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Understanding Subsidence

in Coastal Louisiana
ii
Understanding Subsidence
in Coastal Louisiana

Prepared by:

Denise J. Reed
Brendan Yuill

Pontchartrain Institute for Environmental Sciences


University of New Orleans
New Orleans, LA

For the Louisiana Coastal Area Science and Technology Program


Barbara Kleiss, Director

February 26, 2009

Contract # W912HZ-08-2-0001

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iv
Table of Contents

List of Figures & Tables ............................................................................................................ vi


Preface...................................................................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ix
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ x
Key Terms ................................................................................................................................ xiv
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
II. Subsidence Processes in Coastal Louisiana ............................................................................... 2
1. Tectonic Subsidence ............................................................................................................... 2
2. Holocene Sediment Compaction............................................................................................. 9
3. Sediment Loading ................................................................................................................. 14
4. Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) ...................................................................................... 17
5. Anthropogenic Fluid Withdrawal ......................................................................................... 19
6. Surface Water Drainage & Management .............................................................................. 22
7. Section II. Summary ............................................................................................................ 25
III. Methods of Subsidence Measurement .................................................................................... 26
1. Re-leveling Survey................................................................................................................ 27
2. Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) ........................................................... 28
3. Tide Gauge ............................................................................................................................ 28
4. InSAR ................................................................................................................................... 29
5. Sediment Elevation Tables ................................................................................................... 30
6. Peat Chronostratigraphy........................................................................................................ 31
7. Extensometers ....................................................................................................................... 32
8. Section III. Summary ........................................................................................................... 32
IV. Implications ............................................................................................................................ 37
1. Levee and Flood Gate Construction. .................................................................................... 38
2. Barrier Island Restoration ..................................................................................................... 40
3. Mechanical Marsh Creation .................................................................................................. 42
4. Land Building through River Diversion. .............................................................................. 43
5. Summary ............................................................................................................................... 45
6. Future Needs ......................................................................................................................... 47
References ..................................................................................................................................... 48

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List of Figures & Tables

List of Figures
Figure 1: Profile view of the generalized faulting along coastal Louisiana
3
and the Gulf of Mexico.
Figure 2 Timeline of the major events in the development of the modern
4
Mississippi River delta.
Figure 3: Major salt presences in the Gulf of Mexico and the relative
5
density of indentified faults nearby.

Figure 4: Map of major faults located in southern Louisiana. 6

Figure 5: Subsidence due to salt diapirism. 7

Figure 6: A profile view of an example fault zone penetrating Holocene


8
sediments in southern Louisiana.

Figure 7: The three primary processes of sediment compaction. 10

Figure 8: An example of compacting stratigraphy in coastal Louisiana. 11


Figure 9: Example mechanisms of sediment consolidation and
12
compression.
Figure 10: Sediment loading within the Mississippi River Delta. 16

Figure 11: The extent of glaciated and forebulge areas during the peak of
17
the last ice age, 20,000 yr BP.

Figure 12: Isostatic mechanisms of forebulge collapse. 18

Figure 13: An example of the relationship between reservoir size, depth,


and the likely magnitude of the surface expression of subsidence caused 21
by reservoir compaction.
Figure 14: Natural gas, oil, and water withdrawal and Rates of Land loss
22
in coastal Louisiana.

Figure 15: Subsidence due to dewatering wetlands 23

Figure 16: The temporal and spatial scales of the different processes
25
contributing to subsidence and relative sea-level rise.
Figure 17: The temporal and spatial scales of subsidence measurement
33
methods.

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List of Figures (continued)
Figure 18: A hypothetical scenario including subsidence caused by
34
faulting and sediment compaction.

Figure 19: Examples of the different displacement distances each


measurement technique uses to infer subsidence within Earths 36
lithosphere.
Figure 20: Examples of how coastal resource management projects are
planned, managed, and maintained at a range of temporal and spatial 46
scales.

List of Tables
Table 1: The range of subsidence rates and affected area of associated 26
subsidence processes.

Table 2: Measurement characteristics of techniques used in subsidence 37


research.

Table 3: The key differences between mechanical marsh creation and land
building river diversion projects regarding how each may be affected by 44
subsidence.
Table 4: The likelihood a subsidence process may significantly affect a
management project based on the similarity of the scales between each 46
processes and project.

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Preface
The objective of this document is to explain the contemporary, scientific understanding
of subsidence in coastal Louisiana in a straight forward manner, comprehensible to a non-
technical reader. Discussion emphasizes research that is recent, peer-reviewed, and well cited.

There is some debate in the research community on the relative accuracy and limitations
of a number of the techniques used to measure subsidence discussed in this text. This debate is
centered on the fact that some researchers using a specific measurement technique report
subsidence rates in conflict with that reported by other researchers using different measurement
techniques. This document only discusses reported research and does not make any judgment on
the relative accuracy, limitations, or misuse of any measurement technique or specific research
result. Descriptions of measurement techniques, including their accuracy and limitations,
referenced in this text are based on the descriptions reported in research that employed that
specific technique.

It is expected that scientific research on subsidence will continue to advance and more
will be learned. For the non-technical audience to fully appreciate the challenge subsidence poses
to all coastal activities this synthesis document will require revision in the future.

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Acknowledgements
This document represents the final report of a project funded by the Louisiana Coastal
Area Science and Technology Program. It has greatly benefited from the counsel of the project
steering committee: Del Britsch (USACE), Roy Dokka (Louisiana State University), Joe Dunbar
(USACE), Christopher Knotts (LA OCPR), Dawn Lavoie (USGS), David Miller (LA OCPR),
Jeffery Mount (University of California, Davis), Torbjorn Tornqvist (Tulane University), and
David B. Zilkoski (NOAA NGS [retired]).

The participation of Clark Alexander (Skidway Institute of Oceanography), Mike Blum


(ExxonMobil), Alvin Chan (Shell), Larry Gilbert (Ardaman & Assoc., Inc.), Stephen Gill
(NOAA CO-OPS), Richard Raynie (LA OCPR), and Dru Smith (NOAA NGS) as expert
reviewers is greatly appreciated.

The final section of this report is the outcome of discussions from a symposium held in
January 2009 at the University of New Orleans. The attendees of the symposium are thanked for
their very helpful contributions as well as Tim Dixon (University of Miami) for his participation
and counsel.

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Executive Summary

Observed rates of subsidence span two orders of magnitude in coastal Louisiana with the
largest values exceeding 10.0 mm yr-1 [3 ft per century]. Subsidence is defined as a relative
decrease in elevation in respect to a defined reference elevation or datum. A relative decreases in
elevation in respect to sea-level promotes land loss and endangers infrastructure and ecosystem
health in and around Louisianas coastal communities by increasing the likelihood of flooding
and damage from storms. The dire consequences of subsidence make it important that coastal
resource managers understand its underlying causes to better predict, plan for, and mitigate its
potential effects on coastal management and engineering projects. However, the causes of
subsidence in coastal Louisiana are complicated as they include a multitude of environmental
processes and human activities. Likely, subsidence is caused by a combination of these
processes, with the relative influence of each dependent on the location the subsidence is
observed and the time period in which the observations are made. Therefore, a proper
understanding of coastal subsidence will be built on knowledge of each process as well as where
and when each process is most influential.

Contemporary research describes six primary processes causing subsidence in coastal


Louisiana:

Tectonic Subsidence, Southern Louisiana contains many indentified fault zones formed
from the development of the Gulf of Mexico basin and the Mississippi River Delta. Fault
slip in these areas may result in net downward movement of the surface topography and
subsidence.
Holocene Sediment Compaction, Large quantities of riverine sediment have been
deposited within the Mississippi River delta where it naturally compresses and
consolidates in time. Sediment compaction reduces the overall volume of sediment
initially deposited, resulting in subsidence. Compaction rates are primarily controlled by
properties of the sediments, the depth of the compacting sediment column, the load
imposed above the compacting sediments, and the time dependent natural dewatering
processes taking place within the sediment.
Sediment Loading, The large load imposed by the accumulation of riverine sediment in
the Mississippi River Delta region since the last ice-age has induced a downward flexure
in the underlying lithosphere causing regional subsidence.
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA), Coastal Louisiana lies just outside the periphery of
the location of a large ice sheet (the Laurentide ice sheet) that existed during the last ice-
age. The strain of the ice sheet on the underlying lithosphere produced uplift (a
forebulge) due to isostatic compensation along its outer margins. Ice sheet retreat during

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the Holocene has led to gradual subsidence along the forebulge. The relatively high
viscosity of the lithosphere produces a very slow response time to loading and unloading.
Fluid Withdrawal, Areas experiencing water and hydrocarbon withdrawal from
subsurface reservoirs have been spatially correlated to spatial gradients of subsidence in
southern Louisiana. Fluid withdrawal induces a decrease in pressure within the reservoir
which may promote local sediment compaction or reactivate fault slip within the nearby
fault zones that are often associated with underground fluid reservoirs.
Surface Water Drainage and Management, Anthropogenic manipulation of the
regional hydrology has drastically altered the magnitude and path of both surface and
subsurface runoff. Dewatering of formally inundated soil initiates sediment consolidation
and the oxidation of soil organics which reduces soil volume.

These processes are not necessarily isolated mechanisms occurring independently from
one another. Some processes entail similar mechanics or they experience significant feedback
from one another making it difficult to partition the causes of subsidence. However, to increase
the efficiency of subsidence management it is desirable to know what subsidence processes may
most influence a specific area and which ones may be disregarded, even if the distinction is
approximated.

One way to differentiate the influence of each process is to define the spatial and
temporal scales each is most effective in coastal Louisiana. Each process occurs at unique
locations within Earths lithosphere and over unique time periods. The fact that each process
occurs at a unique set of scales may be responsible for the wide range of subsidence rates
reported in research. Subsidence research employs a range of different measurement
methodologies and techniques, each with different assumptions and limitations. These techniques
include:

Re-leveling Survey, Repeated occupation and survey of geodetically referenced


monuments in respect to each other in time can record the relative vertical displacement
between the two. A series of these measurements may be integrated and extrapolated over
a wider area to estimate the subsidence along a transect or area.
Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS), This network consists of GPS
based instruments operating at fixed locations. Their relative accuracy increases with the
total length of their sampling period and may approach 1 cm accuracy at the oldest
locations. The contemporary network includes ~1400 stations (adding 200 stations
annually) within the US, >30 in Louisiana.
Tide gauge, Tide gauge measurements are analyzed to formulate local tidal datums (i.e.
mean water levels) which may be referenced to terrestrial benchmarks to calculate local
relative sea-level rise (subsidence + eustatic sea-level rise). Generally, a tidal datum
requires 19 years (a lunar epoch) of sea-level measurements to differentiate the influence

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of seasonal and lunar cycles although this may be impossible for rapidly subsiding areas
such as coastal Louisiana.
InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar), Topographic change may be
recorded with great accuracy (< 1.0 cm) using a time series of remotely sensed SAR
images which produce field based values of relative displacement. InSAR sensors may be
stationed on space-based platforms allowing collection of a reliable time-series of data.
Sediment Elevation Tables (SETs), SETs are primarily used in marsh environments and
consist of a leveling arm attached to a benchmark pole ~ 6 m in length. The pole is driven
deep into marsh sediments, usually anchored into a relatively stable basement material.
The bottom of the pole is the datum for which elevation change is compared. The arm
extends out laterally from the top of the pole. Pins connected to the arm record the
distance between the arm and the top of the topographical marsh surface with the mean
recorded as the local elevation. Repeated measurements recording a loss of elevation
indicate subsidence or erosion of material between the pin tip and the bottom of the
benchmark pole.
Peat Chronostratigraphy, Radiocarbon dating of organic material within a buried peat
horizon in respect to a datum (a historically reconstructed sea-level) produces an
estimation of local subsidence. Radiocarbon dating defines when the peat formed while
the reconstructed sea-level estimates its elevation at the time of formation. Its current
displacement is the cumulate subsidence.
Extensometer, An extensometer is a highly accurate subsidence measurement
instrument. Their size and difficult installation process make them relatively capital and
labor intensive. It consists of a rod or wire anchored to the bottom of a well with the
borehole enclosed in a steel casing. The top of the rod or wire is attached to the
topographical surface, monitoring the distance between the surface and the well bottom.
As the ground between the bottom of the well and the topographical surface compacts,
the monitoring device records the change in distance as local subsidence.

