Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Supervisor
Engr. IRFAN
Senior Instructor
Submitted By
AHMED ALVI
2013-UET-KIT-MECH-24
2017
I
PAKISTAN RAILWAY
Submitted By
AHMED ALVI
Ph;+92322-6857041
Email;ahmedalvi3@gmail.com
2017
II
Ahmed Alvi
Roll no. 24
III
Undertaking
Supervisor: __________________
Chairman: __________________
Principal: ___________________
IV
Acknowledgements
I would also like to thank my families and friends for their continuous
encouragement and moral support.
V
Abstract
The report is written as per the requirement of our internship, winter 2017 , in
(LOCOMOTIVE WORKSHOP) . The report includes the complete orientation of
the LOCOMOTIVE WORKS situated in Mughalpura Lahore. This report is based
on the working experience in different workshops of LOCOMOTIVES , providing
necessary knowledge about RAILWAY WORKSHOP system.
VI
Table of Contents
undertaking ........................................................................................ IV
aknowladgments ................................................................................. V
abstract ............................................................................................. VI
List of Figures .............................................................................. XIIIIII
Chapter 1: Industrial Introduction ....................................................... 2
1.1 PAKISTAN RAILWAY History ............................................................ 2
1.2 Railway board .................................................................................... 2
1.3 Functional units .................................................................................. 3
1.4 Divisions ............................................................................................ 3
1.5 Classes ............................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2: literture Review ................................................................. 4
2.1 Workshops in mughalpura locomotive ................................................... 4
Internship duration and shedule ................................................................. 4
Name of shops ............................................................................................ 4
Period of trainig ......................................................................................... 4
Chapter 3: diesel classified shop ........................................................ 5
3.1 introuction .......................................................................................... 5
3.2 Power assembly section: ..................................................................... 5
3.3 Nozzle & fuel Injection pump section: .................................................... 6
3.3.1 Functions of the system ........................................................... 7
3.3.2 Feeding fuel ............................................................................ 7
3.3.3 Adjusting fuel quantity ............................................................. 7
3.3.4 Adjusting injection timing ......................................................... 7
3.3.5 Atomising fuel ......................................................................... 7
3.4 Electrical section: ................................................................................ 7
3.5 Governor section ................................................................................. 8
3.5.1 Parts of governor .................................................................... 8
3.6 Air compression section: ...................................................................... 9
3.6.1 How air is produced in locomotives .......................................... 9
3.6.2 A9 component ....................................................................... 10
A9 component is used to brake boggies and carriges from engine. ............ 10
3.7 Diesel Locomotive ............................................................................. 10
3.7.1 Power transmission chart: ............................................................... 11
VII
3.7.2 Classification of railways locomotives: .............................................. 11
3000 H.P V-type 16 cylinders locomotives ....................................... 11
2000 H.P V-type 12 cylinders locomotives ....................................... 11
1200 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3700 four stroke) ............... 11
950 H.P V-type 6 cylinders locomotive (3400 four stroke) ................. 11
Note: ............................................................................................. 11
3.8 Locomotives used in Pakistan railway ................................................ 12
3.9 Parts of diesel locomotive ................................................................. 12
3.9.1 Ic engine .............................................................................. 12
3.9.2 Cylinder block: ...................................................................... 13
3.9.3 Cylinder head: ....................................................................... 13
3.9.4 Piston: .................................................................................. 14
3.9.5 Connecting rod: ..................................................................... 14
3.9.6 Crankshaft: ........................................................................... 15
3.9.7 Crankcase: ........................................................................... 15
3.9.8 Valves: ................................................................................. 16
3.9.9 Injector: ................................................................................ 16
3.9.10 Manifold: ............................................................................. 17
3.9.11 Camshaft: ........................................................................... 17
3.9.12 Gudgeon pin or piston pin: ................................................... 17
3.9.13 Pushrod: ............................................................................. 17
3.9.14 Flywheel: ............................................................................ 18
3.10 Bogie assembly section .................................................................... 18
3.11 Parts of bogie .................................................................................. 19
3.11.1 Solid welded Bogie Frame.................................................... 19
3.11.2 Primary suspension ............................................................. 19
3.11.3 Secondary suspension ......................................................... 19
3.11.4 Traction Centre ................................................................... 20
3.11.5 Disk Brakes ......................................................................... 20
3.11.6 Taper Roller Cartridge Bearing ............................................. 20
3.11.7 Bogie frame ........................................................................ 20
3.11.8 Primary suspension: ............................................................ 21
3.11.9 Secondary suspension ......................................................... 21
3.12 Traction motor ................................................................................. 22
3.12.1 Use of traction motor in train engines ................................... 22
3.13 WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY ....................................................... 23
3.13.1 Wheel ................................................................................. 24
3.13.2 Axle .................................................................................... 24
3.13.3 COMPONENTS OF WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY .............. 24
3.14 Turbo super charger section ............................................................. 25
3.14.1 TURBO SUPERCHARGER AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE .. 26
3.14.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF TURBO-SUPERCHARGER ............ 27
3.14.3 ROTOR ASSEMBLY ............................................................ 27
3.15 LUBRICATING, COOLING AND AIR CUSHIONING ............................. 28
