Physics 143a: Quantum Mechanics I Spring 2015, Harvard

Section 9:
Spin and Addition of Angular Momentum
Solutions
Here is a summary of the most important points from this week (with a few of my own tidbits),
relevant for either solving homework problems, or for your general education. This material is covered in
Sections 4.4 of [1].
I The spin of a particle is an abstract quantity. The spin operators Sx,y,z obey an algebra identical
to the theory of angular momentum:
[Sx , Sy ] = i~Sz , [Sy , Sz ] = i~Sx , [Sz , Sx ] = i~Sy . (1)

I An especially important case is spin 1/2. We can write the spin-1/2 spin operators in the Sz basis:
     
~ 0 1 0 i 1 0
Si = i , where x = , y = , z = . (2)
2 1 0 i 0 0 1
The i are called Pauli matrices.
I A particle with spin experiences a Hamiltonian in a magnetic field given by
H = B, = S (3)
For a relativistic particle, we have = q/m, with q the charge and m the mass.
I A classic experiment to detect the quantized nature of the spin of the electron is the Stern-Gerlach
experiment, where a spin is placed in a variable magnetic field, which pushes spin up and spin down
in opposite directions.
I If we have two particles of different spin, and look at the total spin S = S1 + S2 , then the total
S obeys the same commutation relations as in (1). So we can write out states in terms of their
eigenvalues under S2 and Sz , rather than S21,2 and S1,2z :
X
s1 s2 s
|smi = Cm |s m1 , s2 m2 i.
1 m2 m 1
(4)
m1 +m2 =m

The coefficients C are universal and are called Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. They can be found in
Mathematica using the command ClebschGordan[{s1 , m1 }, {s2 , m2 }, {s, m}]. This procedure can
also be inverted: X
s1 s2 s
|s1 m1 , s2 m2 i = Cm 1 m2 m
|smi. (5)

I An important example is the addition of two spin-1/2 states, spanned by the Hilbert space | i,
| i, | i, | i. We get a single spin 0 state:
| i | i
|s = 0i = . (6)
2
And 3 spin 1 states:
| i + | i
|s = 1, Sz = 1i = | i, |s = 1, Sz = 0i = , |s = 1, Sz = 1i = | i. (7)
2

1
Problem 1 (Quantum Random Number Generator): Consider a spin-1/2 state, in an eigenstate of Sx .
(a) What is the operator Sx written in terms of bras and kets of the eigenstates of Sz , |+i and |i? What
are the possible quantum states |i?
Solution: We know from above that
~ ~
Sx = x = (|+ih| + |ih+|) .
2 2
The eigenvalues, the possible states of |i (up to an overall phase) are:
~ |+i + |i ~ |+i |i
+ : |i = |+x i = , : |i = |x i = .
2 2 2 2

(b) We now make a measurement of Sz . What are the possible measurements, what will the quantum
state be after each measurement, and what is the probability of each? Does the answer depend on
|i?
Solution: If we make a measurement of Sz , we must measure the eigenstates of Sz , either |+i or |i:
 1 2 1  1 2 1
   
2 2
P(+) = |h+|x i| =   = .
  P() = |h|x i| =   = .

2 2 2 2
So were equally likely to measure either ~/2. The state after measurement is either |+i or |i.
(c) We now make a measurement of Sx . What are the possible measurements, what will the quantum
state be after each measurement, and what is the probability of each? Are the answers sensitive to
the previous measurement of Sz ?
Solution: If we make a measurement of Sx , we must measure the eigenstates of Sx , either |x i.
But weve already computed that |hx |+i|2 = |hx |+i|2 = 1/2. So were equally likely to measure
Sx = ~/2, and then we get back to the eigenstates of part (a)!
Alternating back and forth between measuring Sx and Sz forms the simplest example of a quantum
random bit generator. Unlike pseudorandom number generators on your computer, say, these numbers
are truly random.
Problem 2 (Mesons and Baryons): In this problem, we will consider some properties of the lighter
elementary particles [2]. Many of the lightest elementary particles can be made up of combining up
quarks (u), down quarks (d), and their anti-particles u and d. These quarks have a mass of mc2 330
MeV (in particle physics, everything is measured in units of MeV, GeV, etc., by tacking on appropriate
factors of ~ and c!). One can model a surprising amount of properties of this particles by supposing
that there is a fictitious spin called isospin, such that the up quark is associated with spin up, and the
down quark is associated with spin down. Rotational invariance in isospin space then provides many
experimentally testable constraints on particle physics, some of which we will explore in this problem.
We begin by considering the mesons, which are made by combining a quark and an antiquark. In
terms of the isospin up and down states, we have the conversion:
|ui |+i, |di |i; |ui |i, |di |+i.
And we have operators Jx , Jy , Jz and J2 , which obey the commutation relations [Jx , Jy ] = iJz (we just
ignore the factors of ~...), and act exactly as angular momentum or spin operators in the theory of angular
momentum, but just switch around up and down isospin states: for example: Jx | i = | i. With these
conversions between isospin and quark states at hand, we can now create mesons by adding together
the isospins of constituent quarks.