Each of these techniques measure subsidence occurring at a unique range of spatial and
temporal scales. These scales are set by the extent subsidence can be differentiated in space and
the time period analyzed to derive a mean subsidence rate for each measurement technique.
Effective application of these techniques would consider the different range of scales at which
subsidence processes occur and specifically target processes that share similar scales. Measuring
subsidence occurring at multiple scales likely requires the integration of subsidence observations
made by multiple techniques. Each measurement technique should be used to measure only the
subsidence processes of complimentary spatial and temporal scales. Measurement results can
then be applied to subsidence management practices and policy. Accurately predicting the spatial
and temporal scales a specific location may experience subsidence aids in the design of local
coastal management projects, as each project has a range of spatial and temporal scale it is most
susceptible to subsidence. For example, a levee system is a relatively large structure that has a

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long design lifetime and is therefore susceptible to the impacts of any regional subsidence that
may take place. However, a marsh creation project has a small spatial footprint making it
unlikely to be affected by subsidence that only affects discrete locations. In this regard, it is
important to define the scales any management project is susceptible to subsidence to mitigate its
likely impact.

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Key Terms
The following terms are routinely used throughout the text and may not be familiar or used in a
way familiar to resource managers. To ensure their definitions, in the context of this report, are
properly communicated, they are listed below.

Aggradation Topographic uplift due to accumulation of deposited sediment.

Anthropocene In geologic terms, the age when human activity became the
dominate driver shaping Earths landscape, climate, and ecology.

CORS Fixed location, GPS instruments that measure 3-dimensional


movement in space in reference to a datum.

Datum A reference elevation from which vertical measurements are


referenced. Common datums are geodetic benchmarks, tidal/ sea
level, the center of the Earth, and mathematically derived models
of the Earth.

Dewatering Removal of soil water resulting in a loss of pore water pressure.

Eustatic Sea-level Rise An increase in the elevation of sea-level due to an increase in the
volume of sea water.

Fault A discontinuity in the Earths crust. It can include a single


instance or an area of many instances (a fault zone). The
discontinuity is a result of past differential crustal movement in
one side of the discontinuity (fault block) in respect to the other
(fault block).

Fault Slip Differential crustal movement at a previously formed fault.

Faulting Differential crustal movement that creates faults.

Geopressure Total underground pressure borne at a location within the Earth.

Isostacy The study of the response of Earths surface to the addition,


subtraction, and spatial arrangement of large loads (e.g. fluvial
sediment, glacial ice).

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Key Terms (continued)
Peat Soil consisting primarily of decaying organic material.

Porosity The ratio of the volume of pore space to the volume of solid
material (e.g. rock, soil organics) in a set volume of soil or
sediment.
Relative Sea-level Rise An increase in elevation of sea-level relative to a terrestrial datum.
Relative sea-level rise includes the effects of both terrestrial
subsidence and eustatic sea-level rise.

Salt Diapir A volume of underground salt intruding vertically upwards into


overlying material due to its relative buoyancy. It is less dense
than most rock.

Sediment Compaction The loss of soil volume without loss of grain mass (no grain
removal).

Sediment Compression Sediment compaction due to an applied stress.

Sediment Consolidation Sediment compaction due to a loss of pore pressure.

Sediment Loading The long-term delivery and deposition of sediments to a specific


location, generally by fluvial processes.

Stratigraphic Column A representation of the vertical profile of the different lithologies


(facies) at a certain spot and certain depth within the lithosphere.

Stratigraphic Facies A relatively uniform layer located within a stratigraphic column,


composed of a singular rock type or substrate (i.e. sand, clay).

Subsidence Downward displace of the Earths surface in respect to a datum.


The opposite of the geologic term uplift.

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I. Introduction

Coastal Louisiana is experiencing high rates ( > 10 mm yr-1 [3 ft per century] locally ) of
subsidence due to its proximal location to the Mississippi River Delta as well as from the
anthropogenic manipulation of the local environment (Day and Giosan, 2008; Dixon et al.,
2006a; Dokka, 2006; Gonzalez and Tornqvist, 2006; Meckel et al., 2006; Morton et al., 2005;
Tornqvist et al., 2008). These high rates have led to widespread land loss and the deterioration of
coastal ecosystem health as well as to a multitude of challenges to coastal resource managers
attempting to deal with these environmental problems (Day et al., 2007). Coastal land loss is
especially detrimental along the Gulf coast where coastal beaches and wetlands function as the
first line of defense against the destructive power of large storms which appear to be increasing
in frequency and intensity due to climate change (Emanuel, 2005; Webster et al., 2005). The
effects of subsidence are difficult to incorporate into engineering plans and policy due to the
spatial and temporal gradients of the observed subsidence rates which span two orders of
magnitude. The disparity in reported subsidence rates is a result of the multitude of contributing
processes and the alternative methods of measurement currently used to calculate subsidence
rates. These factors make it difficult to reconcile the wide range of data produced by subsidence
research in coastal Louisiana into useable guidance for coastal resource managers (Dixon and
Dokka, 2008; Meckel, 2008). Resource management and policy decisions must consider the
effects of the predicted subsidence rates but they must also understand the uncertainty associated
with how the predicted rates were derived. This will help to ensure the best management
practices are followed in response to subsidence. The purpose of this report is to communicate
our scientific understanding relating to subsidence in coastal Louisiana into a text accessible and
relevant to the management and planning community but scientifically robust and reflective of
modern thought.

This document has three objectives. The first objective is to define and discuss the
physical processes contributing to subsidence in coastal Louisiana. It is important to know the
causal processes of subsidence at a specific location because each process occurs at a unique
temporal and spatial scale. Knowledge of the different processes contributing to subsidence and
where they occur provides a better understanding of the expected regional and temporal
distribution of subsidence rates along the coast so their effects can be locally predicted and
mitigated. The second objective of this document is to define and discuss the methods in which
subsidence is measured. The spatial and temporal scales over which certain methods measure
subsidence determine their applicability to measure each contributing process and the
compatibility of their individual results with other measurement methods (Meckel, 2008). The
most common methods of measurement are discussed in Section 3 of this report. The final
objective, discussed in Section 4, is to define the implications of our understanding of subsidence

1
in coastal Louisiana and its associated processes in a resource management, engineering, and
planning context.

II. Subsidence Processes in Coastal Louisiana

A survey of contemporary subsidence research relating to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf
of Mexico defined six primary contributing processes, 1) tectonics, 2) Holocene sediment
compaction, 3) sediment loading, 4) glacial isostatic adjustment, 5) fluid withdrawal, and 6)
surface water drainage and management. These processes are not entirely independent from one
another and may entail overlap in the physical mechanisms that causes the observed subsidence.
Also as common in environmental systems, there will be feedback between processes where one
process directly affects the frequency or magnitude of another. Subsidence in coastal Louisiana
is caused by a continuum of processes that likely make absolute boundaries impossible to
discern. For this manuscript, the processes are differentiated into categories commonly used in
contemporary subsidence research that may be based on the subsidence mechanism (tectonic
subsidence, sediment loading, glacial isostatic adjustment), the depth of where the subsidence
occurs (Holocene sediment compaction), or the activity that triggers the subsidence mechanism
(fluid withdrawal, surface water drainage). The subsidence categories do not necessarily share
the same spatial or temporal scales and therefore the attributed subsidence rates are not
equivalent and should be compared verse one another with caution. This section offers a brief
overview of each process in the context of coastal Louisiana, describes the physical mechanism
that causes subsidence, and defines derived measures (both observed and modeled) of its
contribution to local subsidence rates. The objective of this section is to inform the reader on the
background context of commonly cited causes of subsidence in coastal Louisiana. A better
understanding of the background will invariably lead to better interpretation of what associated
subsidence rates mean, in terms of past activity and future prediction, as well as its effect on
coastal resource management projects.

1. Tectonic Subsidence

Overview:
Tectonic processes, i.e. that relating to the structure and evolution of the underlying
lithosphere, have been attributed as the cause of a large fraction of the subsidence occurring in
coastal Louisiana. This subsection describes tectonic processes associated with natural faulting
processes, including that relating to the Gulf of Mexico basin development and delta extension,
as well as salt movement. The following subsections describe processes relating to additional

2
tectonic processes including sediment loading (Section 2.3), isostatic adjustment (Section 2.4),
and faulting induced by subsurface fluid withdrawal (Section 2.5). The subsection divisions
follow the way tectonically related subsidence is commonly divided for study in contemporary
research.

In coastal Louisiana, faulting is often cited as a primary driver of tectonic subsidence


(Dokka, 2006; Gagliano et al., 2003a; Lavoie and Reed, submitted). Faulting is the differential
movement of Earths crust, either horizontal (a strike-slip fault) or vertical (a dip-slip fault) along
a fault plane (Burbank and Anderson, 2000; Scheidegger, 2004). Normal faulting occurs as a net
change in distance between two neighboring fault blocks by either the increase or decrease of
elevation by one block in respect to the other. If the faulting occurs at a shallow depth or is of
sufficient magnitude, the resulting fault movement may produce observable displacement at the
Earths surface. A vertical drop in the topographical surface of a fault block in respect to a stable
vertical datum would be observed as subsidence. Numerous vertical faults have been located in
southern Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 1). Their presence has been attributed to
processes associated with the growth of the Mississippi Delta and the evolution of the Gulf of
Mexico basin which include basin rifting, underground salt movement (halokinesis), and growth
faulting (Berman, 2005; Diegel et al., 1995; Dokka et al., 2006; Gagliano et al., 2003a; Gagliano
et al., 2003b; Gore, 1992; Murray, 1961).

Figure 1: Profile view of the generalized faulting along coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of
Mexico.

Older, deep-seated faults have been identified within the Gulf of Mexico basin basement
associated with its initial formation during the late Triassic (~200 million years before present
[Ma BP]). At that time, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up in response to the development of
continental rifts, with one such rift opening and extending the Gulf of Mexico basin. The initial
rifting (i.e. faulting occurring along continental plate margins) and evolution of the basin
produced a periphery of normal, extension faults (Gagliano et al., 2003a); however, they may be

3
considered relatively inactive since a stabilization of basin development in the Late Jurassic
(~150 Ma BP) (Gore, 1992).

Figure 2: Timeline of the major events in the development of the modern Mississippi River delta.

Beginning in the Jurassic Period and lasting to the early Neogene (200 20 Ma BP),
fluctuating sea-levels and ocean currents promoted the precipitation of large masses of salt along
the basin floor which remained under shallow water throughout the time period. Later growth
and expansion of the Mississippi Delta over the salt deposits has added to the tectonic instability
of the region. The relative low density of salt as compared to that of the surrounding sedimentary
fill creates relative buoyancy (Jackson, 1995; Schuster, 1995). This net upwards force causes the
salt to rise up through the overlaying lithosphere (halokinesis), especially in areas of increased
potential mobility near fault zones that can act as salt conduits. The upwards intrusion of salt into
fault zones may induce fault slip by increasing local gradients of geopressure or by creating new
radial fault zones around regions experiencing large upwards migration of salt (salt domes). In
coastal Louisiana, there has been little evidence directly linking salt migration with the
magnitude of the current subsidence rates although there has been little research completed on
the subject. Presently, the largest shallow salt bodies lie beyond the continental shelf margin and
north of the Sigsbee Escarpment, which is the steepened front of downslope movement of the
existing salt stores (Figure 3). Shoreward, the salt basins have predominately been evacuated
through past diapirism (Diegel et al., 1995). Diapirism is the geologic term often used to describe
the vertical ascent of buoyant subsurface material due to its low density relative to surrounding
material, often deforming the overlying strata. Salt intrusion and diapirism have rarely extended
into Holocene sediments and there has been no evidence of the surface exposure of salt within
Louisiana (Lavoie and Reed, submitted).

4
Figure 3: Major salt presences in the Gulf of Mexico and the relative density of indentified faults
nearby (after Diegel et al. 1995).