VIII
3.15.1 LUBRICATING SYSTEM ...................................................... 28
3.15.2 COOLING SYSTEM ............................................................. 28
3.15.3 AIR CUSHIONING ............................................................... 29
3.15.4 AFTER COOLER ................................................................. 29
3.15.5 Fitments of higher capacity Turbo Supercharger - .................. 29
3.15.6 TURBO RUN DOW N TEST ................................................. 29
3.15.7 ROTOR BALANCING MACHINE ........................................... 30
3.15.8 ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINE .................... 30
Chapter 4: Foundry shop .................................................................. 30
4.1 Parts prepared in brass foundry .......................................................... 31
4.2 Parts prepared in iron foundry ............................................................ 32
4.3 CASTING: ......................................................................................... 32
4.3.1 Casting process .................................................................... 32
4.4 Pattern: ............................................................................................ 33
4.4.1 Different types of patterns: .................................................... 33
4.5 Mould preparation:............................................................................. 33
4.5.1 Mould preparation: ................................................................ 34
4.6 Sand used in molding process ............................................................ 34
4.6.1 Green sand mould : ............................................................... 34
4.6.2 Dry sand mould : ................................................................... 34
4.6.3 Materials used in mould preparation ....................................... 34
4.7 Furnaces used in locomotive foundry workshop ................................... 35
4.7.1 Tilting frnace ......................................................................... 35
4.7.2 Rotary furnace ...................................................................... 35
4.7.3 Cupola Furnace: .................................................................... 36
4.7.4 Construction of Cupola Furnace: ............................................ 36
4.7.5 Working of Cupola Furnace .................................................... 37
Chapter 5: E & DC shop .................................................................... 38
5.1 Sections in E &DC SHOP .................................................................. 38
5.2 Machines used in E & DC SHOP ......................................................... 38
Hydraulic machines .................................................................... 38
Vertical milling machines............................................................ 38
Bench lathes ............................................................................. 38
Center lathes ............................................................................. 38
Universal grinding machines ........................................................ 38
Universal milling machines ......................................................... 38
5.3 Parts prepared in E&DC shop ............................................................. 39
5.3.1 Oil seals ............................................................................... 39
5.3.2 Friction plate ......................................................................... 39
5.3.3 Discharge valve .................................................................... 40
5.3.4 Bearing shell ......................................................................... 40
5.3.5 Conrod / Big Endt .................................................................. 41
IX
5.3.6 Small End Bushes ................................................................. 41
5.3.7 Mains .................................................................................. 41
5.3.8 Thrust Washers ..................................................................... 41
5.3.9 Camshaft Bearings / Bushes .................................................. 41
5.3.10 Cam shaftsparts are following: ............................................. 42
5.3.11 Stub shaft ........................................................................... 42
5.4 Machines used in E&DC shop ............................................................. 43
5.5 Lathe machines ................................................................................ 43
5.5.1 TYPES OF LATHES............................................................... 43
5.5.2 Centre lathe .......................................................................... 44
5.5.3 Bench lathe........................................................................... 44
5.5.4 Turret lathe ........................................................................... 44
5.5.5 Capstan lathe ........................................................................ 45
5.5.6 Lathe machine specifications: ................................................ 45
5.5.7 Parts of lathe machine: .......................................................... 46
5.5.8 Operations of lathe machine: ................................................. 46
5.6 Milling machine ................................................................................. 46
5.7 Types of milling machine .................................................................... 47
5.7.1 Vertical mill ........................................................................... 47
5.7.2 Horizontal milling machine ..................................................... 48
5.7.3 Universal milling machine ...................................................... 49
5.7.4 Milling cutters ....................................................................... 50
5.8 Grinding machine .............................................................................. 50
5.9 Surface grinding machine ................................................................... 51
5.9.1 Parts of surface grinding machine ......................................... 52
5.10 Types of surface grinders ................................................................. 52
5.10.1 Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders .................... 52
5.10.2 Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder .................................... 53
5.10.3 Disc grinders and double-disc grinders ................................. 53
5.10.4 Cylindrical grinding machine ................................................ 53
5.11 Shaper machine ............................................................................... 53
5.11.1 Features: ........................................................................... 54
5.11.2 Working principle of shaper machine .................................... 54
5.11.3 Operations done using a shaper: .......................................... 54
5.11.4 Main parts of a shaping machine: ......................................... 55
5.12 Planer machine ............................................................................... 55
5.12.1 Linear planning .................................................................. 56
5.12.2 Helical planing .................................................................... 56
Chapter 6:spring shop ...................................................................... 57
6.1 Spring .............................................................................................. 57
6.2 Classification of spring: ...................................................................... 58
6.2.1 Coilspring ............................................................................. 58
6.2.2 Classification of coil spring .................................................... 59
X
6.2.3 Compression helical springs .................................................. 59
6.2.4 Application of Compression helical springs ............................. 59
6.2.5 Tension helical springs .......................................................... 60
