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Abstract
Compared to other basic mechanical properties of rocks, Poissons ratio is an elastic constant of which the signicance is generally
underrated. Yet, in rock mechanics, there is a considerable number of diverse areas which require a prior knowledge or estimation of the
value of Poissons ratio. This paper examines the values and applications of Poissons ratio in rock mechanics. Following an historical
account of the initial controversy, whether it was a material constant or not, the effects of Poissons ratio in the elastic deformation of
materials, intact rocks, and rock masses are briey reviewed. Also, the reported values of Poissons ratio for some elements, materials,
and minerals are compiled while typical ranges of values are presented for some rocks and granular soils. Finally, Poissons ratio
classications are recommended for isotropic intact rocks.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Poissons ratio in mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Poissons ratio in rock mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1. Poissons ratio of minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2. Poissons ratio of intact rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3. Poissons ratio of rock masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4. Poissons ratio in rock engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Recommendations for classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2006.04.011
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2 H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113
Yet, the ISRM denition has not been corrected for about lateral contraction to longitudinal extension without any
30 years. theoretical basis or satisfactory agreement with the results
The importance of this mechanical property has not been of his experiments [2,4,68]. In his memoir of 1857,
appreciated as much as it deserves since the values of Wertheim also reported results of torsion experiments with
Poissons ratio reported for rocks vary in a narrow range. prisms of circular, elliptical and rectangular cross sections
Although the use of approximate or typical values in most or tubular specimens made of iron, glass and wood [7]. He
rock mechanics applications does not create signicant concluded that the stretch-squeeze ratio was different
problems, Poissons ratio plays an undeniably important from 1/4 and closer to 1/3 [2,4].
role in the elastic deformation of rocks and rock masses Similarly, tests carried out by A.T. Kupffer (17991865)
subjected to static or dynamic stresses. Furthermore, its on metal wires did not agree with the uni-constant
effects emerge in a wide variety of rock engineering hypothesis, either. In 1853, Kupffer reported that the
applications, ranging from basic laboratory tests on intact ratio of the modulus in tension to the slide modulus (i.e.
rocks to eld measurements for in situ stresses or shear modulus) determined from torsional vibration tests
deformability of rock masses. Therefore, information on was different from 5/2, i.e. the value predicted by the
various aspects of Poissons ratio can be benecial for rock hypothesis.
engineering. Franz Ernst Neumann (17981895), in his correspon-
This paper aims to review the values of Poissons ratio dence to Kupffer [7], assumed that the ratio of lateral
for rocks. First, some historical information on Poissons contraction to longitudinal extension did not remain
ratio is summarized, and its importance in mechanics is constant but depended upon the nature of material [2].
emphasized. Then, its signicance in rock mechanics is Kupffer also reported that Neumann, by xing small
reviewed by particular references to minerals, intact rocks, mirrors to the sides of a rectangular bar under exure,
jointed rock masses, and rock engineering applications. showed that its cross section became trapezoidal during
Also, recommendations are given for classication of intact bending [2,7]. By measuring the angle of relative rotation
rocks based on their Poissons ratio. made by the two sides of the bar, Poissons ratio could be
calculated optically [2,7].
2. Historical background In 1859, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887), one of
Neumanns pupils, attempted to settle the problem of uni-
Thomas Young (17731829) drew the attention of his constancy by direct experiments he carried out on circular
readers to a phenomenon in his Course of Lectures which cantilever bars made of steel [8]. He applied a transverse
was published in 1807. He noted that, during the load with a certain eccentricity to the free ends of
experiments on tension and compression of bars, long- cantilevers in such a way that bending and torsion were
itudinal deformations were always accompanied by some produced simultaneously. Then, the angle of torsion and
change in the lateral dimensions [2]. the angle which the tangent at the end of the cantilever
Simeon Denis Poisson (17811840), in his famous made with the horizontal were measured optically by using
memoir [3], which was published in the year Young died a mirror attached at the end of the cantilever [2]. Based on
but had been read to the Paris Academy on the 14th of the results of experiments, Kirchhoff reported that the
April 1828 [4], made a proposal about an elastic constant stretch-squeeze ratio was 0.297 for steel and 0.387 for
that would create some controversy in the following years. brass, but he also expressed doubts about the absolute
For simple tension of an isotropic and elastic cylindrical isotropy of the bars he used [8].