In coastal Louisiana, growth faulting has been attributed to the construction and
extension of the Mississippi river delta plain southward into the Gulf of Mexico basin which
began loading with fluvial sediment in the early Paleocene (60 Ma). Large scale shifts in
Mississippi River hydrology associated with glacial cycles have stripped and re-deposited
sediment into the Gulf many times since then with most of the current sediments of Holocene
origin (i.e. deposited within the last 10,000 yrs) (Roberts et al., 1994). The growth faults have a
general east-west orientation, perpendicular to the direction of delta growth (Figure 4). Growth
faults form as the sedimentary fill constructing the delta progrades (i.e. the forward or downslope
movement of a sediment mass due to sediment aggradation) down an inclined basement.
Downslope overextension of the prograding delta front may induce detachment and the
formation of fault zones which slip by breakaway and gravitational slumping (Dokka et al.,
2006).

5
Figure 4: Map of major faults located in southern Louisiana. Dashed lines indicate the location of
a growth fault and arrows indicate fault dip (downward slope) direction. From Gagliano et al.
(2004; 2006).

Subsidence Mechanisms:
1) Fault slip occurs in active fault zones as a gradient in geopressure develops between
adjacent fault blocks oriented parallel to the fault plane. This may occur at a large spatial scale,
as in the case of the rifting of large continental plates, or it may occur at a smaller scale from
shifting crustal loads and stresses which is the more frequent case in Louisiana. The slip is
triggered when the pressure overcomes the resisting friction force prohibiting motion in the slip
direction.

2) Salt diapirs intrude vertically upwards through crustal material due to buoyancy
effects. The presence of the intruded salt may activate proximal faults by shifting gradients of
geopressure within the fault zone. Faulting resulting in a down-thrown fault block with surficial
topographical expression induces subsidence. The migration of large salt domes may create new
radial fault zones extending outwards from its margins. The surface expression of subsidence, if
present, is likely a result of extensional faulting and graben (i.e. a tectonically formed valley)
formation above the observed salt migration (Figure 5). Subsidence due to diapirism would occur
very slowly over geologic timescales (> 1000 yrs) at the spatial scale of the horizontal diameter
of the diapir, 1 100 km2.

6
Figure 5: Subsidence due to salt diapirism. Based on seismic profiles presented in Rowan et al.,
1999.

Observations:
The geologic structure of coastal Louisiana and the Mississippi Delta is well documented
from over a century of study (Hilgard, 1871; Kulp, 2000). While many fault zones have been
indentified, actual slip rates have been difficult to discern due to the infrequency of their activity
in modern times (Dokka et al., 2006; Gagliano, 2002, 2005; Gagliano et al., 2003a; Gagliano et
al., 2003b). Recent studies using peat chronostratigraphy to calculate Holocene sea-level rise
suggest that in their study period, coastal Louisiana has experienced very low tectonic
subsidence rates (approximate order of magnitude near 0.1 mm yr-1) (Gonzalez and Tornqvist,
2006; Trnqvist et al., 2006). There is little seismic evidence of contemporary fault activity in
Louisiana; however, a few small earthquakes (3 4 on the Richter scale) have occurred since the
1960s (U.S. Geological Survey, 2008). Most contemporary faulting does not produce observable
earthquakes (aseimic). This is likely due to the relatively soft sedimentary substrate (little
shallow brittle bedrock) of coastal Louisiana, which leads to a more plastic deformation within
a fault zone. Such deformation would be steadier in time than the more sudden fault slip
associated with earthquakes. Evidence indicating modern faulting is generally inferred from
displacement in recent geologic (i.e. stratigraphic facies) and geomorphic structures (i.e.
hillslopes, river channels) (Dokka et al., 2006; Gagliano et al., 2003a).

The soft, less rigid Holocene sediments reduce the surface expression of any faults in the
underlying lithosphere. For example, faulting within the Pleistocene-aged sediments and below
is often realized as the differential movement between two (or more) coherent fault blocks
occurring along a plane (or crack). However, as the effect of the fault movement is perpetuated
up through the younger Holocene-aged material, it becomes diffused through the less viscous

7
sediments (Figure 6). Because of this, if the fault shows any surface expression it takes the form
of a broad slump rather than a discrete scarp. This has the net effect of making the surface
expression of the underlying faults less pronounced and occur over a wider area.

Figure 6: A profile view of an example fault zone penetrating Holocene sediments in southern
Louisiana.

The highest rates of subsidence attributed to faulting in published research (e.g. Dokka,
2006) occur at the fault zone and decay with distance. Measured subsidence from the Golden
Meadow and Theriot fault zones in south Louisiana has range from 0.1 1.0 m since the start of
a recent period of tectonic activity in the 1960s (Gagliano et al., 2003a). Re-leveling surveys
from between 1969 and 1971 have measured nearly 120 mm of subsidence occurring between
1969 and 1971 on the down thrown side of the Michaud fault, a normal growth fault. Between
1977 and 1995 the same position experienced a mean subsidence rate of 20 mm yr-1 while
regions 5 km away from the fault area on either side experiences subsidence rates closer to 15
mm yr-1 (Dokka, 2006). In contrast, Edrington (2008) calculated mean long-term mean (spanning
~12 Ma BP to present) subsidence rates for the Michaud area from geological data between 0.14
0.18 mm yr. Such low, long term rates indicate the much higher contemporary values record a
temporally discrete or anomalous phenomenon.

Summary:

The geologic structure of coastal Louisiana is dominated by the evolution of the


Mississippi River Delta.
Delta substrate extends over a basement capped with mobile salt deposits which produce
instability in the overlying material and faulting.

8
Delta extension has produced multiple growth faults throughout the delta structure. The
fault lines commonly run perpendicular to the direction of delta extension with the
seaward (southern) fault block experiencing subsidence during fault movement.

2. Holocene Sediment Compaction

Overview:
In delta environments deposited fluvial and marine sediment may compact in time. This
compaction can result from physical, biological, and chemical processes (van Asselen et al.,
2009). Along coastal Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta, physical compaction is the most
commonly cited compaction-related cause of subsidence, which includes both sediment
compression and consolidation. Compression relates to a decrease in soil volume due to a
restructuring of internal grain alignment as a result of an applied stress, where the sediment
becomes more tightly packed. Consolidation relates to the time dependent expulsion of pore
water in response to an applied stress which reduces the internal pore pressure causing pore
collapse. Compression occurs in relatively short timescales upon application of an applied load
and is generally controlled by the geotechnical properties of the soil while consolidation is a
gradual process that is controlled by soil-water interactions (van Asselen et al., 2009). In regions
with abundant peat, which is composed of a large percentage of organic material, located within
the underlying substrate, significant compaction may occur from biological (microbial decay of
organic material) or chemical (oxidation of organic carbon) processes. Under the current state of
the Mississippi Delta evolution, where the Holocene delta building began ~10,000 yr BP and was
controlled by humans ~ 100 yr BP, these processes are not as dominate as the physical
compaction processes (Figure 7). However, specific anthropogenic activities like manipulation of
surface water drainage may reinvigorate or accelerate these processes and increase their relative
influence on subsidence. Sediment compaction may cause subsidence if the loss of soil volume
results in topographic lowering.

9
Figure 7: The three primary processes of sediment compaction and the scales in which they are
most active (after van Asselen et al., 2009).

The majority of present day compaction occurs in the more recent shallow Holocene
sediments comprising the modern delta plain and valley fill of the Pleistocene entrenchment
(Roberts et al., 1994). Significant rates of compaction begin during the initial dewatering and
degassing of the deposited sediment. These rates must slow and eventually stop as there is a
finite compressible volume (the pore space); however, substantial rates have been measured in
sediments buried for millennia (Tornqvist et al., 2008). Rates of compaction are influenced by
geotechnical parameters of the compacting sediments such as compressibility, porosity, organic
content, and bulk density as well as the mass of accumulated overburden (Knott et al., 1987;
Kuecher et al., 1993; Meckel et al., 2007; Tornqvist et al., 2008). In coastal Louisiana, soil
columns composed of peat (accumulated partially-decayed organic matter) and clay are expected
to experience greater compaction rates and total net compaction than other lithologies because of
their high initial porosity and compressibility (Kuecher et al., 1993).

10
Figure 8: An example of compacting stratigraphy in coastal Louisiana. The total subsidence due
to the compaction of Holocene sediments is linked to the depth of the sediment deposit (A) as
well as the geotechnical characteristics of its stratigraphy (B). Figure 8.B displays a hypothetical
vertical soil profile; as the depth of overburden increases so does the degree of compaction.

In coastal Louisiana marshes, the shallow subsidence attributed to the compaction of


recently deposited sediment has historically been mitigated by similar rates of sediment
accretion. However, widespread human manipulation of the sediment delivery processes
throughout the Mississippi Delta has reduced the fluvial sediment supply to coastal marshes
(Day et al., 2007; Dixon and Dokka, 2008). The reduction of accretion rates in respect to
sediment compaction rates accentuates the topographic expression of subsidence.

Subsidence Mechanisms:
Physical sediment compaction results from the reduction of inter-grain pore volume
which occurs due to the reorientation and enhanced packing of sediment grains (compression) as
well as the reduced of pore pressure due to dewatering (consolidation) (Figure 9). Both processes
occur where pressure applied from the overburden weight overcomes the pore pressure that was
initially stabilizing the soil structure. This destabilization leads to eventual pore collapse. Pore
collapse causes a net decrease in porosity and an increase in bulk density. Sediment may also
compact through the natural settling processes where grains are sorted into a more tightly packed
arrangement through gradual shifts in the lithosphere (e.g. earthquakes) and the effects of
gravity. Sediment compaction also results from non-mechanical processes such as the
decomposition of soil organic matter and the dissolution of soil minerals. Past observations (e.g.
Turner et al., 2006) indicated that these processes may not play a large role in subsidence in

11
Louisiana; however, these processes have not been specifically studied in coastal Louisiana and
their actual effects are not well quantified.

Figure 9: Example mechanisms of sediment consolidation and compression. Sediment compacts


from volume A. to B. as water pressure (arrows) is reduced within the soil pores (consolidation)
and sediment grains compress into a tighter arranged geometry under the overburden load
(compression).

Observations:
Much of the current research on sediment compaction has used peat chronostratigraphy in
coastal Louisiana (e.g. Gonzalez and Tornqvist, 2006; Kulp, 2000; Roberts et al., 1994;
Tornqvist et al., 2006; Tornqvist et al., 2004). Peat chronostratigraphy is widely used for
measuring sediment compaction in southern Louisiana because of the near ubiquitous peat layer
within the soil profile and the well constrained sea-level curve which defines the elevation of its
formation (Tornqvist et al., 2004). Also, areas of southern Louisiana are assumed to be
tectonically stable at depth (including the Pleistocene basement and below), constraining
subsidence within the Holocene sediment layer where compaction is the dominate subsidence
process (Tornqvist et al., 2008). Using peat chronostratigraphy, Tornqvist et al. (2008) identified
mean rates of compaction up to 5 mm yr-1 over a millennial time period by averaging the total
vertical compaction of Holocene sediment deposits along the margins of the Mississippi Delta
over the time period since its initial deposition (1400 yr BP).

12
Numerical modeling of Holocene sediment compaction by Meckel et al. (2006; 2007)
computed a probability distribution of subsidence rates within the Mississippi Delta plain using a
range of influential factors including shallow stratigraphy and overburden thickness. They
computed the cumulative probability distribution by modeling mean subsidence rates in a large
number of hypothetical delta environments using a Monte Carlo simulation technique. The
hypothetical environments were designed to explore the effect of a range of geotechnical
parameters (e.g. compressibility, porosity) along the Mississippi Delta on subsidence,
numerically predicting the effect of variable stratigraphy (sand, peat, mud, etc.), sedimentation
rates (10 110 m of sediment deposition), and accumulation times (1 - 12 k yr). Their research
predicted subsidence rates averaging between 1 - 3 mm yr-1. Pizzuto and Schwendt (1997)
developed a numerical model to predict rates of consolidation in complex sequences of coastal
Holocene stratigraphy. The model estimates the physical behavior of a stratigraphic column
based on assumed geotechnical properties of composing (stratigraphic) facies in response to
variable sedimentation rates in time. They calibrated their model in a salt marsh in Delaware
where their predicted values matched that observed from geologic measurements well, that a 10
m thick deposit compacted 2.3 m in a 6000 yr period. The successful use of compaction models
indicate the primary mechanics of the processes are understood can be reliably replicated to
cause a similar response to that observed. Model results are not directly comparable to measured
values of subsidence which are subject to the influence of and disturbance from numerous
additional environmental processes.

