge of
by cyclotron-type mechanisms, during solar ares). Gamma rays each polarity in 1 kilogram of matter.
have higher energy than X-rays.[11]
The rntgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of ex-
posure, which represented the amount of radiation
while being accelerated to produce bremsstrahlung-type required to create 1 esu of charge of each polarity in
radiation),[12] while gamma rays are emitted by the nu- 1 cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 rntgen = 2.58104
cleus or by means of other particle decays or annihila- C/kg
tion events. There is no lower limit to the energy of pho-
tons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus ultraviolet or
lower energy photons produced by these processes would However, the eect of gamma and other ionizing radia-
also be dened as gamma rays.[13] The only naming- tion on living tissue is more closely related to the amount
convention that is still universally respected is the rule that of energy deposited rather than the charge. This is called
electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic the absorbed dose:
nuclear origin is always referred to as gamma rays, and
never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the The gray (Gy), which has units of (J/kg), is the SI
converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered unit of absorbed dose, and is the amount of radiation
to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated. required to deposit 1 joule of energy in 1 kilogram
In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are de- of any kind of matter.
ned by energy, since the processes that produce them
may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, de- The rad is the deprecated CGS unit, equal to 0.01 J
termines the required astronomical detectors needed. [14] deposited per kg. 100 rad = 1 Gy.
High energy photons occur in nature that are known to
be produced by processes other than nuclear decay but The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological eect
are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is of radiation on human tissue. For gamma rays, it is equal
gamma rays from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, to the absorbed dose.
and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mech-
anism.
The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of equivalent dose,
Another example is gamma-ray bursts, now known to be which for gamma rays is numerically equal to the
produced from processes too powerful to involve simple gray (Gy).
collections of atoms undergoing radioactive decay. This
has led to the realization that many gamma rays produced The rem is the deprecated CGS unit of equivalent
in astronomical processes result not from radioactive de- dose. For gamma rays it is equal to the rad or 0.01
cay or particle annihilation, but rather in much the same J of energy deposited per kg. 1 Sv = 100 rem.
4 6 PROPERTIES

