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ON THE TRANSIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRICAL

DISCHARGES AND IONIZATION PROCESSES IN SOIL

Marek Loboda *, Viktor Scuka #


Institute of Power Engineering and High Voltage Technology, Warsaw University of Technology,
ul. Koszykowa 75,00-662 Warsaw, Poland
# Institute of High Voltage Research, Uppsala University, Husbyborg, S -75592 Uppsala, Sweden

Abstract - Two processes, namely corona and streamer the tests cylinder cell was positioned vertically. Outer
discharges occur in soil when lightning impulse currents are cylinder case had radius rout = 0,1 m. The inner
injected. Even if these processes are fully understood, the electrode was replaced and had different radii: rin =
differences of their initiation and development in different soil 0,0025 m and rin = 0,0125 m respectively, to assure
types are not good enough recognized to result in clear
interpretation of soil transient parameters for engineering
wide range of current density measurements and to
applications. The initiation process concerns the physical observe influence of electric field distribution in tested
conditions before build up the discharges. From one side such soil. The effective length of sample was I = 0,6 m,
a physical properties like soil type, soil resistivity, water taking into account shape of bottom insulator. It should
content - humidity, temperature, pressure, etc., from the other be mentioned that the cell size was selected exactly the
side impulse current parameters like - current density, current same as used in earlier tests of sand under impulse
front time, polarity, and finally, electric field distribution in voltages by Cabrera [1] to enable more realistic
soil are the physical conditions that have to be considered in comparison of results performed earlier with impulse
principle.
voltages and actually presented, where impulse current
In the paper, the methodology of experimental
investigations as well as the test arrangement are described. injection method was used.
Typical results of measured transient parameters are
presented. The values of Ec for three types of tested soil are
estimated based on two different methods of calculations - l=O.6m
taking into account voltage and current crest parameters as

O.2~1I3
well as their time lags for given impulse current front time. Impulse
Estimated values for Be were compared with those which have
been published by researchers in the past.

1 Introduction Cen1ral Top


Metallic :insulalor
A detailed experimental investigations of coIlductor co:ruiuc1or
different types of soil with impulse current injection
were carried out at high voltage laboratory at Uppsala
University.
Fig. 1 Coaxial cylinder electrode test. cell
Three types of soil: clay, sand and soil rich in
organic matter (organic soil) in coaxial geometry were
The resistivity of soil was calculated from resistance of
investigated. Each of them were tested in the same
coaxial cylinder electrodes filled with soil and measured
conditions, to observe and compare their individual
with low AC current using formula (1)
transient characteristics resulting in reduction of the
impedance of concentrated earth electrodes. The study
of the discharge and ionization process in soil was p = 2,dR [n.m] (1)
performed in order to come to a better understanding of In rout
the physical processes involved under conditions of low
and high impulse current density. A special attention For described above electrodes configuration p = 1,022R
was paid to observe an initiation of non-linear behavior and p = 1,813R for smaller or thicker inner electrode
of different soils transient voltage-current characteristic. respectively, where R is measured resistance of soil in
It was hoped that this would lead to better description of the cell.
soil ionization process and to reliable estimation of
critical breakdown gradient Ec of different soil types. 2.2 Parameters ofsamples
Three kinds of soil - sand, clay and organic soil
2 Test arrangement (mixture of clay, sand and humus in app. the same
2.1 Geometry ofelectrodes volume proportions) were selected for tests. Sandy soil
In the tests was use a coaxial cylinder geometry had medium to coarse grains (grain size diameter up to
as shown in Fig. 1 which was filled with soil. During 2-3 mm) while clay and organic soil had very fine

539
grains. Before and after impulse current tests for each crests values of current and voltage. That was assumed
sample the resistivity of soil was measured. To change as an additional indication factor of the non-linear
resistivity of individual sample for subsequent tests a transient characteristic of soil resUlting from ionization
tape water was sprayed over and soil was carefully process and development of streamer 4ischarges in soil.
mixed in a special box before placing into cylinder cell.
For each sample of soil resistivity was measured with Impulse Inductance Voltage divider
different low values of AC current (up to 0,5 A for low cu:rrent genera10r
resistivieties). Additionally, after series of impulse Test cell
current tests for individual soil samples moisture per
volume was measured. All measurements and tests have
been performed at temperature of 23 2C and relative
humidity of air 40 5 %.