Dokka (2006) isolated a subsidence rate from re-leveling surveys (1969-1971 and 1971-
1977) by comparing differences in the vertical displacement of benchmarks anchored at various
depths. Dokka (2006) defined rates between 1.5 and 2.5 mm yr-1 due to sediment compaction and
consolidation between the surface and a depth of 178 m, the shallowest depth interval examined.
This rate likely includes Holocene subsidence and any subsidence occurring within Pleistocene
sediments which are located within that depth profile.

Using high resolution topographic measurements made from sediment elevation tables
(SETs) of two coastal salt marshes in Louisiana over a two year period, Cahoon et al. (1995)
calculated short term subsidence rates ranging from 4 to 24 mm yr-1 resulting from the
compaction of Holocene sediments within the top 4.0 m of the soil profile. These may have been
enhanced by high rates of sediment deposition during the study period (induced by Hurricane
Andrew), increasing the overburden thickness. For a detailed description of the use and
assumptions of sediment elevations tables, please see subsection 3.5 in this report.

13
Summary:

Deposited Holocene sediments consolidate and compact in time causing


subsidence.
Sediment compaction rates generally decrease in time.
High organic content (i.e. peat) and overburden thickness increase sediment
compaction rates.
Current mean subsidence rates due to Holocene sediment compaction range from
1 to 5 mm yr-1 (4 to 24 in 100 yr-1). Short term compaction rates of recently
deposited sediment or that under increased strain from an overlying load may be
significantly greater.

3. Sediment Loading

Overview:
The Mississippi River is the dominate supply of sediments to the Mississippi River Delta
and the Louisiana coast (Coleman et al., 1998). While historically the sediment supply rates
would be affected by upland tectonics and changes in climate, recent variations are heavily
influenced by isostatic recovery from the last North American glaciation, ongoing sea-level rise,
and the construction of reservoirs by humans. In a natural state, these factors combine to steadily
supply large sediment loads to the continental margin with little long term sediment storage
within the lower Mississippi River valley. A slowdown in the sea-level rise responding to the
deglaciation (~ 8000 yr BP) promoted the near-shore aggradation of the fluvial sediment loads
leading to the development of the Mississippi River Delta Plain (Coleman and Smith, 1964). The
weight of the increased load of the deposited fluvial sediments induces subsidence due to
downward flexure within the underlying crust (Blum et al., 2008; Bowie, 1927). In general,
Earths crust acts elastically, deforming under strain but evolving back to its original form for
after the strain is removed. The mantle acts as a highly viscous fluid, permanently deforming (a
plastic response) under strain. If the mean surface displacement due to the downward flexure of
the underlying lithosphere (i.e. the crust and upper mantle) is greater than the mean increase in
elevation due to sediment aggradation over the affected area, subsidence will be observed. This
phenomenon occurs in areas with a large accommodation space capable of trapping large loads
of sediment within a relatively small area (e.g. valleys, lakes, deltas) (Reynolds et al., 1991;
Paola et al, 2001). Sediment loading is differentiated from sediment compaction because it refers
to subsidence in the material underlying a sediment load rather within the load itself.

14
The following subsection (2.4) describes the effect of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA)
on subsidence rates. That subsection specially addresses the effect of the lithospheric loading and
unloading of large ice volumes (i.e. glaciers and ice sheets) while this subsection focuses on
sediment loading and unloading in the Mississippi Delta. Both GIA and sediment loading are
greatly affected by glacial cycles.

Subsidence Mechanisms:
Upon the conclusion of the last glaciation period (referred to as the Wisconsin glacial
episode) in North America, ~18,000 yr BP, terrestrial surface water and sea volumes increased in
response to the melting of the Laurentide ice sheet. The Mississippi River valley which had
experienced incision due to the drop in sea-level in response to the initial glaciation, began to
accumulate alluvial fill as the sea-level began rising once again (Coleman et al., 1998; Coleman
and Smith, 1964; Fisk and McFarlan, 1955). Large masses of alluvium began building up within
the lower Mississippi River Valley 12,000 yr BP and initial growth of the Mississippi River
Delta began ~8,000 yr BP as the available upland sediment storage reached capacity and sea-
level rise slowed (Coleman and Smith, 1964; Roberts et al., 1994). Contemporary estimates of
the thickness of sediment deposited since the last glacial maximum average 35 m but reach 100
m within the active Balize (or Birdsfoot) Delta complex (Coleman et al., 1998). The weight of
the sediment load was enhanced by the weight of the increased water volume advancing inland
as sea-levels rose throughout the Holocene and increased local water depths 150 m (Kulp, 2000).
The weight of the additional sediment and water strained the underlying crust which caused
deformation and subsidence (Figure 10). The relatively high viscosity of Earths mantle below
the more elastic crust has produced a significant time lag between the actual loading and the
lithospheric response (Bloom, 1967). The total amount of subsidence caused by loading may
have been increased due to additional isostatic compensation for earlier regional uplift. That
uplift was produced from the loss of crustal mass during the valley incision that occurred during
the glaciated period (Blum et al., 2008).

15
Figure 10: Sediment loading within the Mississippi River Delta. Deposited Mississippi River
sediments within the Holocene delta region load down the underlying lithosphere, causing
downwarping. The local downwarping scales with the depth of overlying sediments.

Observations:
Because of the large spatial and temporal scales in which sediment loading occurs, its
effect on subsidence is often calculated using various numerical modeling techniques, relying on
geologic observations (such as that made with peat chronostratigraphy) for calibration. Crustal
flexure from sediment loads is often modeled using elastic or visco-elastic (modeling the
combined effects of the elastic and viscous properties of Earths crust) models that predict crustal
strain using inputs of imposed loads (stress), mantle viscosity, and lithosphere thickness (Kulp,
2000; Watts, 2001). For the Mississippi Delta region, lithospheric viscosity is estimated to range
from 1019 to 3 x 1022 Pa s and the lithosphere thickness is assumed to be approximately 30 to 50
km (Blum et al., 2008; Ivins et al., 2007; Kulp, 2000; Simms et al., 2007). Model results are also
dependent on the assumed sediment loading rates and predicted total load of delta sediment. A
recent study using a numerical model to calculate the isostatic response to Holocene sediment
loading within the Mississippi Delta, predicted subsidence rates ranging from 1 to 8 mm yr-1 for
coastal Louisiana using a predicted sediment loading rate of 0.68 gigatons annually over the last
10,000 years BP (Ivins et al., 2007). The contemporarous subsidence rates predicted by the
model fit current observations of subsidence using GPS.

Summary:

The mass of fluvial sediment deposited by the Mississippi River along the delta region
during the Holocene causes downward flexure of the underlying crust equating to
subsidence.
Subsidence due to sediment loading is calculated using numerical models of the
lithospheres visco-elastic response to loading.

16
Subsidence rates due to sediment loading are spatially correlated to the mass and loading
history of local sediment deposition and are predicted to be on the order of millimeters
per year for coastal Louisiana.

4. Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA)

Overview:
The last glaciation of North America loaded much of northern half of the continent with
the weight of the Laurentide Ice Sheet causing downward crustal flexure and subsidence. Outside
the margins of the ice sheet, isostatic compensation caused local uplift and the creation of a
glacial forebulge. The expanse of the forebulge included regions of the present day Gulf coast
(Figure 11). Upon retreat of the ice sheet leading into the current interglacial period, the loss of
ice mass triggered widespread isostatic readjustment, observed as both an uplift of the previously
subsiding regions as well as a collapse of the forebulge (Figure 12). Research on the behavior of
Earths lithosphere shows that while much of this compensating rebound has occurred since the
onset of the interglacial period (Bloom, 1967; Watts, 2001), the observable effects of the process
continues today.

Figure 11: The extent of glaciated and forebulge areas in North America during the peak of the
last ice age, 20,000 yr BP. Based on model predictions from Mitrovica and Milne (2002).

17
Figure 12: Isostatic mechanisms of forebulge collapse. The weight of the Laurentide Ice Sheet
upon northern North America causes downward flexure on the underlying lithosphere coupled
with isostatically compensated uplift along the peripheral margins (A). After the ice sheet retreat,
the previously subsided region under the ice sheet raises to its original position as the uplifted
margin lowers (B).

Subsidence Mechanism:
Forebulge collapse is an isostatically driven process occurring at a geologic timescale ( >
1000s of years). While the timing of the collapse is dependent on the rate of ice sheet unloading,
the nature of the underlying mantle (i.e. the mantle viscosity and thickness) produces a
substantial lag between the two. Despite the full disappearance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet ~
6000 yr BP, models of isostatic adjustment and recent CORS observations suggest the forebulge
is still present and is assumed to be subsiding at a slow but nearly constant rate (Peltier and
Jiang, 2004; Sella et al., 2007).

Observations:
Little is currently known about the topographical properties of the glacial forebulge as it
existed during the last ice age (~ 10,000 100,000 yr BP) within coastal Louisiana, including the
extent of its maximum uplift. Such information enhances our scientific understanding of the
associated total compensating subsidence. Rates of subsidence linked to the forebulge collapse
are not easily measured and have been primarily estimated from numerical model predictions of
Earths lithosphere flexure in response to loading and unloading. Current GIA modeling studies
that include the Gulf coast region are at the continental scale and do not predict significant

18
variation in the effects of isostatic compensation within the Gulf coast (e.g. Sella et al., 2007;
Mitrovica and Milne, 2002). Further, the relatively slow subsidence rate and the broad
geographic scale in which the isostatic response occurs inhibits easy differentiation between the
effects of the forebulge collapse and the other local subsidence processes within coastal
Louisiana. Research by Gonzalez and Tornqvist (2006) attributes a current relative sea-level rise
rate of 0.55 mm yr-1 (calculated as the mean rate for the last millennium) primarily to the glacial
forebulge collapse. They derive this rate by assuming subsidence due to the forebulge collapse
explains the non-eustatic component of relative sea-level rise measured by tide gauges at
tectonically stable locations (i.e. near Pensacola, FL, island locations within the Caribbean) along
the Gulf coast. Their rate is of a similar magnitude to that reported by Sella et al. (2007) which
calculated continental-scale GIA subsidence rates of 1 - 2 mm yr-1 along the glacial forebulge
region using available CORS measurements.

Summary:

Subsidence is caused by crustal isostatic adjustment to the removal of the Laurentide Ice
Sheet, which covered the Northern Half of North America during the last glaciation.
Rates of subsidence caused by glacial isostatic adjustment are calculated using
continental-scale numerical modeling of Earths lithosphere.
The rate is assumed steady in space and time for coastal Louisiana.
Subsidence rates due to GIA are predicted using models of lithospheric processes.
Previous research reports rates on the order of 0.55 2.0 mm yr-1.

5. Anthropogenic Fluid Withdrawal

Overview:
Active and historical hydrocarbon fields punctuate the deep subsurface of coastal
Louisiana and much of the Gulf coast. There is evidence that areas which experienced high rates
of hydrocarbon production in the past also experienced the highest rates of subsidence (Morton
et al., 2006). The production of hydrocarbons requires the withdrawal of subsurface liquid
hydrocarbons (in the form of petroleum and natural gas) and of significant quantities of
groundwater. This subsurface fluid withdrawal depressurizes the underground reservoirs, altering
the arrangement of in-situ stresses within the reservoir and the nearby substrate. Depending on
the relative magnitude of the geopressure (pressure within the lithosphere) drawdown, its spatial
arrangement, and the geotechnical properties of the substrate, the reservoir may compact under
the stress of the overlying substrate (Donaldson et al., 1995). The sediment compaction caused

19
by the collapsing reservoir may exhibit a surface expression in the form of ground subsidence
(Chan and Zoback, 2007). Additionally, alteration to subsurface geopressure fields near fault
zones may upset an existing equilibrium between the shear and friction forces inducing slip
(Chan and Zoback, 2007; Morton et al., 2006; Morton et al., 2005; White and Morton, 1997).

