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Abstract - Two processes, namely corona and streamer the tests cylinder cell was positioned vertically. Outer
discharges occur in soil when lightning impulse currents are cylinder case had radius rout = 0,1 m. The inner
injected. Even if these processes are fully understood, the electrode was replaced and had different radii: rin =
differences of their initiation and development in different soil 0,0025 m and rin = 0,0125 m respectively, to assure
types are not good enough recognized to result in clear
interpretation of soil transient parameters for engineering
wide range of current density measurements and to
applications. The initiation process concerns the physical observe influence of electric field distribution in tested
conditions before build up the discharges. From one side such soil. The effective length of sample was I = 0,6 m,
a physical properties like soil type, soil resistivity, water taking into account shape of bottom insulator. It should
content - humidity, temperature, pressure, etc., from the other be mentioned that the cell size was selected exactly the
side impulse current parameters like - current density, current same as used in earlier tests of sand under impulse
front time, polarity, and finally, electric field distribution in voltages by Cabrera [1] to enable more realistic
soil are the physical conditions that have to be considered in comparison of results performed earlier with impulse
principle.
voltages and actually presented, where impulse current
In the paper, the methodology of experimental
investigations as well as the test arrangement are described. injection method was used.
Typical results of measured transient parameters are
presented. The values of Ec for three types of tested soil are
estimated based on two different methods of calculations - l=O.6m
taking into account voltage and current crest parameters as
O.2~1I3
well as their time lags for given impulse current front time. Impulse
Estimated values for Be were compared with those which have
been published by researchers in the past.
539
grains. Before and after impulse current tests for each crests values of current and voltage. That was assumed
sample the resistivity of soil was measured. To change as an additional indication factor of the non-linear
resistivity of individual sample for subsequent tests a transient characteristic of soil resUlting from ionization
tape water was sprayed over and soil was carefully process and development of streamer 4ischarges in soil.
mixed in a special box before placing into cylinder cell.
For each sample of soil resistivity was measured with Impulse Inductance Voltage divider
different low values of AC current (up to 0,5 A for low cu:rrent genera10r
resistivieties). Additionally, after series of impulse Test cell
current tests for individual soil samples moisture per
volume was measured. All measurements and tests have
been performed at temperature of 23 2C and relative
humidity of air 40 5 %.
-
The parameters of tested soil samples are given
in Table l.They were measured after stabilization of soil
physical properties for at least 24 hours after placing in Osc.
the test cell. Values of resistivity are averaged. In
parenthesis are indicated percentage range resistivity
deviation for subsequent measurements of individual
samples performed before and after impulse current Insulator
tests.
Fig. 2 Measurement arrangement
540
a) a) r'~50
. .Jdiv]
.
'
I,
! J,
~+.--.;....--+-.~!~~--.:. ~lJr':-.;----
,~
i ; t [5 J.lSldiv]
--' -'----'"---,
I!
b) b) l Ui5k~/div]l'! I,
i,' , ' '--j~'--:--i---'-_
. ~
! -;'
~'-7_t--+i_L-~~,-~i_'~__~~-J
j
i t [5 J.ISI~iv]: i
t.u!
c) c) '---1 T~-r-.r-TI--r----
: _~ ul ! ! ! !
I
.j. . ~. \. U[lOkV/di~]l.:
I . .,! !
.j ': . + .
1 .,!.I i
,---,-_,--L_.L I
~ _U~ t[~O~div]li
"
d)
~r-----'-----~-----~-----
[kV]
+:-O-tc"=4/1S
_:--0--- . I
10 ;T--+-li~---'--I----+
..1' ~ .-
_ ~-o-t. =2 /lSI
+ '....0-....
_i---!< = 6 /IS
10 t------f'-+---,~---I----;
-,-
+ ! ~.o-...
+ -tII
. .
t. = 8 JLS:
_ '._'...... t. = 12 /IS
+--/;j;z---J-----I--- + ..........
t. = 10 JLS
_ , M_
541
a) The time difference at = t.:J: - t.:u for lower
-I i
impulse current values first was nearly the same
i
! (varying in range up to O,lJ.l.s) and started significantly
'j I
increase with the current growth. Thus was an
indication of streamers development in soil and their
influence on the soil surge resistance decrease.
The recorded waveshapes before and after
breakdown in soil were similar for all tested soils and
for both impulse currents polarities. However, in case of
j
i sand (see Fig.3a curve 4) just before breakdown an
; . ! 1 ! ...
E = pj (2)
where p - soil resistivity, j - the current density at the
+-0- t,,=311S point under consideration.
-~ Wherever E exceeds the critical gradient
:'ii>
: .. '
I-+-#l---+---":"'!---I- + '--0-'- t,,;;' 5 lIS
_ --6--
(ionization gradient) Ec, breakdown will occur. This
+ L.......... .
basically converts the affected portion of the soil from
_ ._....... t" = 10 lIS low to high conduction. Breakdown will start at the
surface of electrode, where the current density is
highest, and it continues to the points at which the
.O~O~,---+--~20-0~-~-~---+--r~[ current density drops below the critical value given by:
400. 'ax AJ
.0~1'-----.2"------4ri---1m-[-Al~~~1
(3)
Fig. 5. Records of corresponding current (a) and voltage (b) waveshapes
for organic soil with p = 200 nm before breakdown and during
breakdown (c), (d) - plotted voltage-current characteristics; inner
The breakdown in the soil is basically
electrode radius rin = 2,5 mm. equivalent to an increase in dimensions of the earthing
542
electrode and resulting in .decreasing of the earthing by other researchers for rod electrodes in similar surge
resistance. This fact has been known for many decades conditions using method A.