6.2.6 Application of Tension helical springs ..................................... 60
6.2.7 Torsion springs ..................................................................... 60
6.2.8 Application of Torsion springs ................................................ 61
6.3 Spiral Spring: .................................................................................... 61
6.4 Leaf spring ........................................................................................ 61
6.4.1 Characteristics: ..................................................................... 62
6.5 Volute spring .................................................................................... 63
6.6 Spring making .................................................................................. 63
6.6.1 Coiling .................................................................................. 64
6.6.2 hardening ............................................................................. 65
6.6.3 Finishing ............................................................................... 66
6.7 Machines used in spring shop ............................................................. 68
6.7.1 End grinding machine ............................................................ 68
6.7.2 Crash Grinders ...................................................................... 68
6.7.3 Crush Grinders ...................................................................... 69
6.7.4 End grinders ......................................................................... 69
6.8 Process used in spring shop ............................................................... 69
6.8.1 Tempring .............................................................................. 69
6.9 Carbon steel ..................................................................................... 70
6.10 Quenched-steel ............................................................................... 70
6.11 Normalized steel .............................................................................. 71
6.12 Spring sizes and bar sizes: ............................................................... 72
Chapter 7: Wheel shop ...................................................................... 73
Fig.7.1 ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1 Wheel ............................................................................................... 74
7.2 Wheel geometry and flange ............................................................... 74
7.3 Set wheel .......................................................................................... 75
7.4 Wheel making Processes ................................................................... 76
7.4.1 Casting Process .................................................................... 76
7.4.2 Rolling and Pressing Process ................................................. 77
7.4.3 Heat Treatment Process ........................................................ 79
7.4.5 Finishing Process .................................................................. 80
7.4.6 Automobile Wheel Rim .......................................................... 81
7.4.7 Casting Process ............................................................................. 82
7.4.8 Forging Process .................................................................... 83
7.4.9 Drilling Process ..................................................................... 84
7.4.10 Heat Treatment Process ...................................................... 84
7.4.11 Finishing Process ................................................................ 84
XI
7.5 Steel wheels ..................................................................................... 85
7.6 Traction ............................................................................................ 85
7.7 Engine and generator ........................................................................ 86
7.8 Train truck ........................................................................................ 86
7.9 Propulsion ........................................................................................ 87
7.10 Suspension ..................................................................................... 87
CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 89
Future Recommendations about Pakistan railway workshops .......... 90
References ........................................................................................ 91
XII
List of Figures
Figure 1 Diesel shop ............................................................................. 5
Figure 2 Parts in diesel shop ................................................................. 6
Figure 3 injection nozzle ....................................................................... 6
Figure 4 parts of governor ..................................................................... 8
Figure 5 air nose .................................................................................. 9
Figure 6 air section ............................................................................... 9
Figure 7 diesel locomotive parts .......................................................... 10
Figure 8 locomotives in pakistan .......................................................... 12
Figure 9 cylinder block ........................................................................ 13
Figure 10 piston ................................................................................. 14
Figure 11 connceting rod..................................................................... 14
Figure 12 ........................................................................................... 15
Figure 13 crank shaft ......................................................................... 15
Figure 14 crank case .......................................................................... 16
Figure 15 valves ................................................................................. 16
Figure 16 injector ............................................................................... 16
Figure 17 manifold .............................................................................. 17
Figure 18 camshaft ............................................................................. 17
Figure 19 push rod ............................................................................. 18
Figure 20 fly wheel ............................................................................. 18
Figure 21 bogie assembly ................................................................... 19
Figure 22 bogie frame ......................................................................... 20
Figure 23 traction motor ...................................................................... 22
Figure 24 wheel and axle .................................................................... 24
Figure 25 components of wheel and assembly ...................................... 25
Figure 26 turbocharger ....................................................................... 27
Figure 27 rotor assembly..................................................................... 27
Figure 28 lubricating system................................................................ 28
Figure 29 brass foundry ...................................................................... 31
Figure 30 parts prepared in foundry ..................................................... 32
Figure 31 pattern ................................................................................ 33
Figure 32 moulpreaparation ................................................................. 34
Figure 33 tilting furnace ...................................................................... 35
Figure 34 rotary furnace ...................................................................... 36
Figure 35 cupola furnace..................................................................... 36
Figure 36 cupola furnace..................................................................... 37
Figure 37 oil seals ............................................................................. 39
Figure 38 friction plate ........................................................................ 40