-
The parameters of tested soil samples are given
in Table l.They were measured after stabilization of soil
physical properties for at least 24 hours after placing in Osc.
the test cell. Values of resistivity are averaged. In
parenthesis are indicated percentage range resistivity
deviation for subsequent measurements of individual
samples performed before and after impulse current Insulator
tests.
Fig. 2 Measurement arrangement

Table 1 Tests were performed for each sample of soil


Resistivity Water content with negative and positive polarity of impulse current
Type of soil p (by weight) for and with different current front times tc (time to
rnm~ [%] crest). First was applied series of shortest current
Sand 750 ( 10%) 6 impulses (tc = 2-3 J.Ls), later on current front time was
2150 (:I- 5o/~ 3,5 changed up to tc = 6-7J.Ls and finally test were performed
Clay 50 ( 10%) 35 with tc = 8-12J.LS. After a series of measurements with
70 (:l-15o/~ 25 smaller radius of inner electrode (rin = 0,0025 m), the
Organic soil 40 ( 10%) 35 inner electrode was replaced with the thicker one (rin =
0,0125 m) and new series of measurements was started
200 (:l-lOo/~ 20
for the same parameters of impulse current.
This procedure was used to make a clear
2.3 Measurement set up distinction of influence on transient parameters of each
One stage current generator was used to supply tested soil such a factors as:
impulse current. For individual tests impulse current - electrical field distribution and strength
parameters were modified depending of soil resistivity - surge current density and current front time
and inner electrode radius by selection of appropriate - water content and resistivity of soil.
value of inductance connected in series with test cell
(see Fig. 2). The voltage was measured using high 3.2 Typical records and voltage-current
voltage resistance divider with response time of IOns. characteristics
Current measurements were performed using Rogowski Typical records of voltage and current
coil (pearson transformer) capable to measure high waveshapes can bee seen in Fig. 3,4 and 5.
frequency components of the current (minimum rise When gradually higher impulse currents were applied
time::::: 20 ns). the current front time tcJ started to increase while the
To record the current and voltage waveshape voltage front time tcu was nearly the same and
Le Croy 9310L transient recorder was used with 400 significantly shorter than tcJ. When impulse current
MHz bandwidth. The recorder's screening, double value was high enough the breakdown in soil appeared
shielded cables and proper earthing was performed and current rapidly grew up while the voltage dropped
carefully. at the same time (see Fig.3c, 4c, 5c). It was the result of
reaching the outer electrode by individual streamers in
3 Experimental results soil.
3.1 Methodology ofexperiments The amplitudes of rapidly increasing current
Experiments were canied out by supplying and times to breakdown were varying depending of
gradually higher impulse currents until reaching the impulse current shape, inner electrode dimension and
breakdown in soil in coaxial electrode configuration. soil resistivity.
Current and voltage waveshapes were recorded. Special
attention was paid to observation of time delay between

540
a) a) r'~50
. .Jdiv]
.
'
I,

:I2 ;++"t ,II

! J,

~+.--.;....--+-.~!~~--.:. ~lJr':-.;----
,~
i ; t [5 J.lSldiv]
--' -'----'"---,
I!
b) b) l Ui5k~/div]l'! I,
i,' , ' '--j~'--:--i---'-_
. ~
! -;'
~'-7_t--+i_L-~~,-~i_'~__~~-J
j

i t [5 J.ISI~iv]: i
t.u!
c) c) '---1 T~-r-.r-TI--r----

: _~ ul ! ! ! !
I
.j. . ~. \. U[lOkV/di~]l.:
I . .,! !

.j ': . + .
1 .,!.I i
,---,-_,--L_.L I
~ _U~ t[~O~div]li
"

d)
~r-----'-----~-----~-----
[kV]

:2~,:t ___-I--+--.:.+__ ~::c....-- 20t-----+----f--+-----~~~----

+:-O-tc"=4/1S
_:--0--- . I

10 ;T--+-li~---'--I----+
..1' ~ .-
_ ~-o-t. =2 /lSI

+ '....0-....
_i---!< = 6 /IS
10 t------f'-+---,~---I----;
-,-
+ ! ~.o-...

