Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
to prevent violence
against women
Series of briefings on violence prevention
This briefing for advocates, programme designers and implementers and others is one
of a seven-part series on the evidence for interventions to prevent interpersonal and
self-directed violence. The other six briefings look at reducing access to lethal means;
increasing safe, stable and nurturing relationships between children and their parents
and caregivers; developing life skills in children and adolescents; reducing availabil-
ity and misuse of alcohol; changing cultural norms that support violence; and victim
identification, care and support.
For a searchable evidence base on interventions to prevent violence, please go to: http://www.preventviolence.info
For a library of violence prevention publications, including the other briefings in this series, please go to:
http://www.who.int/violenceprevention/publications/en/index.html
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Promoting gender equality to prevent violence against women.
(Series of briefings on violence prevention: the evidence)
1.Violence prevention and control. 2.Womens health. 3.Domestic violence prevention and control.
4.Women rights. 5.Gender identity. 6.Spouse abuse. 7.Social problems. I.World Health Organization.
ISBN 978 92 4 159788 3 (NLM classification: HV 6625)
Media interventions can alter gender norms and promote womens rights.
Public awareness campaigns and other interventions delivered via television, radio,
newspapers and other mass media can be effective for altering attitudes towards gender
norms. The most successful are those that seek to understand their target audience and
engage with its members to develop content. We do not yet know, however, whether they
actually reduce violence.
The relationship between gender and violence Gender inequalities have a large and wide-ranging
is complex. The different roles and behaviours of impact on society. For example, they can contribute
females and males, children as well as adults, are to gender inequities in health and access to health
shaped and reinforced by gender norms within care, opportunities for employment and promotion,
society. These are social expectations that define levels of income, political participation and repre-
appropriate behaviour for women and men (e.g. in sentation and education.
some societies, being male is associated with tak- Often inequalities in gender increase the risk of
ing risks, being tough and aggressive and having acts of violence by men against women (see defini-
multiple sexual partners). Differences in gender tions, Box 1). For instance, traditional beliefs that
roles and behaviours often create inequalities, men have a right to control women make women
whereby one gender becomes empowered to the and girls vulnerable to physical, emotional and
disadvantage of the other. Thus, in many societies, sexual violence by men (1,2). They also hinder the
women are viewed as subordinate to men and have ability of those affected to remove themselves from
a lower social status, allowing men control over, abusive situations or seek support (3). Violence
and greater decision-making power than, women. against women is most often perpetrated by an in-
BOX 1
Definitions
GENDER EQUALITY: Equal treatment of women and men in laws and policies, and equal access to
resources and services within families, communities and society at large (11).
GENDER EQUITY: Fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and
men. Programmes and policies that specifically empower women are often needed to achieve this (11).
GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE: Violence involving men and women, in which the female is usually the victim;
and which is derived from unequal power relationships between men and women. Violence is directed
specifically against a woman because she is a woman, or affects women disproportionately. It includes,
but is not limited to, physical, sexual and psychological harm (including intimidation, suffering, coercion,
and/or deprivation of liberty within the family, or within the general community). It includes that violence
which is perpetrated or condoned by the state (13). This widely accepted definition of gender-based
violence is now often expanded to include violence that results from unequal power relations between
men and between women (e.g. homophobic violence).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN: Any public or private act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely
to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty (14).
INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE: Any behaviour by a man or a woman within an intimate relationship that
causes physical, sexual or psychological harm to those in the relationship. This is the most common form of
violence against women.
BOX 3
Laws and policies to promote gender equality
The development of international and national legal frameworks that promote gender equality can play
an important role in preventing violence against women. Internationally, a number of human rights
agreements require states to take measures to eliminate gender-based violence against women (15).
These include the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women; the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights. Significant changes are also underway worldwide to strengthen national laws and
policies. Among them are laws that criminalize violence against women (e.g. intimate-partner violence,
rape in marriage, trafficking for prostitution); laws and policies that support and protect those affected
(e.g. implementing protection orders, child and family protection units, specialized response teams,
womens shelters and family courts); improving the response of police and other criminal justice officials
towards cases of violence against women; and improving womens rights in marriage, divorce, property
ownership and inheritance and child support (3,16,17).