Figure 39 bearing shell ....................................................................... 40
Figure 40 cam shaft 1 ......................................................................... 42
XIII
Figure 41 cam shaft 2 ......................................................................... 42
Figure 42 stub shaft ............................................................................ 43
Figure 43 centre lathe ......................................................................... 44
Figure 44 turret lathe .......................................................................... 45
Figure 45 vertical mill ......................................................................... 47
Figure 46 horizontal milling machine .................................................... 49
Figure 47 universal milling machine ..................................................... 50
Figure 48 grining machine ................................................................... 51
Figure 49 surface grinder .................................................................... 52
Figure 50 shapermachine .................................................................... 54
Figure 51 planer machine .................................................................... 55
Figure 52 spring shop ......................................................................... 57
Figure 53 springs use in frame ............................................................ 57
Figure 54 coil spring ........................................................................... 58
Figure 55 compression helical springs ................................................. 59
Figure 56 tension helical spring ........................................................... 60
Figure 57 torsion springs .................................................................... 61
Figure 58 leaf spring ........................................................................... 62
Figure 59 leaf spring use .................................................................... 63
Figure 60 volute spring ....................................................................... 63
Figure 61 coiling ................................................................................. 64
Figure 62 springs shapes .................................................................... 65
Figure 63 spring hardening.................................................................. 66
Figure 64 different types of springs ...................................................... 67
Figure 65 carsh grinder process .......................................................... 68
Figure 66 spring sizes ......................................................................... 72
Figure 67 wheel on machine ................................................................ 73
Figure 68 wheel flange ........................................................................ 74
Figure 69 casting process ................................................................... 77
Figure 70 Rolling and Pressing Process ............................................... 78
Figure 71 wheel process ..................................................................... 78
Figure 72 heat treatment ..................................................................... 79
Figure 73 heat treatment diagram ........................................................ 80
Figure 74 finishing process ................................................................. 81
Figure 75 overall wheel process .......................................................... 82
Figure 76 forging process ................................................................... 84
Figure 77 traction ............................................................................... 85
Figure 78 engine and generator ........................................................... 86
Figure 79 wheel adjustment ................................................................. 87
XIV
Pakistan locomotive workshops
mughalpura
I
Chapter 1: Industrial Introduction
1.1 PAKISTAN RAILWAY History
Pakistan Railways formerly also known as the Pakistan Western Railway between
1947 and 1974, is the a national state -owned railway company of Pakistan. Founded
in 1861 and headquartered in Lahore, it owns 7,400 miles (11,881 km) of track
across Pakistan, stretching from Torkham to Karachi and operates
both freight and passenger train services. In 2014, the Ministry of Railways
launched "Pakistan Railways Vision 2025" which, along with the 886.68
billion (US$8.5 billion) ChinaPakistan Economic Corridor railway upgrade, seeks
to reinvigorate Pakistan Railways by increasing its share in the transportation sector
from 4% to 20% by 2025. The plans include the acquisition of new locomotives,
developing and improving current rail infrastructu re, increasing average train
speeds, improving punctuality and expanding passenger services. The first phase of
the project will be completed in December 2017, while the second phase will be
completed by 2021 Pakistan Railways is an active member of the International
Union of Railways
2
1.3 Functional units
Pakistan Railways comprises three functional units: [1]
Operations
Manufacturing
Welfare & special initiative unit
1.4 Divisions
Pakistan Railway comprises seven territorial operating divisions:
Karachi
Lahore
Multan
Peshawar
Quetta
Rawalpindi
Sukkur
1.5 Classes
Pakistan Railways has several classes of travel. D epending on the route, certain
trains may only have a single class. The fares for all classes are different with
unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The following table lists the classes in
operation.
Class Description
AC Sleeper Class Code = ACSL
AC Parlour Class Code = PC
AC Business Class Code = ACLZ
AC Standard Class Code = ACL
First Class Sleeper Class Code = ISL
Economy Class Class Code = EC
Second Class Class Code = SEC
3
Chapter 2:literature Review
Moghalpura Railway Workshops
The Moghalpura Railway Workshops are one of several Pakistan Railways rolling
stock repair sites, located on the LahoreWagah Branch Line at Moghalpura
Junction railway station in Lahore, Pakistan. The workshop complex began to
emerge at its present site in 1904 in order to manufacture, repair and overhaul
passenger coaches and freight wagons for the then North Western State Railway.
After Pakistan's independence in 1947, it was the only state -of-the-art workshop for
Pakistan Railways
4
Chapter 3: diesel classified shop
3.1 introuction
Diesel classified shop deals with the repairing and maintenance of the engines
The responsibility of diesel classified work shop is overhauling of all locomotives
of Pakistan Railways after every 5 years . There are 5 different sections working for
diesel classified.
Power assembly section.
Nozzle, fuel Injection & pump section.
Governor section.
Electrical section.
Air compression section .
Bogie assembly section
Turbo super charger section
5
Figure 2 Parts in diesel shop
The fuel injection system lies at the very heart of the diesel engine. By pressurising
and injecting the fuel, the system forces it into air that has been compressed to high
pressure in the combustion chamber.
Some types of fuel tanks also have a fuel sedimentor at the bottom of the filter to
separate water content from the fuel.
6
3.3.1 Functions of the system
Pump elements such as the cylinder and plunger are built into the injection pump
body. The fuel is compressed to high pressure when the cam lifts the plun ger, and is
then sent to the injector.
In diesel engines the intake of air is almost constant, irrespective of the rotating
speed and load. If the injection quantity is changed with the engine speed and the
injection timing is constant, the output and fuel consumption change. Since the
engine output is almost proportional to the injection quantity, this is adjusted by the
accelerator pedal.
Ignition delay is the period of time between the point when the fuel is injected,
ignited and combusted and when maximum combustion pressure is reached. As this
period of time is almost constant, irrespective of engine speed, a timer is used to
adjust and change injection timing enabling optimum combustion to be achieved.