bar with an original length of l and radius r, Poisson Barre de Saint-Venant (17971886), considering pure
proposed that the radius had to become r(10.25d) as the bending of a rectangular beam, established a basis for an
length became l(1+d) by the deformation [2,4]. Based on experimental determination of Poissons ratio. He showed
an inadequate molecular model [5], this approach predicted that, when the beam was subjected to equal and opposite
the elastic constant, we now know as Poissons ratio, to couples applied to the ends, initially rectangular cross
assume the value of 1/4. section changed its shape as shown in Fig. 1 due to lateral
The results of experiments later carried out by Guillame contraction of the bers on the convex side and expansion
Wertheim (18151861), however, did not support Poissons of those on the concave side. In fact, the initially straight
theoretical prediction [6]. Wertheim, using glass and line AB (i.e. neutral surface) becomes slightly curved
metallic cylindrical tubes for the tests, measured changes upwards and corresponding radius of curvature is r/n,
of the internal volumes of tubes caused by the axial where n is Poissons ratio and r is the radius of curvature of
extension and, thus, calculated the lateral contraction [2,4]. the axis of the bent bar (Fig. 1) [2]. Because of such a lateral
Although the results could be explained by using two deformation, the distances of the neutral bers A and B
elastic constants for the isotropic materials, he continued from upper and lower surfaces of the bar are also slightly
to accept the so-called uni-constant hypothesis, which altered. Actually, all the surfaces parallel to neutral surface
assumed only one material constant (i.e. tensile or will be curved longitudinally downward and transversely
stretch modulus) for such materials. In 1848, Wertheim upward, i.e. they are strained into anticlastic surfaces [6].
recommended the value of 1/3 be adopted for the ratio of By determining the ratio of the two principal curvatures of
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H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113 3
Before emphasizing the signicance of Poissons ratio in G=K 1:51 2n=1 n. (3)
mechanics, an accurate denition of this interesting Also, the ratio of shear wave velocity (vs) to the long-
property should be made. There are numerous denitions itudinal wave velocity (vp) in an isotropic solid with an
of Poissons ratio in the literature and many lack innite extent is another example:
completeness. Poissons ratio, simply, is the negative of
the ratio of transverse strain to the axial strain in an elastic vs =vp 0:5 vd =1 vd 1=2 , (4)
material subjected to a uniaxial stress. In mechanics of where nd is the dynamic Poissons ratio of the medium, and
deformable bodies, the tendency of a material to expand or it can be different than that obtained from static tests. In
shrink in a direction perpendicular to a loading direction is addition, the ratio of Rayleigh wave velocity to the shear
known as the Poisson effect. wave velocity (a vR/vs) depends only on the value of
To start with, Poissons ratio is encountered in expres- Poissons ratio of the medium, and it can be found as the
sions involving Hookes law. The value of this material admissible (real and positive) root of the following
property, which can be measured by static or dynamic equation [27]:
methods, varies within a narrow range. Although the
values of Poissons ratio for many materials are close to the a6 8a4 82 vd =1 vd a2 8=1 vd 0. (5)
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4 H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113