Subsidence Mechanisms:
Subsidence due to subsurface fluid withdrawal is primarily caused from reservoir
compaction although research indicates induced fault slip may play a small, additional role
(Chan and Zoback, 2007; Mallman and Zoback, 2007). Reservoir compaction occurs as
hydrocarbon fluid withdrawal causes loss of subsurface pore pressure, with measured pressure
gradients (a good geotechnical parameter of compaction susceptibility) often dropping 95 %
during the lifespan of production (Donaldson et al., 1995; Morton et al., 2002). Fluid withdrawal
accelerates natural consolidation processes within the compacting reservoir. The large producing
hydrocarbon fields in southern Louisiana occur within relatively thin sand reservoirs located at
depths ~2 - 4 km below the surface. Decreased reservoir depth and increased reservoir thickness
generally increases the overall subsidence depth; however, increased reservoir depth also
increases the overall area of the surface expression (Figure 13) (Mallman and Zoback, 2007).
Depending on the geotechnical properties of the reservoir substrate, fluid withdrawal and may
produce inelastic, time dependent physical compaction which may account for the observed
continued subsidence over discontinued production fields in southern Louisiana (Mallman and
Zoback, 2007).

Observations:
The strongest documentation of the role that hydrocarbon production plays in causing
land subsidence is from studies in coastal Texas, where delta (i.e. sedimentary) processes such as
sediment compaction, sediment loading, or growth faulting do not play a significant role.
However, in Louisiana the connection between hydrocarbon withdrawal and subsidence is well
characterized by a historical re-leveling survey line (e.g. Shinkle and Dokka, 2004) that crosses
many known hydrocarbon producing fields and a comprehensive land loss survey of the
Mississippi River Delta and Chenier plains (e.g. Britsch and Dunbar, 1993). Land loss rates
correlate with rates of fluid withdrawal during hydrocarbon production which started regionally
in the 1950s and peaked in the 1970s (Morton et al., 2002). Physical measures of hydrocarbon
production include the volume of fluid extracted and the decrease in reservoir pore pressure
during production as measured from the extracting well.

20
Figure 13: An example of the relationship between reservoir size (height [H] and radius[R]),
depth (D), and the likely magnitude of the surface expression of subsidence caused by reservoir
compaction (subsidence [S] and surface expression radius [r]). The curved lines define the
predicted r/H and S/H ratios for measured D/R ratios between 0.2 3.0. Only the 0.2 and 3.0
values are labeled in the figure.

Re-leveling surveys of southern Louisiana within the past 40 years (i.e. that reported in
Shinkle and Dokka [2004]) measured subsidence rates up to 23 mm yr-1, averaging between 8
and 12 mm yr-1 near hydrocarbon production fields (Morton et al., 2006; Morton et al., 2005;
Morton et al., 2002). The highest rates of subsidence were measured during or soon after (within
5 years) of peak hydrocarbon production (Figure 14). The magnitude of these observations are
reproduced by analytical and numerical modeling of hydrocarbon withdrawal and reservoir
compaction in coastal Louisiana, supporting their validity (Chan and Zoback, 2007; Mallman
and Zoback, 2007). Numerical modeling has been unable to correlate local areas of extremely
high subsidence with fault slip induced by changes in geopressure associated with hydrocarbon
production (Chan and Zoback, 2007).

Meckel (2008) reviewed the connection between total groundwater withdrawal (including
that used for municipal use) and subsidence in southern Louisiana. Groundwater withdrawal has
been linked to high rates of subsidence in other areas such as Houston, Texas, and Mexico City.
He found that only heavily populated areas near New Orleans experienced groundwater
withdrawal rates large enough to likely cause subsidence rates near that observed during the re-
leveling surveys. Because the high subsidence rates extended well beyond that area, he
concluded that groundwater withdrawal was likely not an influential process.

21
Figure 14: Natural gas, oil, and water withdrawal and Rates of Land loss in coastal Louisiana.
After Morton et al. (2005).

Summary:
Regions that experienced high rates of fluid withdrawal due to hydrocarbon production
have been spatially correlated to areas of high subsidence as reflected in re-leveling data
in coastal Louisiana since the 1950s.
Subsurface fluid withdrawal causes a loss of pore pressure in the underground reservoirs
which increases the effective stress borne by reservoir sediments and accelerates
consolidation processes.
Subsurface fluid withdrawal destabilizes existing gradients of geopressure locally which
may initiate slip in nearby fault zones.
Near hydrocarbon production fields peak subsidence rates have reached 23 mm yr-1 (1 in
yr-1) and average between 8 to 12 mm yr-1 ( ~ 0.5 in yr-1) in southern Louisiana.

6. Surface Water Drainage & Management

Overview:
Changes in surface water storage and drainage patterns primarily influence subsidence
rates by altering gradients of soil moisture (Deverel and Rojstaczer, 1996; Kool et al., 2006;
Wosten et al., 1997). By changing the course of natural drainages, landscapes that evolved as
wetlands are decoupled from their water supply while previously dry areas become inundated. A
large component of subsidence in organic rich soils (i.e. peat) is produced from the
decomposition of soil organic carbon. Soil organic carbon is oxidized into gas from exposure to

22
atmospheric oxygen and decomposed by biological processes which reduce its volume in the soil
matrix (Figure 15). The rate in which decomposition takes place is reduced with soil moisture
and increased with soil temperature (Deverel and Rojstaczer, 1996). Saturated soil near Earths
surface commonly experiences cooler maximum temperatures than that unsaturated. Therefore,
dewatering previously saturated or partially saturated soils will increase the potential rate of
decomposition of soil organics which will, in turn, increase the potential rate of subsidence.
Additionally, the magnitude of the organic material entering the soil matrix is influenced by soil
moisture as water-rich, riparian zones produce greater biomass than dryer areas. Dewatering soil
also initiates the sediment consolidation process described in the fluid withdrawal section of this
text.

Figure 15: Subsidence due to dewatering wetlands. Marshland (shown in its natural state in A.)
is drained and decoupled from its natural water supply. The water table is lowered (B.), exposing
soil organics, initially established in saturated soil, to higher concentrations of atmospheric
oxygen which enhances the rate of decomposition and oxidation. The loss of soil organics
decreases the soil volume which promotes compaction and subsidence. Modified from Mount
and Twiss (2005).

Subsidence Mechanism:
Surface water drainage and management is not by itself a mechanism from which
subsidence occurs. However, it includes the human initiation and control of environmental
processes that cause subsidence, similar to fluid withdrawal described in the previous subsection.
As soil organics decompose, the organic carbon oxidizes (combines with atmospheric oxygen)
into carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The produced CO2 gas is mobile compared to solid soil organics
and may evacuate the soil matrix for the atmosphere (Gambolati et al., 2003). The loss of soil
carbon results in a net loss of soil mass and an increase in porosity. Consolidation of porous soil
in time results in a loss of soil volume and subsidence (Deverel and Rojstaczer, 1996; Price and
Schlotzhauer, 1999). Removing or decreasing the supply of water into a soil matrix will increase
the rate of soil organic carbon oxidation by increasing the amount of oxygen in the soil. The
increased soil porosity and decreased hydrostatic pressure resulting from the removal of soil
water, increases the relative overburden pressure within the soil matrix promoting consolidation
(Ewing and Vepraskas, 2006; Wosten et al., 1997). Furthermore, the decay of organic matter by

23
biological processes (i.e. microbial decay) occurs at a faster rate in partially or seasonally
saturated conditions rather than in continually saturated conditions (van Asselen et al., 2009).

Observations:
Subsidence related to soil dewatering has been primarily measured by local topographic
surveys in field studies investigating the effects of draining wetlands for agricultural use (e.g.
Deveral and Rojstaczer, 1996; Stephens and Speir, 1969). These studies have a regional spatial
scale (uniform physiography, area on the order of tens of square meters to square kilometers) and
have study periods ranging from years to multiple decades. Mean subsidence rates observed in
studies specially examining the effects of dewatering soil on subsidence range within the orders
of 0.1 10.0 mm yr-1. In some areas of high soil organic content, the majority of the observed
subsidence has been attributed to carbon oxidization (Deverel and Rojstaczer, 1996; Mount and
Twiss, 2005; Wosten et al., 1997). In such areas, subsidence rates were found to decrease in time
as the mass of soil carbon is depleted due to oxidation after initial dewatering (Ewing and
Vepraskas, 2006; Wosten et al., 1997). There has been little specific research on the role of
oxidation of soil organic carbon in coastal Louisiana and its influence on local subsidence rates
are not known.

Dixon et al. (2006a) derived a spatially dense array of subsidence rates for the metro area
of New Orleans, Louisiana over a three year period (2002 2005) using remotely sensed satellite
measurements (i.e. interferometric synthetic aperture radar). They found subsidence rates
ranging from no subsidence to 29.0 mm yr-1 locally. Analysis of their data showed that the areas
that displayed the highest rates of subsidence had experienced the most recent development and
had likely experienced more recent manipulation of their surface water drainage.

Summary:

Modifying surface water drainages alters soil water moisture. In soils with high organic
content, changes in soil moisture may affect subsidence rates.
The rate of land subsidence due to the decomposition and oxidation of soil organics
decreases with soil water content.
Subsidence rates due to the oxidation of soil organics are highly variable and have been
observed to span two orders of magnitude 0.1 to 10.0 mm yr-1 ( 0.4 - 4.0 in. per century).
Historical development in coastal Louisiana was responsible for draining large areas of
wetlands. These areas are likely subject to high subsidence rates as discussed in this
section.

24
7. Section II. Summary

The six processes discussed in this section are those most linked to coastal subsidence in
contemporary scientific studies. Each process produces a range of subsidence rates dependent on
local environmental factors and each process occurs across a unique set of scales (Figure 16).

Figure 16: The temporal and spatial scales of the different processes contributing to subsidence
and relative sea-level rise. Each process spans a unique distribution of temporal and spatial
scales. Further, for each scale, each process may contribute to the net observed subsidence at
different rates. At some scales, a specific process may not be relevant at all. The time scales
defined in this diagram are approximately quantified as instantaneous = 0 1 yr, management =
1 20 yrs, Anthropocene = 20 400 years (for Louisiana), and geologic = >400 years, although
the defined timescales would entail overlap.

Each process contributes at rates spanning from less than a millimeter per year to over 10.0
millimeters per year (~4.0 in. per century) in some locations. It is important to note they are not
all completely distinct phenomenon and many share common mechanics or characteristics.
Together they combine to produce the observed rates of subsidence in coastal Louisiana. In some
cases it is possible to differentiate the effects of one process from the others at a given location;
however, in some cases it is likely not. Specific measurement techniques employed in subsidence
research record subsidence within a select range of spatial and temporal scales. This tendency to
selectively measure subsidence at specific scales makes certain measurement techniques more
efficient at recording particular subsidence processes than others. If the tendencies for process-
25
selective measurement are well understood for each technique, their results can be analyzed in
the context that they are reporting subsidence caused by the processes sharing similar scales and
not reporting the subsidence with vastly different scales. It may be in this way the effects of
individual subsidence processes are best differentiated. The next section discusses the different
techniques commonly employed in subsidence research and the spatial and temporal scales they
best record subsidence.

Range of Identified Rates Representative Area


Process
(mm yr-1) Affected
coastal regions, continental
Tectonic 0.1 20.0
margins, Holocene delta
Holocene Sediment Holocene delta, lower
1.0 5.0
Compaction Mississippi River valley
Holocene delta, lower
Sediment Loading 1.0 8.0
Mississippi River valley
Fluid Withdrawal up to 23 coastal regions
G.I.A. 0.6 2.0 Gulf region
Hydrological Management 0.1 10.0 developed wetlands

Table 1: The range of subsidence rates and affected area of associated subsidence processes. The
precision of these values vary between processes because the subsidence rates associated with
each processes are determined at different resolutions. Due to this difference, comparative values
are only possible in very general terms, such as value ranges (as opposed to mean values) and
broad geographic areas.

III. Methods of Subsidence Measurement

Contemporary subsidence research employs a wide range of measurement and analytical


methods. Each method contains of its own set of assumptions, precision, and uncertainty. It is
important to understand these factors when interpreting research observations and when
comparing values of different research projects with one another. Further, knowing the range of
spatial and temporal scales that each technique best measures helps determine if it is selectively
recording the effects of specific subsidence processes which occur at those scales and not
measuring processes occurring at different scales. Below is a brief description of the most
commonly used subsidence measurement methods in coastal Louisiana.