School-based interventions attempt to address gen- mation (30). Furthermore, there is some evidence
der norms and equality early in life, before gender that for men, programmes presented to mixed male
stereotypes become deeply ingrained in children and female groups are less effective in changing
and youth. A number of initiatives have been devel- attitudes than those presented to all-male groups
oped to address gender norms, dating violence and (31). Although the majority of evaluated school pro-
sexual abuse among teenagers and young adults grammes for dating violence have been conducted
(18). These target either male peer groups, or male in the United States and other high-income coun-
and female youth together, and aim to increase tries, some initiatives are being implemented in
knowledge of intimate partner violence, challenge developing countries. For instance, in South Africa,
gender stereotypes and norms and reduce levels of an adaptation of the Safe Dates programme for
dating violence. Evaluations of these programmes students in eighth grade (1314-years-old) is now
suggest they can increase knowledge about dating being evaluated. Furthermore, the Men As Partners
violence and improve attitudes towards it; their ef- programme (see Community interventions, below)
fectiveness at reducing levels of actual abuse to- has established groups for students in grades 5 to
wards females appears promising, although it has 8 (1014-years-old). These encourage boys to stop
not been consistently demonstrated and evalua- domestic and sexual violence towards women and
tions have largely focused on short-term outcomes girls and to become responsible fathers (32). The
(1821). programme, however, has yet to be evaluated.
Positive results have been reported, however, The Youth Relationship Project in Ontario, Can-
particularly for the Safe Dates programme in the ada, is a community-based intervention to help at-
United States and the Youth Relationship Project risk 1416-year-olds develop healthy, nonabusive
in Canada. Safe Dates is a school and community relationships with dating partners by providing
initiative that targets eighth and ninth grade girls education about healthy and abusive relationships,
and boys (1315-years-old). It includes a ten-session conflict resolution and communication skills and
educational curriculum, a theatre production, a social action activities. A randomized controlled
poster contest, training for providers of commu- trial showed that the intervention was effective
nity services and support services for affected in reducing incidents of physical and emotional
adolescents. A randomized controlled trial of the abuse and symptoms of emotional distress over a
programme found that (compared to members of 16-month period after the intervention (24).
a control group) participants reported less psy- Other programmes targeting both males and fe-
chological abuse and sexual and physical violence males have changed attitudes towards violence. For
against their current dating partner one month af- instance, in the United States, a five-session pro-
ter the programme ended (22) and four years later gramme on dating violence for students in grades
(23). 9 to 12 (1418-years-old) addressed how gender
Dating programmes are more effective if they inequality fosters violence, challenged individual
are delivered in multiple sessions over time (rather and societal attitudes towards violence as a means
than in a single session) and if they aim to change at- of conflict resolution, helped students develop
titudes and norms rather than simply provide infor- non-violent communication skills and identified re-
Community interventions to reduce gender equal- 38). The programme also encourages wider commu-
ity usually attempt to empower women, strength- nity participation to engage men and boys. It aims
en their economic position (through, for instance, to improve womens employment opportunities,
microfinance schemes) and change gender stereo- increase their influence in household decisions and
types and norms (17,30,33,34). These programmes ability to resolve marital conflicts, strengthen their
have mainly been implemented in developing coun- social networks and reduce HIV transmission.