Table 1 Table 2
Poissons ratio for some elements (data after Winter [18] and MaTecK Poissons ratio for some materials
GmbH [19])
Material Poissons ratio Source
Element Poissons ratio Element Poissons ratio
Cork 0 Lakes [12]
Berillium Be 0.032 Barium Ba 0.28 Diamond
Tellurium Te 0.160.30 Praseodymium Pr 0.281 (natural) 0.100.29 Miyoshi [20]
Europium Eu 0.152 Neodymium Nd 0.281 (synthetic) 0.20 Miyoshi [20]
Ytterbium Yb 0.207 Magnesium Mg 0.291 Concrete
Chromium Cr 0.21 Molybdenum Mo 0.293 (28-day old) 0.100.21 Howatson et al. [21]
Plutonium Pu 0.21 Caesium Cs 0.295 (high performance) 0.130.16 Persson [22]
Thulium Tm 0.213 Cadmium Cd 0.30 Glass
Uranium U 0.23 Rubidium Rb 0.30 (quartz) 0.167 Bass [23]
Holmium Ho 0.231 Calcium Ca 0.31 (obsidian) 0.185 Bass [23]
Erbium Er 0.237 Nickel Ni 0.312 (soda) 0.23 Howatson et al. [21]
Manganese Mn 0.24 Titanium Ti 0.316 (borosilicate) 0.25 Howatson et al. [21]
Dysprosium Dy 0.247 Cobalt Co 0.32 Sulfur 0.200.34 Bass [23]
Cerium Ce 0.248 Germanium Ge 0.32 Porcelain 0.208 Kumar et al. [24]
Zinc Zn 0.249 Bismuth Bi 0.33 Tungsten carbide (WC) 0.222 Kumar et al. [24]
Antimony Sb 0.250.33 Sodium Na 0.34 Cast iron
Osmium Os 0.25 Tantalum Ta 0.342 (gray) 0.26 Howatson et al. [21]
Ruthenium Ru 0.25 Copper Cu 0.343 (nodular) 0.28 Howatson et al. [21]
Gadolinium Gd 0.259 Aluminum Al 0.345 Steel
Rhodium Rh 0.26 Tin Sn 0.357 (mild) 0.270.30 Howatson et al. [21]
Iridium Ir 0.26 Lithium Li 0.36 (high strength) 0.30 Howatson et al. [21]
Rhenium Re 0.26 Vanadium V 0.365 Shotcrete 0.250.29 Lorman [25]
Hafnium Hf 0.26 Silver Ag 0.367 Human dentine (dry) 0.29 Kinney et al. [26]
Lutetium Lu 0.261 Zirconium Zr 0.38 Perspex 0.311 Kumar et al. [24]
Terbium Tb 0.261 Platinum Pt 0.39 Ice (at 257 K) 0.324 Bass [23]
Yttrium Y 0.265 Palladium Pd 0.39 Aluminum 2024 0.33 Howatson et al. [21]
Thorium Th 0.27 Niobium Nb 0.397 Brass (70 Cu/30 Zn) 0.35 Howatson et al. [21]
Iron Fe 0.27 Gold Au 0.42 Lucite 0.358 Kumar et al. [24]
Samarium Sm 0.274 Silicon Si 0.42 PVC (hard) 0.378 Kumar et al. [24]
Scandium Sc 0.279 Lead Pb 0.44 Phosphor bronze (5% 0.38 Howatson et al. [21]
Strontium Sr 0.28 Selenium Se 0.447 Sn)
Tungsten W 0.28 Thallium Tl 0.45 Epoxy resin 0.380.40 Howatson et al. [21]
Lanthanum La 0.28 Indium In 0.45 Teon 0.399 Kumar et al. [24]
Promethium Pm 0.28 Gallium Ga 0.47 Nylon 0.40 Kumar et al. [24]
Rubber 0.50 Lakes [12]
In general, Poissons ratio does not have an effect on the be obtained. In fact, it has been theoretically shown that
distribution of stresses in plane elasticity problems that do Poissons ratio for anisotropic materials can have an
no involve body forces. Yet, for three-dimensional stress arbitrarily large positive or negative value as long as the
situations, the effect of Poissons ratio can be striking. strain energy density is positive denite [30,31]. Further-
A typical example for such an effect is the formation of more, for orthotropic elastic materials, six Poissons ratios
anticlastic surfaces in a rectangular beam subjected to are dened (Fig. 3) and three of these are independent
uniform bending (Fig. 1). Moreover, Poissons ratio [27,28,32]. According to the notation in Fig. 3, nij is
inuences the stresses resulting from bending of bars or Poissons ratio dened by ej/ei for the uniaxial stress si.
plates, contact of elastic bodies, rotating discs, etc. [9]. Transverse isotropy and orthotropy are observed in certain
For elastic materials that demonstrate certain deforma- rock types and jointed rock masses, and this issue is
tional anisotropy, multiple Poissons ratios are expressed. addressed in the next section.