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1. Re-leveling Survey

A time series of re-leveling surveys documenting the vertical position of monumented


benchmarks in respect to a stable vertical datum provides a precise measurement of subsidence.
Subsidence is derived as a negative (downward) change in vertical position of one benchmark as
compared to another. A change in the vertical position of a benchmark is attributed to a change
in Earths subsurface below the benchmark, measured as a vertical distance in reference to the
datum. The net change between two measurements in time is the net subsidence (or alternatively
uplift if the distance between the benchmark and datum increases). By dividing the net
subsidence by the time period between the measurements, the subsidence takes the form of a
displacement length per unit time, a rate. Surveys conducted with proper regard to geodetic
leveling standards (in terms of measurement methodology and survey network geometry) can
produce differential vertical measurements with sub-millimeter precision between two points
(Shinkle and Dokka, 2004).

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Geodetic Survey


(NOAA/NGS) is responsible for defining and maintaining a National Spatial Reference System
which historically included the national network of geodetic benchmarks from which re-leveling
surveys are based. However, most of these physical terrestrial landmarks are currently
unmaintained. Traditional leveling survey methods relied on line-of-sight measurements
requiring densely sampled transects to extrapolate a relative position from a stable datum. The
actual stability of the datums was never precisely known as they were often terrestrial
monuments subject to movement from large scale processes (e.g., continental drift, soil creep)
within the lithosphere or tidal datums. Tidal datums are not inherently stable due to the natural
variability found in sea-level as a result of environmental cycles and eustasy. Currently, NGS is
establishing a national height moderation program that creates a National Spatial Reference
System based on Continuously Operating Reference System/Global Positioning System
(CORS/GPS) rather than physical topographical benchmarks (www.ngs.noaa.gov/heightmod).
This system creates an effectively stable datum, although it is decoupled from the surface of the
Earth.

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: Re-leveling surveys measure point subsidence that is often combined with other
nearby measurements (in linear transects) to estimate horizontal gradients in subsidence that can
span kilometers.

Temporal: Re-leveling survey data are collected during survey campaigns. The
reoccurrence interval of a survey campaign is on the order of decades because of the
requirements of labor.

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2. Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)

A continuously operating reference station (CORS) is an instrument employing a global


positioning system (GPS) designed to measure and record a continuous record of its three
dimensional GPS position at a fixed location. Louisiana is currently monitored by over 40 CORS
instruments from two networks under the supervision of NGS, the National CORS/ LSU
GULFNet network run by NGS and Louisiana State University, and the Cooperative CORS
network run by a collection of independent agencies that meet NGS specifications. CORS
records position measurements at 30 second intervals that may be re-sampled into longer
measurements. The vertical accuracies of the measurements are dependent on the length of the
dataset collected at a specific location, increasing in time. The net accuracy of a GPS
measurement is dependent on the instrumentation, user, and local physiography and may be less
than 2.0 cm in elevation measurements at sites with long measurement records.

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: CORS record long-term point measurement of subsidence at a fixed location.
CORS networks can estimate fields of subsidence at a regional scale within the continental
United States. The density of the network is expanding over time.

Temporal: CORS datasets consist of near continuous measurements and are primarily
less than a decade in length due to their recent development.

3. Tide Gauge

A network of tide gauges has recorded relative sea-level rise (RSLR) in coastal Louisiana
since the late 1930s. Two long term gauges operated by the National Ocean Service (NOS),
located on Grand Isle and Eugene Island were part of the National Water Level Observation
Network (NWLON). The Grand Isle gauge was moved 1.4 km in 1982 and Eugene Island gauge
has recently been discontinued. NWLON gauges are intended for the long-term continuous
monitoring of local sea-level and are used to derive U.S. tidal datums. NWLON data are
routinely used in scientific research on sea-level. NOAA publishes sea-level elevation trends
from NWLON gauges when datasets become of sufficient size (~ 35 years) to meet prescribed
error standards. Seven additional tide gauges in Louisiana are now run as part of the NWLON
network but have not been in operation long enough to establish an accurate datum. These
gauges are located at USCG New Canal (Lake Pontchartrain), Shell Beach at Lake Borgne,
Southwest Pass, Amerada Pass in Atchafalaya Bay, Freshwater Canal, Lake Charles, and
Calcasieu Pass. There are two other tide gauges operated by NOS located at Cocodrie and
Venice, LA; however, they have significantly shorter records of data (~ 20 yrs). The USACE

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operates a network of 192 tide gauges in Louisiana (Fearnley et al., unpublished). The USACE
tide gauge data was primarily intended for river navigation and engineering applications,
requiring relatively less precision as compared to NWLON gauges. USACE gauges historically
measure sea-level at one time per day (~ 8:00 am) and were subject to frequent changes in
location. The USACE is currently increasing the precision of their tide gauge database (Frost,
2008); however, it is not currently used for scientific purposes.

In coastal Louisiana, measurements of relative sea-level computed by tide gauges contain


a eustatic and subsidence component. The eustatic component records the rise in sea-level due an
increased volume of water within the worlds oceans. Eustatic sea-level rise is primarily caused
by the increase in sea volume due to thermal expansion and from the melt-water from long term
glacier, ice sheet, and snowpack storage (Cabanes et al., 2001). While this rate may be slightly
variable throughout the world, regionally (i.e. along the U.S. Gulf of Mexico) it may be
considered uniform. The global mean eustatic sea-level rise (ESLR) is currently considered to be
near 3.0 mm yr-1 (Church and White, 2006; IPCC, 2007). The subsidence component is a
measure of the rate of topographic lowering compared to stable vertical datum, computed as the
residual of the relative sea-level rise and the eustatic sea-level rise. If the eustatic sea-level rise is
known, a subsidence rate can therefore be calculated from tide gauge measurements. The mean
RSLR values measured at the Grand Isle and Eugene Island tide gauges are 9.85 mm yr-1 and
9.74 mm yr-1, respectfully (Zervas, 2001). Subtracting the ESLR from the RSLR defines local
subsidence rates of 8.15 and 8.04 mm yr-1.

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: Tide gauges record point measurements of relative sea-level rise from which
total subsidence can be partitioned. Tide gauge networks can estimate subsidence at a regional
scale along coastal United States.

Temporal: The length of tide gauge records may span decades to over a century. Tide
gauges take daily measurements that are often extrapolated into month and annual average
values. The precise calculation of a tidal datum requires a measurement period surpassing a
predetermined measurement epoch from which natural tidal fluctuations can be determined. A
tidal epoch lasts 19 years, although shorter time periods (e.g. 5 years) are used in regions
experiencing large rates of relative sea-level rise (such as coastal Louisiana).

4. InSAR

Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a remote sensing technique used to


measure displacement from a time series of derived topographical surfaces. Commonly

29
employed from a satellite, radar waves are targeted at a swath of Earth with a known location
which reflects at variable values of intensity and phase (Sabins, 1996). The phase is a property of
the radar wave that is dependent on its travel distance. Repeated measurements of phase returns
from a surface can differentiate changes in the relative distance between the surface and the
sensor (Sabins, 1996). The position of a satellite in orbit is very well constrained so any change
in distance must reflect a change in topography, such as subsidence. The accuracy of InSAR is
dependent on the sensor, image processing methods, and the atmospheric conditions when the
measurements were acquired (Dixon et al., 2006b; Sabins, 1996). The maximum measurement
precision reported for current InSAR measurements of subsidence ranges between 2.0 and 3.0
mm (Buckley et al., 2003; Dixon et al., 2006b).

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: InSAR calculates field-based values of subsidence based on repeat
measurements of topography. Typically, the spatial extent of InSAR studies span the local to
regional levels (e.g. urban centers), ranging from 10 100 km2 (4 40 mi2).

Temporal: InSAR computes subsidence between two separate measurements of


topography in time. Measurements employing InSAR exist for only specific regions over the past
decade.

5. Sediment Elevation Tables

Sediment elevation tables (SETs) are stationary instruments installed into marshland to
measure shallow subsidence (that within approximately 0 5.0 meters of the topographical
surface). A bench pipe (~ 6.1 m long) is driven vertically into the marsh sediments by sledge
hammer or vibracore to a depth of 3 to 5 m, ideally penetrating to a highly compacted, stable
layer of Holocene marsh sediments. An arm extends horizontally out from the bench pipe that
can be rotated laterally into four or eight fixed positions around the circumference of the pipe.
The arm can be adjusted with respect to a bubble-level to ensure it is plumb with the bench pipe
and measurements are consistently taken in the same place over time. The end of the arm has a
plate parallel to the ground that holds 9 adjustable pins that extend vertically downward. To
record a measurement, each pin is set so the bottom tip touches the topographical surface below.
The length of the extension of the pin from the leveled arm to the topographical surface is
recorded and averaged with the measurements from the eight other pins to produce a singular
mean length at each preset position around the pipe. Shallow subsidence is assumed if the
distance between the leveled arm and topographical surface becomes greater in time. These
measurements allow an accuracy of 2.0 mm of elevation change (Cahoon et al., 1995).

30
Additionally, marker horizons (such as feldspar) can be applied to the marsh surface to establish
a dated surface datum for future measurements of subsidence or accretion.

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: Sediment elevation tables (SETs) record point measurements of subsidence. SET
networks may produce subsidence values extrapolated to the local marsh level.

Temporal: SETs compute total shallow subsidence between two separate measurements
in time. Generally, > 5 yrs of measurements are required to differentiate subsidence from random
environmental variability. SET databases in coastal Louisiana may span a decade.

6. Peat Chronostratigraphy

Current methods in peat chronostratigraphy rely on accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)


radiocarbon dating to determine the formation date of a buried peat horizon within a stratigraphic
column. The peat is assumed to have formed at near contemporaneous sea-level in marsh-like
environments. Knowledge of the elevation of historical sea-levels in relation to the age of the
peat can then be used to determine the initial elevation of the peat horizon at the time of its
formation. The vertical displacement between the initial peat elevation and its modern elevation
is assumed to have been a result of subsidence in the underlying substrate. A mean subsidence
rate is calculated by dividing the total displacement by the time interval between the formation
age of the peat and the present. This value attributes a singular mean subsidence rate for the peat
horizon since the period of its formation; however, it is likely the actual subsidence rate was not
uniform in time (Tornqvist et al., 2008).

Peat chronostratigraphy employs AMS radiocarbon dating to determine the concentration


of Carbon-14 in the organic matter located within the peat matrix. The relative concentration of
Carbon-14 is an indicator of the length in which the organic material has been in decay. AMS
radiocarbon dating extracts approximate age data from less organic material than traditional
radiocarbon dating and is therefore subject to greater error because there is a greater chance the
dated material does not represent the age of the surrounding material. Measuring multiple
samples from one location reduces this error. Modern use of AMS radiocarbon to date basal peat
in subsidence studies assumes temporal uncertainties of approximately 200 years (e.g. Gonzalez
and Tornqvist, 2006; Tornqvist et al., 2008).

31
Scales of measurement:
Spatial: Peat chronostratigraphy records point measurements (usually taken as sediment
cores) that can be combined with other nearby measurements to extrapolate local areas of
subsidence if the underlying geology is known.

Temporal: Peat chronostratigraphy produces mean rates of subsidence constrained by the


period in time for which dateable peat is available (> 100 BP) and by the assumptions of
radiocarbon dating.

7. Extensometers

As used in geotechnical engineering, an extensometer (sometimes spelled extensiometer)


is a stationary instrument that measures subsidence in time at a single location. Extensometers
consist of a vertical shaft (on the order of > 10.0 m deep, ~ 0.10 m in diameter) encased with a
metal tube. A thin metal rod or wire passes through the tube and is anchored at the bottom of the
well in cement. The rod or wire extends to the surface where it is attached to a device that
calculates the distance from the bottom of the rod or wire to the topographical surface on which
it rests. As subsidence occurs, the length of the rod or wire between the bottom of the well and
the measurement device at the surface becomes smaller. Extensometers report subsidence that
occurs between the bottom of the well, which can range in depth, to the topographical surface
with a vertical accuracy near 3.0 can mm (CA DWR, 2009).

Scales of measurement:
Spatial: Extensometers record point based measurements of subsidence.

Temporal: Extensometers measure near continuous subsidence during the period of


instrumentation.