+ -tII
. .
t. = 8 JLS:

_ '._'...... t. = 12 /IS
+--/;j;z---J-----I--- + ..........
t. = 10 JLS
_ , M_

'0 ~-:---+----+-----i~---I 250, 500\ 750 I_[A]


oj 20 40 60 I.... [A]
l ( \ \ 2
I I O 0,5 1,0 1,5 j .... [Alem
o'. t.
0,2, 0,4 0,6.bx [Alem
2
]
]

Fig. 4. Records of corresponding current (a) and voltage (b) waveshapes


Fig. 3. Re~rds of corresponding current (a) and voltage (b) waveshapes for clay with P = 70 nm before breakdown and during breakdown (c),
for sand With p = 800 nm before breakdown and during breakdown (c), (d) - plotted voltage-current characteristics; inner electrode radius fin =
(d) - plotted voltage-current characteristics; inner electrode radius r =
~~ m
12,5~

541
a) The time difference at = t.:J: - t.:u for lower
-I i
impulse current values first was nearly the same
i
! (varying in range up to O,lJ.l.s) and started significantly
'j I
increase with the current growth. Thus was an
indication of streamers development in soil and their
influence on the soil surge resistance decrease.
The recorded waveshapes before and after
breakdown in soil were similar for all tested soils and
for both impulse currents polarities. However, in case of
j
i sand (see Fig.3a curve 4) just before breakdown an
; . ! 1 ! ...

iii I ! : deformation of currentshape was observed. In some tests


~~ t"t -----'- ---'---'---'----' of clay and organic soil with high ratio of water content
b) the surface breakdown was observed when high current
\ U i4~5 kY/div]: i 1 values were applied (observation in darkness).
Measured values of impulse currents and
i corresponding inner electrode voltages were used for
calculations of characteristic electrical properties of soil;
soil ionization gradient (critical breakdown gradient) Ec
and velocity of streamers in soil VS.
Based on the results of measurements of
current and voltage maximum values the voltage-
;1 i'j current characteristics for individual soil samples were
constructed. Exemplary plots are shown in Fig.3d,4d,5d
and compared with steady-state u = fti) characteristic
c) marked IL For all tests performed u = f (i) characteris-
tics were non-linear and no influence of front time
1.I duration and impulse current polarity was observed.
Impulse impedance of tested electrodes configuration
was always lower (even for relatively low impulse
current densities) than the resistance R.. measured with
low AC current. In individual cases some differences
were noticed, namely stronger nonlinear shape of u =
fti) plots for clay and organic soil samples also for low
impulse current densities (when inner electrode with
i 1[100 A/divl; i
'--.,..---L~'--'---'-
i il
.
I, t [5.: psJdiv]
larger diameter was used).
d) 3.3 Evaluation of critical breakdown gradient
u-r,--~r-~.----.----~--~--~ values
~VJI When a current is discharged into an earthed
electrode, voltage gradients generated within the soil are
in accordance with the equation:

E = pj (2)
where p - soil resistivity, j - the current density at the
+-0- t,,=311S point under consideration.
-~ Wherever E exceeds the critical gradient
:'ii>
: .. '
I-+-#l---+---":"'!---I- + '--0-'- t,,;;' 5 lIS
_ --6--
(ionization gradient) Ec, breakdown will occur. This
+ L.......... .
basically converts the affected portion of the soil from
_ ._....... t" = 10 lIS low to high conduction. Breakdown will start at the
surface of electrode, where the current density is
highest, and it continues to the points at which the
.O~O~,---+--~20-0~-~-~---+--r~[ current density drops below the critical value given by:
400. 'ax AJ
.0~1'-----.2"------4ri---1m-[-Al~~~1
(3)
Fig. 5. Records of corresponding current (a) and voltage (b) waveshapes
for organic soil with p = 200 nm before breakdown and during
breakdown (c), (d) - plotted voltage-current characteristics; inner
The breakdown in the soil is basically
electrode radius rin = 2,5 mm. equivalent to an increase in dimensions of the earthing