For example, three Poissons ratios are dened for
transversely isotropic materials, and two of these are 4. Poissons ratio in rock mechanics
independent (Fig. 2). Although the elasticity theory does
not impose certain limits on Poissons ratios for such Since Poissons ratio is a mechanical property that plays
materials, there is a specic inequality derived from energy a role in the deformation of elastic materials, it is utilized in
considerations. It is as follows [28,29]: rock engineering problems associated with the deformation
of rocks, e.g. it is a required computational input for the
2n2 n3 o1 n1 , (6)
numerical stress analyses. In the related literature [33,34],
where n1, n2, and n3 are dened in Fig. 2. For Poissons though very seldom, negative values or values greater than
ratios dened in other directions, some unusual values may 0.5 are reported for Poissons ratio of some rock types.
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H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113 5
Non-zero stress Elastic moduli Poisson's ratios 4.2. Poissons ratio of intact rocks
x Ex = x / x xy = - y / x ; * xz = - z / x
Although the values of Poissons ratio for rock masses
y Ey = y / y yz = - z / y ; * yx = -x / y are required in majority of rock engineering applications,
there are some instances when the values for intact rocks
z Ez = z / z zx = - x / z ; * zy = -y / z
are necessary. For example, in overcoring methods
xy G xy = xy / (2 xy) -- employing the CSIR doorstopper, USBM borehole defor-
mation gauge, CSIR triaxial strain cell, and CSIRO hollow
yz Gyz = yz / (2 yz) --
inclusion cell, the value of Poissons ratio for intact rock
zx Gzx = zx / (2 zx) -- (i.e. stress relieved cores or overcores) is required for
*xz = (Ex /Ez) zx ; yx = (E y /Ex) xy ; zy = (Ez /E y) yz
evaluation and interpretation of measurements [37,38]. In
addition, the intact rock value can be considered as a limit
Fig. 3. Denition of elastic moduli and Poissons ratios for an orthotropic
for the values of Poissons ratio that a jointed rock mass
material for which the x-, y-, and z-planes are the planes of symmetry. may assume. In Fig. 4, typical ranges of values are
presented for Poissons ratio of some rock types. It should
be realized that some unusually extreme values are not
Those few cases, probably, are associated with highly included in the gure, and exceptions are always possible in
anisotropic rocks; also, it is reported that thermally the nature.
induced microcracking in granites causes negative Pois- Generally, Poissons ratio of intact rocks can be
sons ratio in compression and tension [35]. For isotropic determined in the laboratory either indirectly by dynamic
rocks, therefore, the value of Poissons ratio is practically methods [39,40] or directly by static tests [41,42].
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6 H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113
Table 3
Andesite
Poissons ratio for some minerals (calculated using data after Bass [23])
Basalt
Mineral Poissons ratio Claystone
The dynamic elastic tests involve either (i) determination Fig. 4. Typical ranges of values for Poissons ratio of some rock types
(data after [33,34,4446]).
of pulse velocities of longitudinal and shear waves in rock
specimens or (ii) measurement of resonance frequencies of
longitudinal and shear vibrations of bar or rod-like were obtained by more comprehensive studies [50].
cylindrical rock specimens [39,40,43]. It has been reported Recently, Cai et al. [51] reported that, for a variety of
that dynamic values of Poissons ratio are often prone to rocks, the ratio of the crack initiation stress level to the
considerable error [43]. uniaxial compressive strength fell in the range of 0.3 and
In static tests by uniaxial compression for strength or 0.5 in uniaxial compression, and it varied between 0.36 and
deformability of rock material, it is recommended that the 0.6 in triaxial tests.