8. Section III. Summary

There are many different ways in which subsidence is currently measured. Each
technique or method measures subsidence that occurs over a specific area and over a specific
time period (Figure 17). The subsidence rate derived from any one method is heavily influenced
by the specific spatial and temporal scales measured. Measurements recording subsidence
resulting from a process that fluctuates in time over a long time period will likely incorporate

32
both periods of high and low rates into an average value. This average value accurately reflects
the long term geologic subsidence rate but may not be indicative of subsidence rates occurring at
shorter time scales (e.g. at the management time scale) (Meckel, 2008). Measurements recording
a shorter time period are more likely to only capture a time period of either low or high
subsidence rates and may not provide reliable data depending on the accuracies and assumptions
associated with the measurement technique. Such measurements define subsidence more
appropriate to management time scales but do not adequately represent the long term geologic
rate. It is important that the scale in which a subsidence rate is measured is considered when
interpreting its results. Extensometers, SETs, and CORS record subsidence at small spatial scales
while peat chronostratigraphy, InSAR, and Re-leveling surveys take measurements over a much
broader area.

Figure 17: The temporal and spatial scales of subsidence measurement methods. The techniques
used to calculate of subsidence each record and measure specific spatial and temporal scales. The
ability for each technique to record subsidence changes at different scales. Some techniques are
only applicable for the measurement of specific subsidence processes.

Figure 18 illustrates how the temporal scale of measurement may affect the magnitude of
the observed subsidence rate. The plots display instantaneous and temporally averaged
subsidence rates produced by faulting and sediment compaction for a hypothetical location in
coastal Louisiana. The top plot displays a scenario where subsidence due to sediment

33
compaction steadily decreases in time after its initiation at 1000 yrs BP (perhaps in response to
dewatering). Also, within the scenario faulting causes subsidence for a brief period between 700
and 900 yrs BP. Averaged over the time interval 100 yrs BP to 1000 yrs BP (time interval C.)
both subsidence processes share a similar rate (i.e. 5 mm yr-1). However, averaged over different
time intervals (A. and B.), the subsidence rates are quite different.

Figure 18: A hypothetical scenario including subsidence caused by faulting and sediment
compaction. The top plot displays the mean instantaneous subsidence rate at 100 yr time
intervals. The bottom plot displays the average value for each type of subsidence computed for
time periods of increasing lengths. The time periods increase from left to right on the x-axis,
starting at the axis origin, 100 yrs BP (a 100 yr time period) and extend at 100 yr intervals to
1000 yrs BP (a 1000 yr time period). The plot values are computed as the net subsidence that
occurred in each time period divided by the length of the time period. For example, 800 yrs BP
the instantaneous subsidence rate attributed to faulting was 50 mm yr-1(top plot). The bottom plot
illustrates that the average subsidence rate attributed to faulting for the period 100 yrs BP to 800
yrs BP was 6.25 mm yr-1 (i.e. the net subsidence that occurred during that time period, 5 m,
divided by the length of the time period, 800 years, equals 6.25 mm of subsidence per year).

34
The different measurement techniques also record subsidence occurring at different
depths, in terms of the total range of depths as well as where within the Earths lithosphere it can
detect subsidence (Figure 19). Further, some methods such as CORS and extensometers record
subsidence at near continuous intervals while other methods produce an average rate of
subsidence based on a displacement distance that occurred over a known time period (which can
be short, in the case of InSAR, or much longer, in the case of peat chronostratigraphy). Because
the processes that produce subsidence occur at specific spatial and temporal scales, proper
measurement should use methods that record subsidence over the same range of scales.

The most effective methodologies to monitor and measure subsidence in the future will
likely include an integrated approach, employing multiple measurement techniques. This
discussion examined each technique independently for simplicity. There are present monitoring
programs that couple techniques, such that combining measurements made with sediment
elevation tables and tide gauges with CORS measurements to reference local subsidence
observations to a universal datum. Future efforts will be required to integrate the multitude of
subsidence data collected using different techniques into a comprehensive database with
comparable and complementary values. Such a database would be useful in constructing a map
of our knowledge of the spatial gradients and patterns of subsidence.

35
Figure 19: Examples of the different displacement distances each measurement technique uses to
infer subsidence within Earths lithosphere. Extensometers and SETs assume the subsidence
occurs with these depths while the other techniques assume the subsidence occurs below (Table
2).

36
Theoretical Depth Subsidence Processes
Method Displacement Measured
Measured Measured
Tectonic, sediment
Re-leveling between two benchmarks Depth below benchmark loading, Fluid
withdrawal, & GIA.
between instrument and Tectonic, sediment
CORS geodetic datum (i.e. NAVD Depth below benchmark loading, Fluid
88) withdrawal, & GIA.
Temporally averaged tidal
Between tidal datum and
Tide Gauge height relative to a nearby Relative sea-level rise.
depth of benchmark
benchmark

the land surface in a time


InSAR Depth below land surface All.
series of images

Holocene sediment
Between land surface and Between land surface and
SETs compaction, Surface
depth of SET/benchmark depth of SET/benchmark
water drainage.
Holocene sediment
Peat Relative vertical Between peat horizon and
compaction, relative
Chronostrat. displacement of peat horizon historical Sea-level
sea-level rise.
Holocene sediment
Between land surface and well Between land surface and
Extensometer compaction, Fluid
bottom well bottom
withdrawal.

Table 2: Measurement characteristics of techniques used in subsidence research.

IV. Implications

Subsidence will affect each resource management project differently dependent on the
projects temporal and spatial scale (i.e. life expectancy and footprint). Each project will have its
own life expectancy over which it is expected to effectively achieve a specific function. Some
projects can still be considered effective if the level of function produced changes over time
while others, such as levee protection system, are normally expected to perform at a specific
level for their entire lifespan. Likewise, the physical footprint of resource management projects
varies according to their purpose and expected outcome. These temporal and spatial scales and

37
their location within the coastal landscape determine how susceptible different projects are to the
effects of subsidence.

If a project has a designed life expectancy much less than the time scale it takes
subsidence to reduce the projects effectiveness, then the effects of subsidence may be
disregarded - otherwise its effects should be considered in the project design and maintenance
schedule. Further, as different subsidence processes occur at different timescales (as discussed in
Section 2), the observed effect of subsidence on a management project will depend on the
similarities between the temporal scale of each subsidence process affecting the project and the
projects life expectancy and objective. Likewise, the relationship between a resource projects
spatial scale and the spatial scale of each subsidence process dictates how susceptible a specific
project is to each subsidence process. For example, if the footprint of a project is much less than
the spatial scale at which a subsidence process affects the coast, the project may be uniformly
affected by that subsidence process. However, larger projects may be differentially affected by
subsidence processes. The effect of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) does not change
significantly throughout southern Louisiana. It would likely have a uniform effect on all projects
across the coast. In contrast, local drainage and dewatering can alter the magnitude and
variability of local subsidence rates (through sediment compaction, etc.) over areas smaller than
the footprint of many management projects. In such a case, the spatial variation of the subsidence
rates must be considered in the project design because different areas of the project will
experience different effects from the subsidence.

To illustrate how the spatial and temporal scales of different resource management
projects influence the way each project is impacted by subsidence, four examples of how
management projects are impacted by subsidence are discussed. Each example includes a brief
description of one type of management project, its susceptibility to subsidence, and an overview
of how the impact of subsidence on that type of project is currently accounted for by relevant
management agencies.

1. Levee and Flood Gate Construction.

Project Characteristics
Levee and flood gate construction refers here to the design and construction of new
protection levees and flood gates as well as the maintenance of existing systems. The
construction of new levee and flood gates entails building entirely new structures while
maintenance is assumed to include increasing levee height or building supplemental structures.
Building a new levee or structure introduces a new load to a relatively natural undisturbed
environment. Depending on the setting, natural drainage patterns may be altered through

38
pumping and/or channelization of flow. Alternatively, levee maintenance introduces additional
load to an already altered substrate environment. Geographically, levee projects are essentially
linear features that may span kilometers in length. Flood gates have relatively small spatial
footprints located within a levee system. The design lifespan for levee systems and flood gates is
relatively long (usually at least 50 years).

Levee and flood gate design requires a precisely defined relationship between the
elevation of the structure at any location and the surface elevation of the adjacent terrestrial and
water surfaces. Any future failure of these systems would lead to catastrophic damage and
therefore projects are designed with the expectation of no loss of effectiveness over the project
lifespan, and maintenance requirements are planned at the outset. The large spatial and temporal
scales in which levee systems operate make it probable they will be affected by subsidence. To
prevent a loss of protection effectiveness over time they are generally designed with safety
factors high enough to account for some uncertainties.

Susceptibility to Subsidence:
The load of the levee structure or load of additional material introduced for maintenance
or improvement purposes will increase the stress on the underlying soil likely increasing
compaction related subsidence. The actual compaction will be related to the load of the previous
structure if present, the load of the new structure, the timing in which each load was introduced,
as well as the geotechnical properties of the underlying soil. Levee structures that change local
drainage patterns can also increase sediment compaction due to the oxidation of soil organics.
The size of a levee system increases the likelihood that it may span across a fault zone or an area
affected by hydrocarbon production. If the levee system spans a fault zone it may be subject to
subsidence if there is downward displacement of the downthrown block. If the system spans an
area that historically experienced hydrocarbon withdrawal it may be subject to subsidence due to
underlying reservoir compaction.

Because levee and flood gate designs are made to a high degree of precision relative to
the majority of other coastal management projects, they are more generally susceptible to the
effects of subsidence.

Current Design & Maintenance Strategies.


In modern levee and flood gate design, the effects of subsidence (that due the processes
discussed in this text) are differentiated from the effects of the natural settlement (sediment
consolidation) of the underlying soil due to the project (subsidence that occurs in direct response
to the project implementation, i.e. the imposed load of the engineered feature and the surface
disturbance due to construction). The effects of settlement are predicted by employing well

39
established methods that are dependent on geotechnical measurements of the underlying soil.
These measurements are usually from borings made within the project area. Levees and flood
gate design accounts for subsidence in southern Louisiana, through less established practices
including enhanced safety specifications (overdesign). Federal levees constructed and maintained
by the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) add an additional 2 ft (0.61 m) to the design
height of a levee system specifically to mitigate the effects of future height loss due to
subsidence. However, in most cases this additional height is not calculated on the basis of local
expected subsidence rates.

Flood gates are designed to withstand similar hydraulic forces as levees and are anchored
on a deeper foundation. Local settlement is predicted based on local geotechnical measurements
in general the geotechnical information obtained to support the planning of flood gates is more
spatially dense than that used for levees.

Management agencies continuously monitor levee systems and flood gates for damage
subsidence related damage and make design adjustments as needed rather than to design and
maintain them to s predetermined life expectancy.

2. Barrier Island Restoration

Project Characteristics
Barrier island restoration alters island morphology in an attempt to improve barrier
integrity over time and to provide specific habitats. Barrier islands evolve in time as part of the
natural delta cycle; however, anthropogenic manipulations to the Mississippi River have retarded
key components of the cycle, and most islands in coastal Louisiana are now degrading. Barrier
islands naturally evolve through the erosion of the seaward face and deposition of sediments
along its landward side, resulting in landward translation. If the erosion and deposition
approximate each other, the relative size of the island remains unaffected. However, the dredging
of inlets and canals along the coast has disrupted natural sediment movements. This disruption
has led to a decrease in the sediment supplied to barrier islands, making them more susceptible to
net erosion, especially during storms. Most approaches to barrier island restoration involve the
periodic augmentation of island sediments. The introduced sediments are often dredged from
offshore sand bodies. Methods exist to increase the retention of the introduced sediment on the
islands such as sand dune construction (which increases island height and decreases the
frequency of over-wash) and by establishing island vegetation (which stabilizes sand dunes and
aids the development of back barrier marshes on the landward side of each island). However,
such methods cannot eliminate island erosion this would require an increase in the natural
sediment supply to the island. Because of the barrier islands are constantly evolving, restoration
40
projects often have relatively short design life expectancies (i.e. <20 years) before additional
restoration is likely required. Due to the difficulty of predicting island change over time,
maintenance of the restored footprint and configuration is rarely planned in advance.