tries. Although most programmes involve women A randomized controlled trial found that, two
(alone or with men), some community programmes years after completing the programme, participants
work solely with male peer groups focusing on mas- reported 55% fewer acts of violence by their inti-
culinity, gender norms and violence. This reflects a mate partners in the previous 12 months than did
growing awareness of the importance of engaging members of a control group (37). Compared with
men and boys in interventions, not only to redefine controls, these women reported fewer experiences
concepts of masculinity based on dominance and of controlling behaviour by their partners (34%
control, but also to engage them in stopping vio- of participants versus 42% of those in the control
lence against women. Community interventions aim group), despite having suffered higher levels of this
to change not just the way individuals think and be- behaviour than members of the control group be-
have, but also to mobilize entire villages or districts fore entering the programme. In addition, partici-
in efforts to eradicate violence against women. pants were more likely to disagree with statements
that condone physical and sexual violence towards
3.1 Microfinance an intimate partner (52% of participants versus
A number of initiatives involving micro-finance have 36% of the control group) (37). Furthermore, a
been established to increase womens economic higher percentage of women in the programme
and social power. These provide small loans to mo- reported household communication about sexual
bilize resources for income-generating projects, matters and attitudes that challenged gender roles.
which can alleviate poverty. While microfinance The programme did not, however, have an effect on
programmes can operate as discrete entities, suc- either womens rate of unprotected sexual inter-
cessful ones tend to incorporate education ses- course at last occurrence with a non-spousal part-
sions and skills-building workshops to help change ner or HIV incidence (37).
gender norms, improve communication in relation- Other stand-alone credit programmes targeting
ships and empower women in other ways (35). women appear to show promise in reducing intimate
One of the most rigorously evaluated and suc- partner violence. These include Grameen Bank and
cessful programmes is South Africas Interven- Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)
tion with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity Rural Development programmes1 in Bangladesh.
(IMAGE). This targets women living in the poorest
households in rural areas, and combines financial 1
The Grameen Bank and the BRAC Rural Development
services with training and skills-building sessions Programme are the two largest non-governmental credit
programmes in Bangladesh. Participants are organized into
on HIV prevention, gender norms, cultural beliefs, small solidarity groups which share responsibility for repay-
communication and intimate partner violence (36 ment.
an increase in physical violence against women Similarly, 61% of men disagreed that women who
following the introduction of the programme. This dress sexy want to be raped before training, com-
backlash was attributed to men feeling threatened pared with 82% three months later (50).
by the empowerment of women (see Box 4). Another intervention that uses male peer groups
A number of programmes work specifically with is Brazils Program H. This fosters healthy relation-
male peer groups, addressing values and attitudes ships and aims to prevent HIV and other sexually
associated with violence against women, redefining transmitted infections. Program H has two main
concepts of masculinity and engaging men in vio- components: educational sessions (with video,
lence prevention. In general, however, few rigorous role-playing and discussions) lasting two hours per
evaluations have assessed the impact of these pro- week for six months to promote changes in attitude
grammes on violence. In Africa, Asia, Latin America and behaviour; and a social marketing campaign to
and the United States, Men As Partners provides promote changes in norms of masculinity and life-
education and skills-building workshops for men to styles. An evaluation among 1425-year-old males
explore their attitudes regarding sexuality and gen- compared three communities: the first received the
der and promote gender equality in relationships Program H educational component, the second re-
(50). The project provides enhanced health-care ceived the educational component plus the social
facilities for men, leads local and national public marketing campaign and the third (control group)
education campaigns and advocates for change received no intervention. Compared to the control
at national and international levels. A review of a community, at six months, participants in the two
five-day workshop in South Africa reported some communities that received one or both of the inter-
positive results, although it was not an independ- ventions were less likely to support traditional gen-
ent study, and it failed to include a control group der norms than before the intervention (51).
for comparison. Nonetheless, changes in gender India has also tested a version of Program H,
attitudes were reported among the men attend- with the same design and time frame as in Brazil.
ing and completing a survey (67% of those attend- An evaluation found that it encouraged male par-
ing completed a survey). For instance, 54% of men ticipants to question traditional gender norms.
disagreed with the statement that men must make Additionally, the proportion of men in the Indian
all the decisions in a relationship in a pre-training programme reporting violence against a partner in
interview, compared with 75% three months later. the previous three months declined significantly in
Media interventions use television, radio, the In- age disagreeing with the assertion women who
ternet, newspapers, magazines and other printed are abused are expected to put up with it had
publications to reach a wide range of people and increased from 68% to 72%. However, there were
effect change within society. They aim to increase no significant changes reported in other attitudes
knowledge, challenge attitudes and modify be- such as as head of household, a man has the right
haviour. Media interventions can also alter social to beat his wife (55) and the study design was not
norms and values (e.g. the belief that masculinity is able to establish if there was an impact on violent
associated with aggression) through public discus- behaviour.