ratio of Youngs modulus to Poissons ratio (E/n) of the It has long been recognized that the nature of applied
platen material be close to that of the specimen to eliminate stress inuences the mechanical properties of rocks. Values
undesirable end effects [47]. For steel, a commonly used characterizing the uniaxial deformability (i.e. Youngs
material as loading platen, the E/n ratio is close to 670; yet, modulus and Poissons ratio) of rock material are expected
this value is generally larger than those of the rock types to be different under compressive or tensile stress. The data
commonly encountered. Although aluminum (E=v 200) reported by Krech et al. [52] denitely establish such a
and brass (E=v 300) might provide a better match of E/n difference for Youngs modulus in some rock types (e.g.
ratio than steel, they can be easily damaged; for that granite, quartzite, sandstone, limestone, etc.). Similarly, the
reason, hardened steel platens with the same diameter as study by Liao et al. [53] on transversely isotropic argillite
the test specimen are preferred [47]. points out a somewhat less pronounced difference for
Bieniawski, who studied the mechanism of brittle Poissons ratio. In addition, the values of elastic constants
fracture of rock material in detail [48,49], proposed the determined from static and dynamic tests differ due to
criteria for identifying and separating the distinct phases of some reasons (e.g. differences in applied stress or strain
the failure process. According to Bieniawski, in cylindrical levels). Some studies [5456] even suggested empirical
rock specimens under uniaxial compression, the variation relationships between static and dynamic Youngs moduli
of circumferential or radial strains with the axial stress of rocks. As far as Poissons ratio of intact rock is
starts to deviate from linearity at the transition from concerned, there seems to be no conclusive evidence for
linear elastic deformation phase to that of stable crack such relationships. As a matter of fact, with the possible
propagation. In other words, Poissons ratio of the rock, exception of porosity, there seems to be no meaningful
which is constant during the linear elastic deformation, correlation between the values of Poissons ratio and any
starts to increase due to initiation of new micro cracks or other mechanical or physical property of rock material
extension of existing ones [49]. Years later, similar results [57,58]. Although one may anticipate that the porosity of
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H. Gercek / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 113 7
rock material will play a role on the value of Poissons and those of the intact rock bounded by discontinuities. It
ratio; however, the geometry (size and shape), orientation, has also been well known that structural features induce
distribution, and connectivity of pores are expected to some degree of anisotropy in rock masses. For instance,
complicate the inuence. In this regard, the reader is transverse isotropy is observed in a rock mass with
referred to Walsh [59], who studied the inuence of laminated fabric or one set of parallel discontinuities
microstructure, especially porosity, on rock deformation. whereas orthotropic rock masses could arise when three
Also, in poroelasticity applications of geomechanics, the mutually perpendicular sets of discontinuities with differ-
values of Poissons ratio in drained and undrained ent properties and/or frequencies are present [32].
conditions are required. It should be noted that undrained For the elastic deformability of jointed rock, joint
values of Poissons ratio of rocks are larger than the normal stiffness (kn), joint shear stiffness (ks), and joint
drained values [60,61]. spacing are among the most important properties [65,66].
As mentioned earlier, transverse isotropy is a common Amadei and Savage [65] and Amadei [66], who treated
feature of some sedimentary and metamorphic rocks with regularly jointed rock mass as an equivalent continuum
well-developed bedding planes. According to the deform- with directional deformability properties that reected the
ability tests performed on intact rock materials, the values properties of intact rock and those of the joint sets,
of n1 and n2 are always smaller than 0.5 while n3 may presented elastic stressstrain relations for transversely
assume values close to or larger than 0.5 [29]. In this isotropic and orthotropic rock masses. They also gave
context, the results of a study [62] involving static expressions for apparent modulus and Poissons ratios
deformability of some coal measures are interesting and
given in Table 4.