When fuel is pressurised by the injection pump and then atomised from the injection
nozzle, it mixes thoroughly with air, thus improving ignition. The result is complete
combustion.
7
3.5 Governor section :
Governor regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine by
controlling the fuel supply. It is tested on machine that how it is working and what
are problems which should correct. Check all 8 notches as well.
The governor system is like a cruise control system. It maintains the speed of your
lawn mower or outdoor power products. When Briggs & Stratton governors are
adjusted properly, they keep your speed steady regardless of engine load - the
amount of work the engine must perform. When powering a lawn mower, engine
load can be affected by hills or height of grass. For a tiller engine, load may depend
on depth of the tines while a chippers load may be affected by the thickness of
branches.
Without a governor, we would need to adjust the throttle manually each time your
lawn mower ran across a dense patch of grass. A governor does the job for you by
detecting changes in the load and adjusting the throttle to compensate.
8
3.6 Air compression section:
Air compressors of locomotives are repaired or overhauled here, it is use for the
braking system of train. There are two types of braking systems used in Pak
railways, air pressure brakes and vacuum brakes. 6 cylinders compressor is used for
3000/2000 h.p locomotives. Where 3 cylinders for 70 psi air pressure and 3
cylinders for 22 lb/inch vacuum.
6CD3UC compressor.
6CD4UC compressor.
COMPRESSOR
RESORVIOR 1
RESORVIOR 2
Used only for brakes.
9
3.6.2 A9 component
A9 component is used to brake boggies and carriges from engine.
10
3.7.1 Power transmission chart:
diesel
6 tracktion motors wheels
engine
11
stroke: 28.95 cm (11.4 inches), Full speed: 915 rpm, Normal idle speed: 278 rpm
Displacement of 2000 H.P is 8712 in 3 & Displacement of 3000 H.P is 11616 in
3.9.1 Ic engine
An internal combustion engine is the engine in which combustion (burning of fuel)
takes place inside the cylinder of engine. By burning of the fuel high temperature
and pressure force generates. This pressure force use to move the vehicle or rotate
wheels by use of some mechanism.
In an engine many parts work together and achieve the goal of converting chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy. These parts are bolted together and the
combination of all these parts is known as engine. Today I am going to tell you
12
about these parts and how they work so you can know the basic of automobile
engine
13
3.9.4 Piston:
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit the
thrust to the connecting rod. It is the prime mover in the engine. The main function
of piston is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore and slide freely inside of
cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient strong to handle the gas pressure
generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made by aluminum alloy and
sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy piston expands more than cast
iron so they need more clearances to the bore .
Figure 10 piston
14
Figure 12
3.9.6 Crankshaft:
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust
supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of
piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. The crank shaft mounts in bearing so it can
rotate freely. The shape and size of crankshaft depends on the number and
arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel forging, but some makers use
special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel alloy castings which
are cheaper to produce and have good service life .
3.9.7 Crankcase:
The main body of the engine to which the cylinder are attached and which contains
the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as the
lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication
is placed in it.
15
Figure 14 crank case
3.9.8 Valves:
To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are used. The
number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. Two valves are
used for each cylinder one for inlet of air -fuel mixture inside the cylinder and other
for exhaust of combustion gases. The valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder
head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them closed. Both valves usually
open inwards.
Figure 15 valves
3.9.9 Injector:
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into
combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.
Figure 16 injector
16
3.9.10 Manifold:
The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the
exhaust gases equally form all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two
manifold are used, one for intake and other for exhaust. They are usually made by
aluminum alloy.
Figure 17 manifold
3.9.11 Camshaft:
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper
timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of exhaust
stroke and closed at the end of intake s troke. So to regulate its timing, a cam is use
which is oval in shape and it exerts a pressure on the valve to open and release to
close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by crankshaft. It is placed at the
top or at the bottom of cylinder.
Figure 18 camshaft
3.9.13 Pushrod:
Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder. It
carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder head
17
Figure 19 push rod
3.9.14 Flywheel:
A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to rotate
the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation more uniform.
Figure 20 fl y w heel
18
Figure 21 bogie assembl y
19
3.11.4 Traction Centre
The traction Centre transmits traction and braking forces between bogie frame and body by a
traction lever on the bolster beam pin and two rods.
20
3.11.8 Primary suspension:
Primary suspension is implemented by two units of two steel coil springs (internal (4) and
external (5)) laid out on the control arm upper part (13) by a centering disk (8) and adjustment
shims, (if required).
The suspension is also completed by the following components:
A control arm (13), fitted with twin-layer elastic joints (12), connecting the axle bearing to the
bogie frame and transmitting, not stiffly, lateral, longitudinal and part of the vertical forces;
A vertical damper (14).
Rubber elements (2) separate the primary suspension from the bogie to realize noise reduction.
Stops and protections are mounted on the bogie frame for the lifting.