sion and social interaction. Media campaigns have In Nicaragua, a mass communication strat-
proven successful in increasing knowledge of inti- egy named Somos Diferentes, Somos Iguales
mate partner violence and influencing attitudes to- (We are different, We are equal) has promoted
wards gender norms, but less is known about their social change to improve sexual and reproductive
ability to reduce violent behaviour, as it is difficult health. The strategy aimed to empower women and
to measure potential changes in levels of violence young people to take control of their lives and to
associated with media interventions (21,30,33,53). promote womens rights and gender equality. Ac-
Research shows, however, that the most success- tivities included a national television series (Sex-
ful media interventions are those that begin by to Sentido, or Sixth Sense), a radio talk show for
understanding the behaviour of their audience and youth and community activities such as training
engaging its members in developing the interven- workshops for young people and youth leadership
tion (30). camps. The television series was a weekly drama
One of the best-known and most carefully eval- with issue-based storylines that was broadcast in
uated media programmes is Soul City in South Af- Nicaragua, other Central American countries and
rica (54). This uses a series of radio and television the United States. Using a sample of Nicaraguan
episodes to highlight intimate partner violence, youth (1324-years-old), an evaluation found that
date rape and sexual harassment, among other the strategy was associated with a positive change
social problems. The series is accompanied by in- in attitudes towards gender equity, among those
formation booklets that are distributed nationally. exposed to it. However, the study lacked a control
An evaluation of the fourth series, which focused group for comparative purposes and did not meas-
on gender-based violence, used a random sample ure changes in levels of violence towards women
of the national population and conducted two sets (56).
of interviews, eight months apart: before and after A number of campaigns have targeted men spe-
the intervention. The study reported an associa- cifically, aiming to challenge traditional concepts
tion between exposure to the Soul City series and of masculinity associated with violence. Evalua-
changes in knowledge and attitudes towards inti- tions of these have not, however, looked at their
mate partner violence (55). For instance, at follow- effect on violence. For instance, a 2001 Australian
up, the percentage of people agreeing with the campaign known as Violence against WomenIts
statement no woman ever deserves to be beaten Against All the Rules targeted 2129-year-old men.
had increased from 77% to 88%, while the percent- Sports celebrities delivered the message that vio-
The promotion of gender equality is an essential supported by the strongest evidence. Community
part of violence prevention. A range of school, com- programmes with male peer groups show promise
munity and media interventions aim to promote in changing attitudes towards traditional gender
gender equality and non-violent relationships by norms, as well as violent behaviour, but they re-
addressing gender stereotypes that allow men quire more rigorous outcome evaluations. Finally,
more power and control over women. These in- media interventions, such as Soul City in South
clude some well-evaluated interventions, but more Africa, appear to be effective at addressing atti-
evaluations are needed that use measures of ac- tudes towards gender norms and womens rights
tual violent behaviour as an outcome rather than that may influence violent behaviour. However, we
improvements in attitude or knowledge, whose re- do not yet know whether they actually reduce vio-
lation to violent behaviour may be unknown. lent behaviour.
Some school-based programmes have dem- There is evidence that the success of some mi-
onstrated their effectiveness. With the exception crofinance programmes in empowering women
of the Safe Dates programme and the Youth Re- (without engaging with men) may actually cause
lationship Project, however, evaluations of these friction and conflict between partners, especially
have looked at short-term outcomes and more re- in societies with rigid gender roles (44). Further
search is needed on their long-term effects. School research is needed to explore how such possible
programmes are well placed to prevent violence negative effects might be overcome. When gen-
against women, since they have the potential to der roles become more flexible, most women enjoy
address gender norms and attitudes before they greater power, status and economic independence
become deeply ingrained. They are also ideal en- and the threat of violence against them decreases
vironments to work with male peer groups, where (60). It is important, therefore, to engage both men
rigid ideas about masculinity can be questioned and women and boys and girls in interventions
and redefined. Among community interventions, that promote gender equality and prevent violence
the IMAGE and Stepping Stones programmes are against women.