Finally, some important points to be considered regard-
Table 5
ing Poissons ratio of coals may be summarized as follows. Poissons ratios of some coals encountered at Zonguldak hardcoal region,
Turkey [4446]
(i) As the carbon content of coal exceeds 90%, its
dynamic elastic constants, including Poissons ratio, Coal seam Poissons ratio
become increasingly anisotropic (i.e. transversely (Colliery, sampling level) Tangenta Secanta
isotropic) [63].
(ii) A value of n 0:346 was reported to be the Acilik (Gelik, 150) 0.32 0.26
representative Poissons ratio for a wide range of coal Acun (Gelik, 50/150) 0.44
Akalin (Gelik, 150) 0.42 0.28
grades [64]. Buyuk (Kandilli, 300/350) 0.34 0.28
(iii) According to a series of investigations [4446], in (Kandilli, 450) 0.29 0.23
which the static tests were carried out on laboratory Cay (Gelik, 150) 0.28 0.28
specimens loaded perpendicular to bedding, Poissons (Asma, 170) 0.48 0.49
ratios of some Turkish coals were found to be between Hacimemis (Gelik, 260/360) 0.33 0.26
(Asma, 170) 0.46 0.30
0.15 and 0.49 (Table 5). Kurul (Asma, 50) 0.16 0.15
Nasufoglu (Asma, 200/250) 0.29 0.28
Ozkan (Gelik, 360) 0.32 0.24
4.3. Poissons ratio of rock masses Sulu (Gelik, 260/300) 0.30 0.17
Taban Acilik (Asma, 50) 0.300.48 0.240.38
Tavan Acilik (Asma, 150;250) 0.240.29 0.150.40
The behavior of rock masses are inuenced by the
a
mechanical behavior and properties of the discontinuities Determined at 50% of uniaxial compressive strength.
Table 4
Poissons ratios of some transversely isotropic rocks encountered at Zonguldak hardcoal region, Turkey (data after Colak [62])
n1 n2 n3
(iv) vertical or horizontal point load acting in the interior tropic rock masses. In addition, Sheorey et al. [88] proposed
of an elastic half space with a horizontal surface the following expression for estimating Ph (in MPa):
(Mindlins problems). Ph nPv bG t EH 1000=1 n, (9)
1
where Pv and E (Youngs modulus) are in MPa, b (1C ) is
As one of many practical applications of the fundamental
the coefcient of linear thermal expansion, Gt (1C/m) is
solutions, an integrated form of Boussinesqs problem is
geothermal gradient, and H(m) is depth of cover. Obviously,
illustrated in Fig. 5. It shows the variation of stresses
for the estimation of Ph, there are other approaches [37] that
occurring along the centerline of a uniformly loaded
do not involve Poissons ratio of the rock mass. Also, Eqs.
circular area located on the surface of an elastic half space.
(7) to (9) are not valid when the assumptions made in their
The effect of Poissons ratio is noticeable on the induced
derivation are violated.
horizontal stresses (sh) while the induced vertical stress (sv)
In the analytical solutions for stresses around under-
is independent of the elastic properties of the medium.
ground openings, the following points are worth mention-
In rock engineering applications involving underground
ing regarding the inuence of Poissons ratio.
openings, Poissons ratio of the rock mass is utilized for
estimating in situ stresses and in expressions involving
(i) In plane-strain solutions that ignore body forces, only
induced stresses. For example, in an approach that was
the axial (longitudinal) stress component (sz) involves
attributed to Terzaghi and Richart [85] but had been used
Poissons ratio:
earlier by Mindlin [86], the ratio of horizontal in situ stress
(Ph) to the vertical component (Pv) in geologically sz Pz vsr sy Pv Ph , (10)
undisturbed sedimentary regions is as follows: where Pz is the principal in situ stress parallel to the
Ph =Pv v=1 v. (7) longitudinal axis of opening, sr and sy are radial and
tangential stresses, respectively, occurring around the
Similarly, in transversely isotropic rock masses with opening.