1. Bogie frame
2. Rubber disks
3. Centering disk
4.Internal spring
5. External spring
6. Bump stop
7. Shim
8. Centering disk
9. Control Arm Lower Part
10. Plate
11. Block
12. Rubber joint
13. Control Arm Upper Part
14. Damper
21
9. Safety cables
10.Traction rod
11. Yaw damper
22
Usually, the traction motor is mounted between the wheel frame and the driven
axle. This is called a "nose-suspended traction motor". The problem with this
mounting is that some of the motor's weight is on the axle. This causes the track
and frame to wear out faster. [1] The "Bi-Polar" electric locomotives built by General
Electric for the Milwaukee Road had di rect drive motors. The rotating shaft of the
motor was also the axle for the wheels.
The DC motor is made in two parts; the rotating armature and the fixed field
windings. The field windings, also called the stator, surrounds the armature. The
field windings are made of tightly wound coils of wire inside the motor case. The
armature, also called the rotor, is another set of coils of wire wound round the
central shaft. The armature is connected to the field windings through brushes. The
brushes are spring loaded contacts pressing against the commutator. The
commutator sends the electricity in a circula r pattern to armature windings.
A series-wound motor has the armature and the field windings connected in series.
A series-wound DC motor has a low electrical resistance. When voltage is applied
to the motor, it makes a strong magnetic field inside the motor. [1] This produces a
high amount of torque, so it is good for starting a train. If more current than needed
is sent to the motor, there would be too much torque and the wheels would spin. If
too much current is sent to the motor, it could damage the motor. Resistors are used
to limit the current when the motor starts.
As the DC motor starts to turn, the magnetic fields inside start to join together.
They create an internal voltage. This electromagnetic force (EMF) works against
the voltage sent to the motor. The EMF controls the current flow in the motor. As
the motor speeds up, the EMF falls. Less current flows into the motor, and it makes
less torque. The motor will stop increasing its speed when the torque matches (is
the same as) the drag on the train. To accelerate the train, more voltage must be
sent to the motor. One or more resistors are removed to increase the v oltage. This
will increase the current. The torque will increase, and so will the speed of the
train. When no resistors are left in the circuit, full line voltage is applied directly to
the motor.
On an electric train, the train driver originally had to control the speed by changing
the resistance manually. By 1914, automatic acceleration was being used. This was
achieved by an accelerating relay in the motor circui t. This was often called
a notching relay. The relay would watch the fall of current and control the
resistance. All the driver had to do was select low, medium or full speed. These
speeds are called shunt, series and parallel from the way the motors were wired.
23
3.13 WHEEL AND AXLE ASSEMBLY
This is the part of a rake which is just adjacent to the tracks. It basically consists of four main
parts:
a) Wheel
b) Axle
c) Bearing and Housing
3.13.1 Wheel
Wheel of a rake is a specifically made cylindrical portion having an outer edge
shape to fit in the railway track. The material is stainless steel.
3.13.2 Axle
Axle is the main long cylindrical bar on which wheels are fixed with the help of
bearings. This is also made of stainless steel as above. Each axle contains 2 wheels,
24
Figure 25 components of w heel and assembl y
25
3.14.1 TURBO SUPERCHARGER AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE
The exhaust gas discharge from all the cylinders accumulate in the common exhaust
manifold at the end of which, turbo - supercharger is fitted. The gas under pressure
there after enters the turbo- supercharger through the torpedo shaped bell mouth
connector and then passes through the fixed nozzle ring. Then it is directed on the
turbine blades at increased pressure and at the most suitable angle to achieve rotary
motion of the turbine at maximum efficiency. After rotating the turbine, the exhaust
gas goes out to the atmosphere through the exhaust chimney. The turbine has a
centrifugal blower mounted at the other end of the same shaft and the rotation of the
turbine drives the blower at the same speed. The blower connected to the
atmosphere through a set of oil bath filters, sucks air from atmosphere, and delivers
at higher velocity. The air then passes through the diffuser inside the turbo -
supercharger, where the velocity is diffused to increase the pressure of air before it
is delivered from the turbo- supercharger.
Pressurising air increases its density, but due to compression heat develops. It
causes expansion and reduces the density. This effects supply of high -density air to
the engine. To take care of this, air is passed through a heat exchanger know n as
after cooler. The after cooler is a radiator, where cooling water of lower
temperature is circulated through the tubes and around the tubes air passes. The
heat in the air is thus transferred to the cooling water and air regains its lost
density. From the after cooler air goes to a common inlet manifold connected to
each cylinder head. In the suction stroke as soon as the inlet valve opens the booster
air of higher pressure density rushes into the cylinder completing the process of
super charging.
The engine initially starts as naturally aspirated engine. With the increased quantity
of fuel injection increases the exhaust gas pressure on the turbine. Thus the self -
adjusting system maintains a proper air and fuel ratio under all speed and load
conditions of the engine on its own. The maximum rotational speed of the turbine is
18000/22000 rpm for the Turbo supercharger and creates max. Of 1.8 kg/cm 2 air
pressure in air manifold of diesel engine, known as Booster Air Pressure (BAP).
Low booster pressure causes black smoke due to incomplete combustion of fuel.
High exhaust gas temperature due to after burning of fuel may result in considerable
damage to the turbo supercharger and other component in the engine.