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(a) How many mesons would you predict to exist? The physical basis in which we observe elementary
particles is diagonal in J2 and Jz , with J the total isospin.1 What are the eigenvalues of J2 and Jz
for each meson? Write down the quantum states for each particle.
Solution: As in (6) and (7), weve added together two spin 1/2 states, and so we get an isospin 0 state
with eigenvalue J2 = Jz = 0:
|uui + |ddi
|j = 0i = ,
2
and 3 isospin j = 1 states, with eigenvalue J2 = 2:
|uui |ddi
|j = 1, Jz = 1i = |udi, |j = 1, Jz = 0i = , |j = 1, Jz = 1i = |dui.
2
So we have 4 mesons so far.
(b) The electric charge on the up quark is 2e/3, on the down quark is e/3, and the charge on antiquarks
is opposite of on quarks. What are the charges of each of the elementary particles so far?
Solution: The charge on the Jz = 0 particles is 0, as u and u have opposite charges (and similarly
for the down quark). |j = 1, Jz = 1i has charge 2/3 (1/3) = 1, and |j = 1, Jz = 1i has charge
1/3 (2/3) = 1.
Each quark is also a spin-1/2 particle in actual spin S. Lets denote a +1/2-spin state (in the z-basis)
state with | i, and a 1/2-spin state with | i. And so to form a meson, we really need to add together
states of the form |u i with |u i (for example). Both isospin and actual spin add together using the
rules of angular momentum addition.
(c) How many physically observable mesons do we predict so far? Assume that we can only measure
the quantum number s the total spin of the particle isospin invariance is approximate however,
because we can measure electric charge (as in part (b))!
Solution: The spin and isospin parts of the wave functions decouple: |isospini|spini. So we can put
together our 4 isospin states, with 4 spin states (one at s = 0, three at s = 1). We should be able to
measure 8 particles one from each of the isospin states of parts (a) and (b), at either spin s = 0 or
spin s = 1.
(d) Rather surprisingly, it turns out that the mass of these mesons, M , is determined (approximately)
through the following formula:
A
M c2 = mc2 + mc2 + hS1 S2 i,
(mc2 )2
where S1,2 are the physical spin states associated with the constituent quark/anti-quark, and A is a
constant. Experimentally, one measures one set of mesons at mass M c2 140 MeV, and a second
set at mass M c2 780 MeV. What is the spin s of each set of particles? What is the value of A?
Solution: Recall that we deal with the Hamiltonian
1
(S1 + S2 )2 S21 S22 .


S1 S2 =
2
For the s = 0 state we have
3~2 A
 
2 2A 13 2
M c = 2mc + 02 ~ = 2mc2 .
2(mc2 )2 22 4(mc2 )2
1
This has to do with the fact that isospin is not a true symmetry of nature, only an approximate one.

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 For the s = 1 state we have
~2 A
 
2 2 A 13 2
M c = 2mc + 22 ~ = 2mc2 + .
2(mc2 )2 22 4(mc2 )2

And since 2mc2 660 MeV, we conclude that A > 0 and so the s = 0 states have M c2 = 140 MeV
and the s = 1 states have M c2 = 780 MeV. We thus estimate that

~2 A 100 3302 MeV3 107 MeV3 .