6 Properties

6.1 Shielding

Shielding from gamma rays requires large amounts of

mass, in contrast to alpha particles, which can be blocked
by paper or skin, and beta particles, which can be shielded
by foil. Gamma rays are better absorbed by materials
with high atomic numbers and high density, although
neither eect is important compared to the total mass
per area in the path of the gamma ray. For this rea- The total absorption coecient of aluminium (atomic number
son, a lead shield is only modestly better (2030% bet- 13) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the con-
ter) as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another tributions by the three eects. As is usual, the photoelectric ef-
shielding material, such as aluminium, concrete, water or fect is largest at low energies, Compton scattering dominates at
soil; leads major advantage is not in lower weight, but intermediate energies, and pair production dominates at high en-
ergies.
rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protec-
tive clothing, goggles and respirators can protect from in-
ternal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting
particles, but provide no protection from gamma radia-
tion from external sources.
The higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker
the shielding made from the same shielding material is
required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typi-
cally measured by the thickness required to reduce the
intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the half value
layer or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1
cm (0.4) of lead to reduce their intensity by 50% will
also have their intensity reduced in half by 4.1 cm of The total absorption coecient of lead (atomic number 82) for
granite rock, 6 cm (2) of concrete, or 9 cm (3) of gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions
packed soil. However, the mass of this much concrete by the three eects. Here, the photoelectric eect dominates at low
or soil is only 2030% greater than that of lead with the energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to dominate.
same absorption capability. Depleted uranium is used for
shielding in portable gamma ray sources, but here the sav-
ings in weight over lead are larger, as portable sources
shape resembles a sphere to some extent, and the volume I(x) = I0 ex
of a sphere is dependent on the cube of the radius; so
a source with its radius cut in half will have its volume where x is the thickness of the material from the incident
reduced by an eighth, which will more than compensate surface, = n is the absorption coecient, measured
uraniums greater density (as well as reducing bulk). In in cm1 , n the number of atoms per cm3 of the mate-
a nuclear power plant, shielding can be provided by steel rial (atomic density) and the absorption cross section in
and concrete in the pressure and particle containment ves- cm2 .
sel, while water provides a radiation shielding of fuel rods As it passes through matter, gamma radiation ionizes via
during storage or transport into the reactor core. The loss three processes: the photoelectric eect, Compton scat-
of water or removal of a hot fuel assembly into the air tering, and pair production.
would result in much higher radiation levels than when
kept under water. Photoelectric eect: This describes the case in
which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers
its energy to an atomic electron, causing the ejection
of that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy
6.2 Matter interaction of the resulting photoelectron is equal to the energy
of the incident gamma photon minus the energy that
When a gamma ray passes through matter, the probabil- originally bound the electron to the atom (binding
ity for absorption is proportional to the thickness of the energy). The photoelectric eect is the dominant
layer, the density of the material, and the absorption cross energy transfer mechanism for X-ray and gamma
section of the material. The total absorption shows an ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand
exponential decrease of intensity with distance from the electron volts), but it is much less important at higher
incident surface: energies.
6.4 Gamma ray production
Compton scattering: This is an interaction in
which an incident gamma photon loses enough en-
ergy to an atomic electron to cause its ejection, with
the remainder of the original photons energy emit-
ted as a new, lower energy gamma photon whose
emission direction is dierent from that of the in-
cident gamma photon, hence the term scattering.
The probability of Compton scattering decreases
with increasing photon energy. Compton scatter-
ing is thought to be the principal absorption mech-
anism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy
range 100 keV to 10 MeV. Compton scattering is
relatively independent of the atomic number of the
absorbing material, which is why very dense mate-
rials like lead are only modestly better shields, on a
per weight basis, than are less dense materials.
Pair production: This becomes possible with
gamma energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, and becomes
important as an absorption mechanism at energies
over 5 MeV (see illustration at right, for lead). By
interaction with the electric eld of a nucleus, the
energy of the incident photon is converted into the
mass of an electron-positron pair. Any gamma en-
ergy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two
particles (totaling at least 1.02 MeV) appears as the
kinetic energy of the pair and in the recoil of the
emitting nucleus. At the end of the positrons range,
it combines with a free electron, and the two anni-
hilate, and the entire mass of these two is then con-
verted into two gamma photons of at least 0.51 MeV In certain cases, the excited nuclear state that follows
energy each (or higher according to the kinetic en- the emission of a beta particle or other type of excita-
ergy of the annihilated particles).
The secondary electrons (and/or positrons) produced in 1000 times longer than the average 1012 seconds. Such
any of these three processes frequently have enough en- relatively long-lived excited nuclei are termed nuclear iso-
ergy to produce much ionization themselves.
Additionally, gamma rays, particularly high energy ones,
can interact with atomic nuclei resulting in ejection of
particles in photodisintegration, or in some cases, even
nuclear ssion (photossion).
6.3 Light interaction
High-energy (from 80 GeV to ~10 TeV) gamma rays
arriving from far-distant quasars are used to estimate
the extragalactic background light in the universe: The
highest-energy rays interact more readily with the back-
ground light photons and thus the density of the back-
ground light may be estimated by analyzing the incoming An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state
gamma ray spectra.[15][16]
6.4 Gamma ray production
Gamma rays can be produced by a wide range of phe- electric eect should not be confused with the internal
nomena, both nuclear and non-nuclear.
5
6.4.1 Radioactive decay (gamma decay)
Main article: Nuclear isomer
Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay, which
normally occurs after other forms of decay occur, such as
alpha or beta decay. An excited nucleus can decay by the
emission of an or particle. The daughter nucleus that
results is usually left in an excited state. It can then decay
to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray photon,
in a process called gamma decay.
The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nucleus
typically, requires only 1012 seconds, and is thus nearly
instantaneous. Gamma decay may also follow nuclear
reactions such as neutron capture, nuclear ssion, or
nuclear fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of re-
laxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei follow-
ing other types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay,
so long as these states possess the necessary component
of nuclear spin. When high-energy gamma rays, elec-
trons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms
emit characteristic secondary gamma rays, which are
products of the creation of excited nuclear states in the
bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear
gamma uorescence, form a topic in nuclear physics
called gamma spectroscopy). Formation of uorescent
gamma rays are a rapid subtype of radioactive gamma
decay.
tion, may be more stable than average, and is termed a
metastable excited state, if its decay takes (at least) 100 to
mers, and their decays are termed isomeric transitions.
Such nuclei have half-lifes that are more easily measur-
able, and rare nuclear isomers are able to stay in their
excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally
far longer, before emitting a gamma ray. The process
of isomeric transition is therefore similar to any gamma
emission, but diers in that it involves the intermedi-
ate metastable excited state(s) of the nuclei. Metastable
states are often characterized by high nuclear spin, re-
quiring a change in spin of several units or more with
gamma decay, instead of a single unit transition that oc-
curs in only 1012 seconds. The rate of gamma decay is
also slowed when the energy of excitation of the nucleus
is small.[17]
may transfer its energy directly to any electrons, but most
probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, caus-
ing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally
termed the photoelectric eect (external gamma rays and
ultraviolet rays may also cause this eect). The photo-
conversion process, in which a gamma ray photon is not
6 6 PROPERTIES

produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a virtual nique of Mssbauer spectroscopy. In the Mssbauer ef-
gamma ray may be thought to mediate the process). fect the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma
absorption can be successfully attained by physically im-
mobilizing atomic nuclei in a crystal. The immobilization
60
27 Co of nuclei at both ends of a gamma resonance interaction
5.272 a 0.31 MeV 99.88% is required so that no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic
energy of recoiling nuclei at either the emitting or absorb-
0.12% ing end of a gamma transition. Such loss of energy causes
1.48 MeV 1.1732 MeV gamma ray resonance absorption to fail. However, when
emitted gamma rays carry essentially all of the energy of
the atomic nuclear de-excitation that produces them, this
energy is also sucient to excite the same energy state in
a second immobilized nucleus of the same type.
1.3325 MeV
6.4.2 Gamma rays from sources other than radioac-
tive decay
60
28 Ni Main article: Gamma-ray astronomy

Decay scheme of 60Co

A few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from
gamma decay (see discussion of SN1987A) but most do
Gamma rays, X-rays, visible light, and radio waves are all not.
forms of electromagnetic radiation. The only dierence
is the frequency and hence the energy of those photons. Photons from astrophysical sources that carry energy in
Gamma rays are generally the most energetic of these, the gamma radiation range are often explicitly called
although a broad overlap with X-ray energies occurs. An gamma-radiation. In addition to nuclear emissions, they
example of gamma ray production follows: are often produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-
photon interactions. Those include electron-positron an-
First 60Co decays to excited 60Ni by beta decay emission nihilation, neutral pion decay, bremsstrahlung, inverse
of an electron of 0.31 MeV. Then the excited 60Ni decays Compton scattering, and synchrotron radiation.
to the ground state (see nuclear shell model) by emitting
gamma rays in succession of 1.17 MeV followed by 1.33
MeV. This path is followed 99.88% of the time:

Another example is the alpha decay of 241Am to form

237Np; which is followed by gamma emission. In some
cases, the gamma emission spectrum of the daughter nu-
cleus is quite simple, (e.g. 60Co/60Ni) while in other
cases, such as with (241Am/237Np and 192Ir/192Pt),
the gamma emission spectrum is complex, revealing that
The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray
a series of nuclear energy levels exist. ashes daily detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
Because a beta decay is accompanied by the emission of through 2010. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.
a neutrino that also carries a varying amount of energy
away, the beta emission spectrum does not have sharp Terrestrial thunderstorms: Thunderstorms can
lines, but instead is broad. Hence, it is not possible to produce a brief pulse of gamma radiation called a
describe the dierent energy levels found in the nucleus terrestrial gamma-ray ash. These gamma rays are
using beta decay energies alone. thought to be produced by high intensity static elec-
Gamma spectroscopy is the study of the energetic transi- tric elds accelerating electrons, which then produce
tions in atomic nuclei, which are generally associated with gamma rays by bremsstrahlung as they collide with
the absorption or emission of gamma rays. As in optical and are slowed by atoms in the atmosphere. Gamma
spectroscopy (see Franck Condon eect) the absorption rays up to 100 MeV can be emitted by terrestrial
of gamma rays by a nucleus is especially likely (i.e., peaks thunderstorms, and were discovered by space-borne
in a resonance) when the energy of the gamma ray is the observatories. This raises the possibility of health
same as that of an energy transition in the nucleus. In the risks to passengers and crew on aircraft ying in or
case of gamma rays, such a resonance is seen in the tech- near thunderclouds.[18]
6.4 Gamma ray production
Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the
gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (ei-
ther high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordi-
nary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at
511 keV. Alternatively, bremsstrahlung are produced at
energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray elec-
trons interact with nuclei of suciently high atomic num-
ber (see gamma ray image of the Moon at the beginning
of this article, for illustration).
Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen
by the EGRET instrument aboard the CGRO spacecraft. Bright
spots within the galactic plane are pulsars while those above and
below the plane are thought to be quasars.
Pulsars and magnetars: The gamma ray sky (see
illustration at right) is dominated by the more com-
mon and longer-term production of gamma rays
that emanate from pulsars within the Milky Way.
Sources from the rest of the sky are mostly quasars.
Pulsars are thought to be neutron stars with mag-
netic elds that produce focused beams of radia-
tion, and are far less energetic, more common, and
much nearer sources (typically seen only in our own
galaxy) than are quasars or the rarer gamma-ray
burst sources of gamma rays. Pulsars have rel-
atively long-lived magnetic elds that produce fo-
cused beams of relativistic speed charged parti-
cles, which emit gamma rays (bremsstrahlung) when
those strike gas or dust in their nearby medium, and
are decelerated. This is a similar mechanism to the
production of high energy photons in megavoltage
radiation therapy machines (see bremsstrahlung).
The inverse Compton eect", in which charged
particles (usually electrons) impart energy to low-
energy photons boosting them to higher energy
photons. Such impacts of photons on relativistic
charged particle beams is another possible mecha-
nism of gamma ray production. Neutron stars with
a very high magnetic eld (magnetars), thought to
produce astronomical soft gamma repeaters, are an-
other relatively long-lived star-powered source of
gamma radiation.
Quasars and active galaxies: More powerful
gamma rays from very distant quasars and closer ac-
7
tive galaxies are thought to have a gamma ray pro-
duction source similar to a particle accelerator. High
energy electrons produced by the quasar, and sub-
jected to inverse Compton scattering, synchrotron
radiation, or bremsstrahlung, are the likely source
of the gamma rays from those objects. It is thought
that as a supermassive black hole at the center of
such galaxies provide the power source that inter-
mittently destroys stars and focuses the resulting
charged particles into beams that emerge from their
rotational poles. When those beams interact with
gas, dust, and lower energy photons they produce
X-rays and gamma rays. These sources are known
to uctuate with durations of a few weeks, suggest-
ing their relatively small size (less than a few light-
weeks across). Such sources of gamma and X-rays
are the most commonly visible high intensity sources
outside our galaxy. They shine not in bursts (see il-
lustration), but relatively continuously when viewed
with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical
quasar is about 1040 watts, a small fraction of which
is gamma radiation. Much of the rest is emitted as
electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including
radio waves.
A hypernova. Artists illustration showing the life of a massive
star as nuclear fusion converts lighter elements into heavier ones.
When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract
gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a black hole. Theoret-
ically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis
of rotation to form a long duration gamma-ray burst.
Gamma-ray bursts: The most intense sources of
gamma rays, are also the most intense sources of any
type of electromagnetic radiation presently known.
They are the long duration burst sources of gamma
rays in astronomy (long in this context, mean-
ing a few tens of seconds), and they are rare com-
pared with the sources discussed above. By contrast,
short gamma-ray bursts, which are not associated
with supernovae, are thought to produce gamma rays
during the collision of pairs of neutron stars, or a
neutron star and a black hole. Such bursts last two
seconds or less, and are of far lower energy than
8 8 USES