horizontal bedding planes, Eq. (7) becomes [29,37,87]: (ii) In the plane-strain solutions that include body forces,
Ph =Pv n2 =1 n1 E 1 =E 2 , (8) Poissons ratio of the surrounding rock affects the
stresses occurring around the opening. In this respect,
where n1, n2, E1, and E2 are dened in Fig. 2. Amadei and the solution by Mindlin [86] for a horizontal circular
Pan [87] also presented comparable expressions for ortho- tunnel located in a semi-innite elastic solid under the
action of gravity and Savins solution [89] for
Normalized stress, /P distribution of stresses around a circular hole in an
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 innite heavy elastic plate are two relevant examples.
0
In these solutions, the inuence of Poissons ratio is
=0
more pronounced on the opening boundary and at
0.5 h/P = 0.5 shallow depths. In Fig. 6, the variation of tangential
stress occurring at the crown of a shallow circular
1 tunnel is shown as a function of depth. It is obtained
by using the generalized form of Mindlins solution
1.5 given by Gercek [90]. The results for a shallow tunnel
are also compared with the Kirsch solution [91] for a
Normalized depth, z/R
A zo
R uro: pre-deformation
Horizontal in situ
Ph
stress: Ph = k Pv
Radial displacement, ur
ur = f (x)
unit weight:
depth: z
ure
5
k=2 excavation face
= 0.5 R
4
=0 Shallow tunnel
3 Kirsch solution
0.35
k=1 Normalized pre-deformation, uro /ure
2
= 0.5
0.30
1 =0
k = 0.5
= 0.5
0 0.25
=0
-1 0.20
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Normalized depth of tunnel center, zo /R
0.15
Fig. 6. Effect of Poissons ratio of the medium on the tangential stresses
occurring at the crown of a shallow circular tunnel. 0.10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
analysis. The distribution of stresses and displacements Poisson's ratio,
occurring around the advancing face of a tunnel is an
Fig. 7. Variation of the normalized elastic pre-deformation with the value
interesting example of such problems. It has been shown by of Poissons ratio for a circular tunnel located in a hydrostatic in situ stress
a numerical study that Poissons ratio of the surrounding eld [93].
medium inuences the normalized elastic radial displace-
ments occurring around the excavation face of a circular
tunnel located in a hydrostatic in situ stress eld [93]. This (Is(50)) [104,105], slake durability index (Id) [106,107], block
inuence is illustrated in Fig. 7 for the normalized elastic punch index (BPI) [108], modulus ratio (E/sci) [96,109],
pre-deformation, the ratio of radial displacement occurring and point load strength anisotropy index (Ia(50)) [110] show
at the face to that occurs far behind the face (i.e. uro/ure). In the diversity of classications for intact rock. Poissons
a similar problem, the inuence of Poissons ratio was ratio is no less signicant than some of the intact rock
noted on the stress concentrations around the bottom of a properties for which classications have been proposed. In
borehole and core-disking phenomenon [94]. fact, a Poissons ratio classication can be useful for a
qualitative assessment of laboratory test result.
For classication of intact rocks based on their Poissons
5. Recommendations for classication ratio, two practical alternatives may be considered since
the theoretical upper limit is 0.5 and there seems to be an
During the preparation of this review, it was noticed that observed lower limit of zero. In the rst alternative with
there was not any Poissons ratio classication for rocks ve categories (i.e. very low, low, medium, high, and very
although a number of classications existed about some high), it is suggested that a range of 0.1 be chosen for each
mechanical, physical and index properties of intact rocks. category (Table 7). In the second one with three categories
For example; those involving the uniaxial compressive (i.e. low, medium, and high), a range of 1/6 is recom-
strength (sci) [95101], Youngs modulus (E) [99], cohesion mended for each category (Table 8). It should be noted that
(c) [102], unit weight (g) [103], point load strength index these classications are applicable to isotropic rocks only,
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