Another way we can get elementary particles that are light is to combine together three quarks and
zero anti-quarks. These states are called baryons the proton and neutron are two such states.
(e) How many baryons do we expect, and what are their isospin and spin states? Do not worry anymore
about writing down the exact wave functions. In particular, predict the existence of an exotic particle
(called the ++ ) with charge +2e. When this particle was observed it was a great triumph for the
(early) model of quarks.
Solution: We have to add a second spin 1/2 particle to the (isospin) states found in part (a). Lets
begin by adding to the j = 0 state. Then we obtain a pair of j = 1/2 states with eigenvalues
Jz = 1/2. What about the j = 1 state? Well, we obtain states from j = |1 1/2| to j = 1 + 1/2
thus, we obtain a j = 1/2 state (Jz = 1/2) and a j = 3/2 state (Jz = 3/2, 1/2). Note that there
are 2 + 4 = 3 2 states here. In particular, we expect an isospin Jz = 3/2 state, which consists of 3
up quarks. This state would have charge +2e.

(f) j = 3/2 particles called s decay extremely fast into other particles of smaller total isospin j: pions,
protons and neutrons. Approximately, we can use the fact that
X j j ,3/2
|j = 3/2, Jz i Cm11 m
2
|j m1 i|j2 m2 i.
2 Jz 1

where j1,2 and m1,2 are the net and z-isospins of the elementary particles at the end of the decay, and
the Cs are the Clebsch-Gordon coefficients. We assume that j1,2 < 3/2 as the end state particles are
more stable. Which of the Clebsch-Gordon coefficients (i.e., which values of j and ms) are non-zero?
The rates of these decay channels are proportional to |C|2 predict (up to an overall constant with
the units of s1 ) the rates of all decays from j = 3/2 particles into lower j particles.
Solution: What are the non-zero Clebsch-Gordan coefficients? Well, we need for 3/2 to be a possible
composite spin when we add together j1 and j2 . The only possible outcome is j1 = 1 and j2 = 1/2!
Furthermore, we can conclude analytically since m1 + m2 = Jz that

| 3/2i |1, 1i|1/2, 1/2i.

For the others we have

r
2 1
| 1/2i |1, 0i|1/2, 1/2i + |1, 1i|1/2, 1/2i.
3 3
So we conclude that the rate of the decays are:
0 20
(Jz = 3/2) = 0 , (Jz = 1/2 1 1/2) = , (Jz = 1/2 0 1/2) = .
3 3

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The result of part (f) has been confirmed beautifully in experiments.
There is one final mystery that we can now understand, just based on our simple models. Recall that
we have seen how a spinning elementary charged relativistic particle has a magnetic moment:
q
z = Sz ,
m
with q and m the charge and mass of the elementary particle. This formula clearly predicts that the
uncharged neutron has no magnetic moment, but in fact a magnetic moment is observed! This was an
early clue that the neutron must be a composite object. As the proton (p) and neutron (n) are both
baryons, the wave functions of the proton and neutron are2 :

2|u u d i |u u d i |u u d i
|p i = .
6
2|d d u i |d d u i |d d u i
|n i = .
6
Each spin direction in the quantum states on the right hand side is associated with the quark state directly
to its left. If we have a particle made up of three quarks (1,2,3), then the magnetic moment operators of
each quark simply add together:
z = 1z + 2z + 3z .
You may assume that the formula for the magnetic moment of a quark is what has been given above
remember to use the proper formulas for the mass and charge of each quark.

(g) Define p and n to be the magnetic moment of the up spin state of the proton or neutron, respectively
(these are the quantum states given above!) namely, hz i. Predict the value of p /n based on the
quark model, and compare to the experimental value of 1.46.
Solution: Let u,d be magnetic moment coefficients of the up and down quarks in the spin up state:

2e ~ e ~ u
u = , d = = .
3m 2 3m 2 2
The 1,2,3z operators only care about the quark in that slot in the wave function, and so we conclude
that
1 4 1 9
p = (4(2u d ) + (u u + d ) + (u + u + d )) = u d = u .
6 3 3 6
And a similar computation gives
4 1 6
n = d u = u .
3 3 6
So we predict that p /n = 1.5, which is quite close to the experimental value!

[1] D. J. Grififths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (Prentice Hall, 2nd ed., 2004).

[2] M. Thomson. Modern Particle Physics (Cambridge University Press, 2013).

2
Up to an overall symmetrization in the order in which we write u and d, unimportant for this problem...