Susceptibility to Subsidence
Barrier island restoration requires the introduction of sediments to the island footprint..
The introduced sediments are usually delivered during a single discrete time interval. The sudden
deposition of a large load of sediment is usually followed by a period of sediment consolidation
which peaks soon after the initial placement and decreases in time. In addition, the introduced
sediment may promote further sediment compaction and subsidence by increasing the stress on
the underlying material leading to sediment compression. Local sediment compaction rates are
dependent on the thickness of the new sediment deposited which determines the depth of the
original underlying sediments susceptible to compaction.

Barrier islands located at the delta margins in the Barataria and Terrebonne Basins
overlie the thickest package of Holocene sediments in the Delta Plain and likely experience large
rates of subsidence caused by multiple processes (e.g., Holocene sediment compaction, sediment
loading). These subsidence processes coupled with eustatic sea-level rise produce rates of
relative sea-level rise near 10 mm yr-1 (Zervas, 2001). Such high rates may affect restoration
projects even with short life expectancies and should be factored into the design criteria.

The relatively large spatial scale of a barrier island restoration project, similar to a levee
system, makes it susceptible to a wide range of subsidence processes and increases the likelihood
that the project will be in close proximity to a fault zone. However, the short life-expectancy
makes it less likely that a fault zone will experience significant slip that would affect the barrier
island restoration project objectives.

Current Design & Maintenance Strategies.


Barrier island restoration projects are limited by the availability of new sand supplies
used to augment the original island sand volume. Sea bed sources of sand are rare and those
close to shore are becoming depleted, contributing to an increasing interest in using riverine
sediments for barrier restoration projects.

The sand volume requirement for restoration projects are set to ensure a desired dune
height (above current sea-level) and beach slope from which the projects design life-expectancy
is predicted. Subsidence is rarely considered during the dune height calculations because dune
design life-expectancy is shorter than the time period that would be necessary for the design

41
height to be negatively affected by subsidence. For example, the effects of storm surge and wave
attack decrease barrier island profile height at a greater rate than subsidence.

Barrier island restoration may entail the addition of sediments to back marsh areas within
the landward side. This side is generally designed with a lower mean elevation and requires the
establishment of marsh vegetation which can be adversely effected by excessive inundation
increasing its susceptibility to subsidence at shorter time intervals.

3. Mechanical Marsh Creation

Project Characteristics
Mechanical marsh creation is used here to describe projects where new marsh substrate is
created in open water or within deteriorated marsh areas through the introduction of sediment,
raising the local water bottom to an elevation where marsh vegetation can grow. The introduced
sediment is composed of dredged silts and sands and is generally placed at the site within a short
time period (less than a year). Project area can vary from tens of hectares to over a thousand.
Dependent upon the successful establishment of marsh vegetation and local sediment dynamics,
created marshland may maintain an elevation relative to current sea-level despite relative sea-
level rise through the natural sediment and organic material accretion process.

Susceptibility to Subsidence
Newly deposited marsh sediments are subject to high rates of subsidence due to sediment
compaction (primarily by consolidation) as it settles. The rate of sediment compaction decreases
over time with the mean rate dependent on the overall thickness of the deposited marsh
sediments. While the load of marsh sediments may compress underlying sediments, promoting
further compaction, the smaller thickness of sediment load in marsh creation projects (as
compared to the thickness of sediments deposited near land building river diversions) causes
relatively smaller compression rates. However, where new sediment is deposited on top of
preexisting, organic-rich marsh substrate, sediment compaction rates may be high compared to
areas with little soil organic content (i.e. near barrier islands) due to the additional biological and
chemical compaction processes that affect soil organics.

The relative small spatial scale of marsh creation projects make it less likely that it will
be significantly affected by the same multitude of subsidence processes as larger projects. The
temporal scale of marsh creation projects is variable, influenced by the ability of the marsh
substrate to promote accretion rates comparable to relative sea-level rise. As the marsh lifespan

42
increases the period it may be impacted by subsidence processes likewise increases. This is
especially true for subsidence processes that occur discontinuous in time (i.e. tectonics/ fault-
slip).

Current Design & Maintenance Strategies.


Similar to levee design, mechanical marsh design procedures consider the effect of
sediment settlement and the associated subsidence. Borings are taken to measure the
geotechnical properties of the underlying soil and those data are incorporated into the design
specifications. Subsidence unrelated to consolidation is usually disregarded in the design which
seeks to attain an elevation relative to the current sea-level at the time on construction.
Once implemented, marsh creation projects are expected to be self sustaining, through
natural sediment deposition and organic accumulation, and little maintenance work is usually
planned.

4. Land Building through River Diversion.

Project Characteristics
Land building through river diversions aims to raise the elevation of adjacent water
bottoms to an elevation where vegetation can grow through the deposition of introduced riverine
sediments. River water and sediments are routed through engineered openings within the flood
protection levee into shallow open water to promote land building. This method of sediment
delivery produces a steady supply of sediment to an area, varying seasonally and inter-annually
depending upon the sediment load being carried by the river. This is in contrast to mechanical
marsh creation which introduces large sediment loads at discrete intervals. The major differences
between river diversion projects and mechanical marsh creation are illustrated in Table 3. The
deposition of the sediment can be encouraged by constructing berms to reduce local water
velocity. In addition to sediment, the river water delivers nutrients that may stimulate local
vegetation growth. Over a period of decades, land building through river diversions is expected
to produce square kilometers of new land.

Susceptibility to Subsidence
River diversion projects designed to build land will likely experience similar amounts of
net subsidence as marsh creation; however, it will occur over a longer time period and over a
wider spatial area thus rates are likely to be lower. Much of this subsidence will occur as
sediment compaction. The new sediment load accumulates relatively slowly but may end up

43
orders of magnitude larger than that produced by marsh creation at the completion of the land
building project. In time, the accumulated sediment volume may present enough strain on the
underlying lithosphere to induce subsidence associated with sediment loading.

Table 3: The key differences between mechanical marsh creation and land building river
diversion projects regarding how each may be affected by subsidence.

River diversion projects occur over moderate to large spatial scales where they may be
susceptible to multiple subsidence processes. Possible locations for future diversion projects may
be more constrained than marsh creation projects due to the required proximity to sediment-
laden stream flow making it more difficult to specifically avoid implementing projects in areas
more susceptible to subsidence. River diversion projects have a long life-expectancy which
increases the likelihood that they may be impacted by subsidence processes occurring discretely
in time (i.e. faulting). Also, longer life-spans make it more likely a project will experience
significantly different subsidence rates in time. This may make it necessary to plan for a dynamic
subsidence rate rather than a singular value.

Unlike other management projects with large spatial and temporal scales, such as levee
construction, land building projects may be resilient to moderate rates of subsidence This is due
to their ability to self maintain themselves due to the steady supply of new sediment brought by
the diverted flow.

Current Design & Maintenance Strategies.


The design of river diversion projects has not considered the effects of subsidence
including the effects of sediment consolidation explicitly. Land building due to river diversions
44
occurs at a more gradual pace over a longer time period than the other management projects
leading to a greater probability of and tolerance for variable results.

Similar to mechanical marsh creation, river diversion projects are expected to be


relatively self sustaining and management plans do not necessarily include a maintenance regime
other than any maintenance necessary to maintain operation of the diversion. However, the long
life-expectancy of river diversion projects make it advantageous to monitor project results over
time. Operations may be adjusted to correct evolving problems. For example, diversion openings
and/or flow rates could be increased or decreased in size to control the rate of flow and sediment
diverted.

5. Summary

The four resource management projects discussed serve as examples of how different
projects are designed and maintained at various spatial and temporal scales. These scales play an
influential role on what subsidence processes may affect them and to what degree. Figure 20
illustrates the approximate range of scales from which each project is likely affected. Comparing
this figure to Figure 16 in Section 2, which displays the scales of which each subsidence process
occurs at, offers insight into which processes may significantly affect each project. Subsidence
occurring at larger spatial scales will affect a project in a consistent and uniform manner.
Subsidence occurring at smaller spatial scales may affect a project only in certain areas or
perhaps not at all. Subsidence processes occurring at longer temporal scales likely affect a
project at a steady rate but at a low or insignificant magnitude. Subsidence process occurring at
smaller temporal scales may affect a project for a fraction of its lifespan and at variable
magnitudes - or not at all. Table 4 summarizes the likelihood a specific subsidence process may
significantly affect each of the four discussed management projects.

45
Figure 20: Examples of how coastal resource management projects are planned, managed, and
maintained at a range of scales. Subsidence produces different implications for management at
each scale.

Levee & Floodgate Barrier Island Mechanical Marsh River Diversion


Subsidence Construction Restoration Creation Land Building
Process Project Project Project Project
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
Design Design Design Design
not not not not
GIA likely not likely not likely not likely
likely likely likely likely
Sediment not not not
likely likely not likely not likely likely
Loading likely likely likely
not
Tectonics likely likely likely likely likely likely likely
likely
Sediment
likely likely likely likely likely likely likely likely
Compaction
Fluid not not not
likely likely not likely likely not likely
Withdrawal likely likely likely
Surface
not not not
Water likely likely not likely likely not likely
likely likely likely
Mgmt.

Table 4: The likelihood a subsidence process may significantly affect a management project
based on the similarity of the scales between each processes (Figure 16) and project (Figure 20).
Each project is divided into two intra-project objectives project design and maintenance.

46
6. Future Needs

At present, the resource management community does consider some of the effects of
subsidence on most coastal projects. However, this consideration usually focuses on the more
well-known and consistently influential processes, such as sediment consolidation, while
disregarding those more variable in time and space. This is, in part, due to a lack of information
available to resource managers regarding spatially explicit mechanisms and rates of subsidence.
Also important, project design specifications often consider the contemporary landscape as base-
level from which dynamic environmental values are measured (e.g. elevation, sea-level).
However, the future landscape may be drastically different than it is today, changing the basic
assumptions from which the designs are made. These landscape changes may include the
permanent inundation of certain areas and changes in the current delivery pathways of surface
water and sediment. Such large scale changes are likely improbable in the short term. However,
because coastal Louisiana is experiencing large rates of environmental change and these rates are
expected to increase in the future due to climate change and eustatic sea-level rise, there is a high
degree of uncertainty in both the prediction of the future environmental conditions and the
magnitude and character of future subsidence. Because of this uncertainty, it is likely wise to
consider the full range of future scenarios involving what the coastal environment will be and
how subsidence will impact it.

Current coastal resource management projects neglect the effect of many of the
subsidence processes discussed in this text. For example, the locations of fault zones are rarely
considered when deciding the placement of future project sites. This neglect of many subsidence
processes arises from two main causes, 1) the inconsistent communication of our scientific
understanding of subsidence from researchers to mangers and 2) the lack of subsidence data
readily available for management applications. The primary objective of this document is to help
address the first of these factors.

The coastal resource management community does currently consider some important
aspects of subsidence. For example, sediment consolidation is generally regarded as well
understood and its effects are planned for in engineering and management design. However, it is
possible to help planners incorporate a greater variety of subsidence effects. The geotechnical
measurements obtained by taking soil borings at the site of prospective project sites can likely
offer insight on the areas susceptibility to other subsidence processes beyond consolidation.
However, research on subsidence shows us that this procedure would only be effective if the
density of the borings is greater than the spatial gradient of the affecting subsidence. As
discussed in Section 2, the spatial gradients in which subsidence rates significantly change (i.e.
change in magnitude to a degree that would affect resource management and engineering
projects) are controlled by which subsidence processes affect each area and will vary by location.

47
This serves as a good example of the valuable insights current subsidence research provide and
why it must be communicated effectively to the resource management community.

The construction of graphic maps illustrating the location and spatial variability of the
different subsidence processes in coastal Louisiana would be of great benefit to the resource
management community and may be possible with future research. A major obstacle preventing
such a comprehensive map is that the resolution at which each process is mapped is often very
different from that of other processes. This is because a wide array of measurement techniques
are required to adequately measure the numerous and unique subsidence processes found in
coastal Louisiana, with each technique operating under different assumptions and limitations (as
discussed in Section 3). Often the mappable resolution for a singular process varies from one
study area to another in southern Louisiana because measurement procedures are not
standardized in research, even when the same technique is employed. Such discrepancies must
be reconciled before a seamless map of subsidence can be created that would be useful to the
resource management community. In this regard, an additional objective of this text is to inform
the management community of what is not understood about subsidence in coastal Louisiana and
why.

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