26
Figure 26 turbocharger
27
3.15 LUBRICATING, COOLING AND AIR CUSHIONING
28
3.15.3 AIR CUSHIONING
There is an arrangement for air cushioning between the rotor disc and the
intermediate casing face to reduce thrust load on the thrust face of the bearing
which also solve the following purposes.
It prevents hot gases from coming in contact with the lube oil.
It prevents leakage of lube oil through oil seals.
Pressurised air from the blower casing is taken through a pipe inserted in the turbo -
supercharger to the space between the rotor disc and the intermediate casing. It
serves the purpose as described above.
Turbo run-down test is a very common type of test done to check the free running
time of turbo rotor. It indicates whether there is any abnormal sound in the turbo,
seizer/ partial seizer of bearing, physical damages to the turbine, or any other
abnormality inside it. The engine is started and warmed up to normal working
conditions and running at fourth notch speed. Engine is then shut down through the
over speed trip mechanism. When the rotation of the crank shaft stops, the free
29
running time of the turbine is watched through the chimney and recorded by a stop
watch. The time limit for free running is 90 to 180 seconds. Low or high turbo run
down time are both considered to be harmful for the engine.
30
Chapter 4: Foundry shop
In foundry shop different types of parts are produced using casting process. After
casting the work pieces are machined to convert them into various parts according
to part structure. Various types of furnaces are available in at Loco shop of railway
industry to cast different number of parts according to demand. Operations to be
performed and time to make that part are mentioned on work order. Operation are
performed according to the sequence mentioned on work order.
31
4.2 Parts prepared in iron foundry
There are following parts are prepared in this shop
L.P cylinder for D.E loco
H.P cylinder for D.E loco
Oil tank cock body
Disc brake
Brake shoes
Caps for alternator body
Brake block
Plug for oil tank cock body
4.3 CASTING:
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken
out of the mold to complete the process. Ca sting materials are usually metals or
various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together.
32
Figure 31 pattern
4.4 Pattern:
A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into which molten.
Metal is poured to produce a casting.
Requirements of a good pattern and pattern allowance.
Secure the desired shape and size of the casting
Simple in design, for ease of manufacture
Cheap and readily availableLight in mass and convenient to handle
Have high strength
33
4.5.1 Mould preparation:
chaplet
Mold
cavity
Figure 32 moulpreaparation
34
4.7 Furnaces used in locomotive foundry workshop
Different types of furnaces used in workshop
35
Figure 34 rotar y furnace
36
shielded by a mesh screen and topped with a cone shaped spark arrester ,which
permits the free vent of the waste gas and deflects spark and dust back into furnace.
The kindling material usually soft, dry pieces of wood is placed on the sand bed and
a charge of coke is put in the furnace .The kindling and bed charge of coke are
ignited through the tap-hole opening .As soon as the coke bed is thoroughly
ignited,the first charge of metal ,pig iron ,scrap and flux is placed on top of the bed
charge of glowing coke .A weighed charge of coke is placed on top of the metal
charge .After the cupola is fully charged up to the charging door ,the iron should
soak in the heat for 45 mins or longer .No forced draft is us ed during this period .
37
Chapter 5: E & DC shop
In this shop all parts related to diesel engine are preared and machined here :
Bench lathes
Center lathes
38
5.3 Parts prepared in E&DC shop
The following parts are prepared here:
39
Figure 38 friction plate
40
5.3.5 Conrod / Big Endt
these shells are located at the larger end of the connecting rod. These shells may have certain
characterics such as oil holes & locating tags. The conrod bearings are made of different
composite metals such as Silicon Aluminium, Lead Copper, Copper Silicone Silver. Our range of
race series bearings have a range of coatings or additional overlays to increase hardness & load
capacity. We keep oversized bearings for crankshafts that have been machined or "ground" to an
undersize.
5.3.7 Mains
The main bearings are located in the engine block where the crankshaft is situated. 1 shell is
located in the engine block and the other in the crank cap. Main bearings may have certain
characteristics such as oil holes, locating tags and oil grooves.
41
Figure 40 cam shaft 1
42
5.3.11 Stub shaft
a stub shaft is a short rotating shaft that extends, cantilevered out past its
supporting bearings in the main structure of a power transmission subsystem.
The lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping articles of metal (and sometimes
wood or other materials) by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated by the lathe
while a tool bit is advanced into the work causing the cutting action. The basic lathe that
was designed to cut cylindrical metal stock has been developed further to produce screw
threads. tapered work. Drilled holes. knurled surfaces, and crankshafts. The typical lathe
provides a variety of rotating speeds and a means to manually and automatically move
the cutting tool into the workpiece. Machinists and maintenance shop personnel must be
thoroughly familiar with the lathe and its operations to accomplish the repair and
fabrication of needed parts.
43
5.5.2 Centre lathe
The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindri cal shapes from a range of
materials including; steels and plastics. Many of the components that go together to
make an engine work have been manufactured using lathes. These may be lathes
operated directly by people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC
machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual
centre lathe is shown below. This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the
various handles on the top slide and cross slide in order to make a product / part.