and several researchers conducted tests to estimate the
related test gradient. Ionization in soil should be taken bt fJ.ls]
1,8
into consideration when determining the resistance of
1,6
concentrated earth electrodes as the currents needed to
1,4
initiate this phenomenon are quite small. Shorting out jc
1,2
by streamers a part of the soil in the zone of immediate
vicinity of the electrode would significantly reduce the
0,8
earthing resistance. 0,6
The value of earthing impulse resistance 0,4
(impedance) is mainly determined by the lowest value of 0,2 j [A/cm2]
Ec occurring anywhere along the electrode and in its
vicinity. Hence the value of Ec to be used needs to be 0,5 1,5 2 2,5 3
significantly less than the value obtained from puncture
Fig.6 Measured time delay ~t versus applied current density fur clay p
tests (breakdown voltage tests) of samples having =50 nm;.io - estimated critical current density (inner electrode radius iin
appropriate water content [1,2]. = 12,5 mm).
Typically, the calculation of soil ionization
gradient is done from available plots of the current and
Ec [kV/cm] a)
voltage of the electrode and variation of resistance with 12
time (i.e. reported to minimum observed impulse
resistance). This impulse resistance is used to determine 10
the equivalent radius of the ionized zone and further on, 8 2
if dimensions and configuration of earthing electrodes
6
are known, the current density ic at the surface of the
ionized zone is calculated replacing radius of electrode 4
by equivalent ionization radius r x' Finally, the ionization
2
gradient is calculated from equation (3). j [A/cm2]
Some uncertainties of this method are that o+-----~----~-----+----~~--~
0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25
calculations of the critical current density jc and critical
breakdown gradient Ec give different results for the
Ec [kV/cm] b)
same electrodes arrangement if there are known 7
different applied current values which are high enough 6
to initiate discharges in soil. One of errors in estimating
5
the breakdown gradient is here error due to the non-zero
resistivity of the ionized zone in soil [2]. 4
From experimental results it was possible to 3
calculate critical breakdown gradient Ec taking into 2
account increase of the measured time differences At =
j [A/cm2]
tcJ: - tcu, and directly indicate revealing critical current
density ic of the inner electrode. In this method there o+-----~------~------~------~---
4 6 8
are no influence of neglecting of real resistivity value of
soil within ionization zone on the accuracy of Ec
Ec [kV/cm]
2
c)
8
calculation. Ec is here calculated from the equation
7
(2).Typical curves of measured time delay At = tcJ: - tcu
as a function of impulse current are shown in Fig. 6. 6
Results of Ec calculations based on measured 5
impulse resistance in function of applied current 4
densities which did not cause breakdown between 3
coaxial electrodes are shown in Fig.7. In Table 2 are 2
compared results of Ec calculated using both methods - 1 j [A/cm2]
based on impulse earthing resistance measurements o+---~-----+----~----~----~--~
(Method A) and on the measurement of time delay At 2 3 4 5 6
(Method B). Values in parenthesis for Method A are
Fig. 7 Plots of calculated critical ionization gradients Be (method A) as a
calculated for the current densities corresponding jc function of applied impulse current density; a) sand p = 2150 nm, b)
used in Method B. Below are also shown values of Ec clay p =50 nm, c) organic soil p =200 n'm (1- inner electrode radius
calculated from experimental measurements performed rin = 12, 5 rom, 2 - inner electrode radius rin = 2,5 mm).
543
Table 2 according to uniform ionization zone model and was
Soil Ee Ee practically independent of the polarity and front times of
Description resistivity [kV/cm] [kWcm] injected impulse currents. It was observed clear
p [n'm] Method A MethodB dependence (increase) of injected 'current density of
Sand 800 2,5 - 8,3 (5,6) 6,8 calculated critical ionization breakdown gradients.
2150 2,1 - 9,6L6,~ 9,0 * The alternative calculations of Ee taking into
Clay 50 1,9 - 7,9 (5,4) 7,1 account realistic resistivity of ionization zone gave
1,1 - 7,4 (3,7) corresponding values of 30 -70 % higher. The errors
70 5,6
due the measurement of resistivity of the soil and non-
Organic soil 40 4,5 -11,7(5,4) 8,3
zero resistivity of the ionized zone can lead to errors in
200 2,0 - 7,7 (4,6) 8,2
estimating Ee up to 50 -80%.
Towne [4] 130 - 686 1,6 - 5,2 - * Differentiation should be made between
Bellaschi [5] 93 - 100 1,2 - 4,2 - different breakdown parameters described in literature;
Riabkovar61 120 - 580 6,0 - 7,2 - the ionization gradient which determines the
dimensions of the streamers zone occurring around an
Additional illustration of test results in reduced electrode, and much higher [1] average gradient across
scale earthing electrodes is shown in Fig.8. With higher the gap which causes complete breakdown by formation
currents injected to inner electrode the equivalent radius of discrete sparks or arc channels.
of ionization zone rx is increasing. Corresponding * The choice of the proper critical soil
calculated values ofEe (using Method A) are increasing ionization gradient for calculation of transient earthing
too, but not proportionally to growth of r x Individual resistance of concentrated earthing electrodes should be
streamers in soil are much longer than r x and can easy related to the expected current density of applied
reach outer electrode in several microseconds causing impulse current on the surface of analyzed earthing
breakdown of limited soil volume. electrodes configuration.
Acknowledgments
Marek Loboda thanks to The Swedish Institute
and to Prof. Viktor Scuka for the possibility of
performing research program at the Institute of High
Voltage Research at Uppsala University. The author
appreciates the support of the Institute of High Voltage
Research for facilities made and fruitful discussions
with the members of the staff.
References
4 Summarizing conclusions
* In described series of experiments the electric
field strength Ee leading to ionization in soil was
typically between 2 - 10 kWcm when calculated
544