the long bursts (only sources in our galaxy are de- aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such
tectable for that reason).[19] as the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, provide our
only view of the universe in gamma rays.
The so-called long-duration gamma-ray bursts produce a Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to
total energy output of about 1044 joules (as much energy alter the properties of semi-precious stones, and is often
as our Sun will produce in its entire life-time) but in a used to change white topaz into blue topaz.
period of only 20 to 40 seconds. Gamma rays are ap-
Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of
proximately 50% of the total energy output. The lead-
gamma radiation in the rening, mining, chemical, food,
ing hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these
soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for
highest-known intensity beams of radiation, are inverse
the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses. Typ-
Compton scattering and synchrotron radiation from high-
ically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation
energy charged particles. These processes occur as rel-
source.
ativistic charged particles leave the region of the event
horizon of a newly formed black hole created during su- In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used
pernova explosion. The beam of particles moving at rel- as part of the Container Security Initiative (CSI). These
ativistic speeds are focused for a few tens of seconds by machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers
the magnetic eld of the exploding hypernova. The fu- per hour.
sion explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in
the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to a process called irradiation. Applications of this include
be pointed toward the Earth, it shines at gamma ray fre- the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative
quencies with such intensity, that it can be detected even to autoclaves or chemical means), the removal of decay-
at distances of up to 10 billion light years, which is close causing bacteria from many foods and the prevention of
to the edge of the visible universe. the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness
and avor.
Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are
7 Health eects also used to treat some types of cancer, since the rays kill
cancer cells also. In the procedure called gamma-knife
Main article: Sievert surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are
directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells.
Gamma rays cause damage at a cellular level and are pen- The beams are aimed from dierent angles to concentrate
etrating, causing diuse damage throughout the body. the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to
However, they are less ionising than alpha or beta par- surrounding tissues.
ticles, which are, of course, less penetrating. Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in
Low levels of gamma rays cause a stochastic health risk, nuclear medicine in imaging techniques. A number of
which for radiation dose assessment is dened as the dierent gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For
probability of cancer induction and genetic damage.[20] example, in a PET scan a radiolabeled sugar called
High doses produce deterministic eects, which is the udeoxyglucose emits positrons that are annihilated by
severity of acute tissue damage that is certain to hap- electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight
pen. These eects are compared to the physical quantity cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate
absorbed dose measured by the unit gray (Gy).[21] than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma
emitter used in medical applications is the nuclear isomer
technetium-99m which emits gamma rays in the same en-
8 Uses ergy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide
tracer is administered to a patient, a gamma camera can
be used to form an image of the radioisotopes distribu-
tion by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also
SPECT). Depending on which molecule has been labeled
with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diag-
nose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread
of cancer to the bones via bone scan).

Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with a

VACIS (vehicle and container imaging system) 8.1 Body response

Gamma rays provide information about some of the most When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell
energetic phenomena in the universe; however, they are may be able to repair the damaged genetic material,
largely absorbed by the Earths atmosphere. Instruments within limits. However, a study of Rothkamm and Lo-

brich has shown that this repair process works well after
high-dose exposure but is much slower than in the case
of a low-dose exposure.[22]
8.2 Risk assessment
The natural outdoor exposure in Great Britain ranges
from 0.1 to 0.5 Sv/h with signicant increase around
known nuclear and contaminated sites.[23] Natural expo-
sure to gamma rays is about 1 to 2 mSv per year, and
the average total amount of radiation received in one year
per inhabitant in the USA is 3.6 mSv.[24] There is a small
increase in the dose, due to naturally occurring gamma
radiation, around small particles of high atomic number
materials in the human body caused by the photoelectric
eect.[25]
By comparison, the radiation dose from chest
radiography (about 0.06 mSv) is a fraction of the
annual naturally occurring background radiation
dose.[26] A chest CT delivers 5 to 8 mSv. A whole-body
PET/CT scan can deliver 14 to 32 mSv depending on the
protocol.[27] The dose from uoroscopy of the stomach
is much higher, approximately 50 mSv (14 times the
annual yearly background).
An acute full-body equivalent single exposure dose of 1
Sv (1000 mSv) causes slight blood changes, but 2.03.5
Sv (2.03.5 Gy) causes very severe syndrome of nausea,
hair loss, and hemorrhaging, and will cause death in a
sizable number of cases-about 10% to 35% without
medical treatment. A dose of 5 Sv[28] (5 Gy) is consid-
ered approximately the LD50 (lethal dose for 50% of ex-
posed population) for an acute exposure to radiation even
with standard medical treatment. A dose higher than 5 Sv
(5 Gy) brings an increasing chance of death above 50%.
Above 7.510 Sv (7.510 Gy) to the entire body, even ex-
traordinary treatment, such as bone-marrow transplants,
will not prevent the death of the individual exposed (see
Radiation poisoning). (Doses much larger than this may,
however, be delivered to selected parts of the body in the
course of radiation therapy.)
For low dose exposure, for example among nuclear work-
ers, who receive an average yearly radiation dose of 19
mSv, the risk of dying from cancer (excluding leukemia)
increases by 2 percent. For a dose of 100 mSv, the risk [11] CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from
increase is 10 percent. By comparison, risk of dying from
cancer was increased by 32 percent for the survivors of
the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[29] [12] Bremsstrahlung radiation is braking radiation, but
9 See also
Annihilation
Gaseous ionization detectors
9
10 References
[1] Aharonian, F.; Akhperjanian, A.; Barrio, J.; Bernlohr,
K.; Borst, H.; Bojahr, H.; Bolz, O.; Contreras, J.;
Cortina, J.; Denningho, S.; Fonseca, V.; Gonzalez, J.;
Gotting, N.; Heinzelmann, G.; Hermann, G.; Heusler,
A.; Hofmann, W.; Horns, D.; Iserlohe, C.; Ibarra,
A.; Jung, I.; Kankanyan, R.; Kestel, M.; Kettler, J.;
Kohnle, A.; Konopelko, A.; Kornmeyer, H.; Kranich,
D.; Krawczynski, H.; Lampeitl, H. (2001). The TeV
Energy Spectrum of Markarian 501 Measured with the
Stereoscopic Telescope System of HEGRA during 1998
and 1999. The Astrophysical Journal 546 (2): 898902.
Bibcode:2001ApJ...546..898A. doi:10.1086/318321.
[2] P. Villard (1900) Sur la rexion et la rfraction des
rayons cathodiques et des rayons dviables du radium,
Comptes rendus, vol. 130, pages 1010-1012. See also: P.
Villard (1900) Sur le rayonnement du radium, Comptes
rendus, vol. 130, pages 1178-1179.
[3] L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007). Radioactivity: intro-
duction and history. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier
BV. pp. 5558. ISBN 978-0-444-52715-8.
[4] Rutherford named rays on page 177 of: E. Rutherford
(1903) The magnetic and electric deviation of the eas-
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Series 6, vol. 5, no. 26, pages 177-187.
[5] Rays and Particles. Galileo.phys.virginia.edu. Re-
trieved 2013-08-27.
[6] Dendy, P. P.; B. Heaton (1999). Physics for Diagnostic
Radiology. USA: CRC Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-7503-0591-
6.
[7] Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). CRC Handbook of Chem-
istry and Physics, 44th Ed. USA: Chemical Rubber Co. p.
2850.
[8] Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands
(1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1. USA:
Addison-Wesley. pp. 25. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
[9] L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003).
Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. Academic Press. p.
58. ISBN 0-12-436603-1.
[10] Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh
(2005). Astroparticle Physics. Springer. p. 109. ISBN
3-540-25312-2.
the Moon. Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2005-08-01. Re-
trieved 2011-11-08.
acceleration is being used here in the specic sense of
the deection of an electron from its course: Serway, Ray-
mond A et al. (2009). College Physics. Belmont, CA:
Brooks Cole. p. 876. ISBN 978-0-03-023798-0.
[13] Shaw, R. W.; Young, J. P.; Cooper, S. P.; Webb,
O. F. (1999). Spontaneous Ultraviolet Emission from
233
Uranium/229 Thorium Samples. Physical Review Let-
ters 82 (6): 11091111. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.1109S.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.1109.
10 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