542
electrode and resulting in .decreasing of the earthing by other researchers for rod electrodes in similar surge
resistance. This fact has been known for many decades conditions using method A.
and several researchers conducted tests to estimate the
related test gradient. Ionization in soil should be taken bt fJ.ls]
1,8
into consideration when determining the resistance of
1,6
concentrated earth electrodes as the currents needed to
1,4
initiate this phenomenon are quite small. Shorting out jc
1,2
by streamers a part of the soil in the zone of immediate
vicinity of the electrode would significantly reduce the
0,8
earthing resistance. 0,6
The value of earthing impulse resistance 0,4
(impedance) is mainly determined by the lowest value of 0,2 j [A/cm2]
Ec occurring anywhere along the electrode and in its
vicinity. Hence the value of Ec to be used needs to be 0,5 1,5 2 2,5 3
significantly less than the value obtained from puncture
Fig.6 Measured time delay ~t versus applied current density fur clay p
tests (breakdown voltage tests) of samples having =50 nm;.io - estimated critical current density (inner electrode radius iin
appropriate water content [1,2]. = 12,5 mm).
Typically, the calculation of soil ionization
gradient is done from available plots of the current and
Ec [kV/cm] a)
voltage of the electrode and variation of resistance with 12
time (i.e. reported to minimum observed impulse
resistance). This impulse resistance is used to determine 10
the equivalent radius of the ionized zone and further on, 8 2
if dimensions and configuration of earthing electrodes
6
are known, the current density ic at the surface of the
ionized zone is calculated replacing radius of electrode 4
by equivalent ionization radius r x' Finally, the ionization
2
gradient is calculated from equation (3). j [A/cm2]
Some uncertainties of this method are that o+-----~----~-----+----~~--~
0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25
calculations of the critical current density jc and critical
breakdown gradient Ec give different results for the
Ec [kV/cm] b)
same electrodes arrangement if there are known 7
different applied current values which are high enough 6
to initiate discharges in soil. One of errors in estimating
5
the breakdown gradient is here error due to the non-zero
resistivity of the ionized zone in soil [2]. 4
From experimental results it was possible to 3
calculate critical breakdown gradient Ec taking into 2
account increase of the measured time differences At =
j [A/cm2]
tcJ: - tcu, and directly indicate revealing critical current
density ic of the inner electrode. In this method there o+-----~------~------~------~---
4 6 8
are no influence of neglecting of real resistivity value of
soil within ionization zone on the accuracy of Ec

Ec [kV/cm]
2

c)
8
calculation. Ec is here calculated from the equation
7
(2).Typical curves of measured time delay At = tcJ: - tcu
as a function of impulse current are shown in Fig. 6. 6
Results of Ec calculations based on measured 5
impulse resistance in function of applied current 4
densities which did not cause breakdown between 3
coaxial electrodes are shown in Fig.7. In Table 2 are 2
compared results of Ec calculated using both methods - 1 j [A/cm2]
based on impulse earthing resistance measurements o+---~-----+----~----~----~--~
(Method A) and on the measurement of time delay At 2 3 4 5 6
(Method B). Values in parenthesis for Method A are
Fig. 7 Plots of calculated critical ionization gradients Be (method A) as a
calculated for the current densities corresponding jc function of applied impulse current density; a) sand p = 2150 nm, b)
used in Method B. Below are also shown values of Ec clay p =50 nm, c) organic soil p =200 n'm (1- inner electrode radius
calculated from experimental measurements performed rin = 12, 5 rom, 2 - inner electrode radius rin = 2,5 mm).