1. Ilika AL. Womens perception of partner violence in 14. United Nations General Assembly A/RES/48/104
a rural Igbo community. African Journal of Repro- 20th December 1993. (http://www.un.org/
ductive Health, 2005, 9:7788. documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm, accessed 5
2. Mitra A, Singh P. Human capital attainment and February 2009).
gender empowerment: the Kerala paradox. Social 15. Garcia-Moreno C et al. Prevalence of intimate part-
Science Quarterly, 2007, 88:12271242. ner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country
3. Heise L, Garcia-Moreno C. Intimate partner vio- study on womens health and domestic violence.
lence. In Krug et al., eds. World report on violence Lancet, 2002, 368: 126069.
and health. Geneva, World Health Organization, 16. Commonwealth Secretariat. Integrated approach-
2002. es to eliminating gender-based violence. London,
4. Heise L, Ellsberg M, Gottmoeller M. A global over- Commonwealth Secretariat, 2003.
view of gender-based violence. International Journal 17. Morrison A, Ellsberg M, Bott S. Addressing gender-
of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 2002, 78:S5S14. based violence in the Latin American and Carib-
5. Violence against women. Fact sheet No. 239. Gene- bean region: a critical review of interventions.
va, World Health Organization, 2008. (http://www. World Bank policy research working paper 3438.
who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/print. (http://www-wds.worldbank.org/, accessed 5 Feb-
html, accessed 5 February 2009). ruary 2009).
6. Sarkar NN. The impact of intimate partner violence 18. Hickman LJ, Jaycox LH, Aronoff J. Dating violence
on womens reproductive health and pregnancy among adolescents: prevalence, gender distribu-
outcome. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, tion, and prevention programme effectiveness.
2008, 28:26671. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 2004, 5: 123142.
7. Coker AL. Does physical intimate partner violence 19. Avery-Leaf S, Cascardi, M. Dating violence educa-
affect sexual health? A systematic review. Trauma tion: prevention and early intervention strategies. In:
Violence and Abuse, 2007, 8:14977. Schewe PA, ed. Preventing violence in relationships:
8. Plichta SB. Intimate partner violence and physical interventions across the life span. Washington, DC,
health consequences: policy and practice impli- American Psychological Association, 2002.
cations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2004, 20. Wekerle C, Wolfe DA. Dating violence in mid-adoles-
19:1296323. cence: theory, significance and emerging preven-
9. Campbell JC. Health consequences of intimate part- tion initiatives. Clinical Psychology Review, 1999,
ner violence. Lancet, 2002, 359:133136. 19:435456.
10. Dutton MA et al. Intimate partner violence, PTSD 21. Whittaker DJ, Baker CK, Arias I. Interventions to
and adverse health outcomes. Journal of Interper- prevent intimate partner violence. In: Doll LS et al.,
sonal Violence, 2006, 21:955968. eds. Handbook of injury and violence prevention.
11. Transforming health systems: gender and rights in New York, Springer, 2007.
reproductive health. Geneva, World Health Organi- 22. Foshee VA et al. An evaluation of safe dates an
zation, 2001. adolescent dating violence prevention programme.
12. UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Agreed American Journal of Public Health, 1998, 88:4550.
Conclusions 1997/2. 18 July 1997. (http://www. unhcr. 23. Foshee VA et al. Assessing the effects of the dating
org/refworld/docid/4652c9fc2.html, accessed 5 violence prevention program Safe Dates using
February 2009). random coefficient regression modelling. Preven-
13. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). Violence tion Science, 2005, 6:245257.
against girls and women: a public health priority 24. Wolfe D et al. Dating violence prevention with at-
(http://www.unfpa.org/intercenter/violence/, ac- risk youth: a controlled outcome evaluation. Jour-
cessed 5 February 2009). nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(2):
279291.