[14] Gamma-Ray Telescopes & Detectors. NASA GSFC. 11 External links

Retrieved 2011-11-22.

[15] Bock, R. K. et al. (2008-06-27). Very-High-Energy Basic reference on several types of radiation
Gamma Rays from a Distant Quasar: How Transpar-
Radiation Q & A
ent Is the Universe?". Science 320 (5884): pp 1752
1754. arXiv:0807.2822. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1752M. GCSE information
doi:10.1126/science.1157087. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID
18583607. Radiation information
[16] Domnguez, Alberto et al. (2015-06-01). All the Light Gamma-ray bursts
There Ever Was. Scientic American 312 (6): pp 3843.
ISSN 0036-8075. The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search Contains
information on gamma-ray energies from isotopes.
[17] Gamma decay review Accessed Sept. 29, 2014
Mapping soils with airborne detectors
[18] Smith, Joseph; David M. Smith (August 2012).
Deadly Rays From Clouds. Scientic American
307 (2): 5559. Bibcode:2012SciAm.307b..54D. The LIVEChart of Nuclides IAEA
doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0812-54.
with lter on gamma-ray energy
[19] Announcement of rst close study of a short gamma-ray
Health Physics Society Public Education Website
burst.

[20] The ICRP says In the low dose range, below about 100
mSv, it is scientically plausible to assume that the in-
cidence of cancer or heritable eects will rise in direct
proportion to an increase in the equivalent dose in the rel-
evant organs and tissues ICRP publication 103 paragraph
64

[21] ICRP report 103 para 104 and 105

[22] Rothkamm, K; Lbrich, M (2003). Evidence for a lack

of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells ex-
posed to very low x-ray doses. Proceedings of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences of the United States of Amer-
ica 100 (9): 505762. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.5057R.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0830918100. PMC 154297. PMID
12679524.

[23] ENVIRONMENT AGENCY UK Radioactivity in Food

and the Environment, 2012

[24] United Nations Scientic Committee on the Eects of

Atomic Radiation Annex E: Medical radiation exposures
Sources and Eects of Ionizing 1993, p. 249, New
York, UN

[25] Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).

Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation
dose around uranium microparticles in the human body.
Journal of the Royal Society Interface 7 (45): 603611.
doi:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300.

[26] US National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-

surements NCRP Report No. 93 pp 5355, 1987.
Bethesda, Maryland, USA, NCRP

[27] PET/CT total radiation dose calculations. Accessed June

23, 2011. (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[28] Lethal dose, NRC Glossary (October 18, 2011)

[29] IARC Cancer risk following low doses of ionizing ra-

diation a 15-country study http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/
Units/RCAa1.html
 11

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
Gamma ray Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray?oldid=673147963 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Trelvis, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, The Anome, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Xaonon, William Avery, Roadrunner, Peterlin~enwiki, Stevertigo, Spi~enwiki,
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12 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Anonymous: 1052

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