543
Table 2 according to uniform ionization zone model and was
Soil Ee Ee practically independent of the polarity and front times of
Description resistivity [kV/cm] [kWcm] injected impulse currents. It was observed clear
p [n'm] Method A MethodB dependence (increase) of injected 'current density of
Sand 800 2,5 - 8,3 (5,6) 6,8 calculated critical ionization breakdown gradients.
2150 2,1 - 9,6L6,~ 9,0 * The alternative calculations of Ee taking into
Clay 50 1,9 - 7,9 (5,4) 7,1 account realistic resistivity of ionization zone gave
1,1 - 7,4 (3,7) corresponding values of 30 -70 % higher. The errors
70 5,6
due the measurement of resistivity of the soil and non-
Organic soil 40 4,5 -11,7(5,4) 8,3
zero resistivity of the ionized zone can lead to errors in
200 2,0 - 7,7 (4,6) 8,2
estimating Ee up to 50 -80%.
Towne [4] 130 - 686 1,6 - 5,2 - * Differentiation should be made between
Bellaschi [5] 93 - 100 1,2 - 4,2 - different breakdown parameters described in literature;
Riabkovar61 120 - 580 6,0 - 7,2 - the ionization gradient which determines the
dimensions of the streamers zone occurring around an
Additional illustration of test results in reduced electrode, and much higher [1] average gradient across
scale earthing electrodes is shown in Fig.8. With higher the gap which causes complete breakdown by formation
currents injected to inner electrode the equivalent radius of discrete sparks or arc channels.
of ionization zone rx is increasing. Corresponding * The choice of the proper critical soil
calculated values ofEe (using Method A) are increasing ionization gradient for calculation of transient earthing
too, but not proportionally to growth of r x Individual resistance of concentrated earthing electrodes should be
streamers in soil are much longer than r x and can easy related to the expected current density of applied
reach outer electrode in several microseconds causing impulse current on the surface of analyzed earthing
breakdown of limited soil volume. electrodes configuration.

Acknowledgments
Marek Loboda thanks to The Swedish Institute
and to Prof. Viktor Scuka for the possibility of
performing research program at the Institute of High
Voltage Research at Uppsala University. The author
appreciates the support of the Institute of High Voltage
Research for facilities made and fruitful discussions
with the members of the staff.

References

[1] Victor M Cabrera: "Experimental Results of Discharges in Sand


Under Lightning Impulse Voltages and a Physical Interpretation". Proc.
of 20th Intern. Confi:rence on Lightning Protection (lCLP'90), Interlaken,
Fig.8 Equivalent radii of ionization zone and calculated E.: values fur Switzerland, Sept. 24-28,1990 pp. 3.3/1-3.3/6.
organic soil p = 200 nm (results corresponding with curve 2 in Fig.7b). [2J Abdoul M. Mousa:" The Soil Ionization Gradient Associated with
Discharge of High Currents Into ConcentIated Electrodes" IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, Vol. 9, No.3, July 1994, pp. 166-1677.
3.4 Velocity of electrical discharge development in [3J E.E. Oettle: "A New General Estimation Curve For Predicting the
soil Impulse Impedance of Concentrated Earth Electrodes". IEEE Trans. on
Based on recorded waveshapes when breakdown Power Delivery, Vol.3, No.4, October 1988, pp. 2020-2029.
[4] H.M. Towne: "Impulse Characteristics of Driven Grounds", AlEE
in soil took place (see Fig.3c,4c,5c) and are known Lightning Rererence Book 1918-1935, pp. 259-1935.
distances between coaxial electrodes it was possible to [5] P.L. Bel1aschi: "Impulse and 6O-cycle Characteristics of Driven
calculate the velocity of streamers in soil. Measured Grounds", AlEE Trans. , Vol. 60, pp. 123-128.
velocities Vs ranged: for sand from 4 to 10 mm/j.1S, for [6] EJ. Riabkova: "Earthings in Power Systems" (in Russian), Moscow,
Energia, 1978.
clay from 6 to 12 mmlj.1S, for organic soil from 6 to 15 [7]MLoboda, Z. Pochanke:"ExperirnentaI Study of Electric Properties of
mm/Ils. Soil with Impulse Current Injections".18th Int Conference on Lightning
At higher currents and electric field strengths than used Protection 1985, Munich, Sept. 16-18, 1985. Paper 3.9.
[8] F. Popo1ansky:"Impulse Characteristics of Soil". 20th Conference on
in tests the velocity Vs may increase significantly as the Lightning Protection, Interlaken, Sept. 1990. Paper 32.
discharge (spark or arc channels) impedance decreases.

4 Summarizing conclusions
* In described series of experiments the electric
field strength Ee leading to ionization in soil was
typically between 2 - 10 kWcm when calculated

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