44
5.5.4 Turret lathe
The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive
production of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their cutting process are
usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the
turret, which is an indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be
performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no
need for the operator to perform set-up tasks in between, such as installing or
uninstalling tools, nor to control the toolpath. The latter is due to the toolpath's
being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion, via the mechanical limits
placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via electronically-
directed servomechanisms for computer numerical control lathes.
45
5.5.6 Lathe machine specifications:
Swing
Distance between centers
Length of bed
Radius ( one of swing)
46
5.7 Types of milling machine
There are following types of milling machine
A turret mill has a stationary spindle and the table is moved both perpendicular
and parallel to the spindle axis to accomplish cutting. The most common
example of this type is the Bridgeport, described below. Turret mills often have
a quill which allows the milling cutter to be raised and lowered in a manner
similar to a drill press. This type of ma chine provides two methods of cutting in
the vertical (Z) direction: by raising or lowering the quill, and by moving the
knee.
In the bed mill, however, the table moves only perpendicular to the spindle's
axis, while the spindle itself moves parallel to it s own axis.
Turret mills are generally considered by some to be more versatile of the two
designs. However, turret mills are only practical as long as the machine remains
relatively small. As machine size increases, moving the knee up and down requires
considerable effort and it also becomes difficult to reach the quill feed handle (if
equipped). Therefore, larger milling machines are usually of the bed type.
A third type also exists, a lighter machine, called a mill -drill, which is a close
relative of the vertical mill and quite popular with hobbyists. A mill -drill is similar
in basic configuration to a small drill press, but equipped with an X -Y table. They
also typically use more powerful motors than a comparably sized drill press, with
47
potentiometer-controlled speed and generally have more heavy-duty spindle
bearings than a drill press to deal with the lateral loading on the spindle that is
created by a milling operation. A mill drill also typically raises and lowers the
entire head, including motor, often on a dovetailed vertical, where a drill press
motor remains stationary, while the arbor raises and lowers within a driving collar.
Other differences that separate a mill -drill from a drill press may be a fine tuning
adjustment for the Z-axis, a more precise depth stop, the capability to lock the X, Y
or Z axis, and often a system of tilting the head or the entire vertical column and
powerhead assembly to allow angled cutting. Aside from size and precision, the
principal difference between these hobby-type machines and larger true vertical
mills is that the X-Y table is at a fixed elevation; the Z -axis is controlled in
basically the same fashion as drill press, where a larger vertical or knee mill has a
vertically fixed milling head, and changes the X -Y table elevation. As well, a mill-
drill often uses a standard drill press -type Jacob's chuck, rather than an internally
tapered arbor that accepts collets. These are frequently of lower quality t han other
types of machines, but still fill the hobby role well because they tend to be
benchtop machines with small footprints and modest price tags.
48
Figure 46 horizontal milling machine
The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the indexing
fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special fixtures
The basic difference between a universal horizontal milling machine and a plain
horizontal milling machine is the addition of a table swivel housing between the table and
the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45 in either
direction for angular and helical milling operations.
49
Figure 47 universal milling machine
50
Figure 48 grining machine
51
Figure 49 surface grinder
Body
Table
Magnetic chuck
Wheel head
Cross slide feed
52
5.10.2 Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinder
The face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or segmental wheel) is used on the flat
surface. Wheel-face grinding is often used for fast material removal, but some
machines can accomplish high-precision work. The workpiece is held on a
reciprocating table, which can be varied ac cording to the task, or a rotary-table
machine, with continuous or indexed rotation. Indexing allows loading or unloading
one station while grinding operations are being performed on another
53
increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper can yi eld helical tool paths, as
also done in helical planning.
Figure 50 shapermachine
5.11.1 Features:
Single point cutting tool is used for machining. Tool is clamped in the tool post
mounted on the ram of the machine.
The ram reciprocates to and fro; tool cuts the material in the forward stroke, no
cutting during return stroke.
Job is held rigidly in a vice.
The tool is held in the tool post of the reciprocating ram and performs the cutting
operation during its forward stroke. It may be noted that during the backward stroke
of the ram, the tool does not remove material from the work piece.
54
Cutting slots, groove and key ways.
Machining irregular surfaces
Machining splines /cutting gears.
55
5.12.1 Linear planning
The most common applications of planers and shapers are linear -toolpath ones, such
as:
Generating accurate flat surfaces. (While not as precise as grinding, a planer can
remove a tremendous amount of material in one pass with high accuracy.) [1]
Cutting slots (such as keyways).
It is even possible to do work that might now be done by wire EDM in some
cases. Starting from a drilled or co red hole, a planer with a boring-bar type tool
can cut internal features that don't lend themselves to milling or boring (such as
irregularly shaped holes with tight corners)
56
Chapter 6:spring shop
in this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.
6.1 Spring
Springs are flexible machine element used for controlled application of force or
torque or for storing and release of mechanical energy.
Flexibility (elastic deformation) is enabled due to cleverly designed geometry or by
using of flexible material.
57
6.2 Classification of spring:
There are three class of spring
1-coile spring/helical spring
2-leaf springs
3-spiral springs
6.2.1 Coilspring
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device, which is
typically used to store energy due to resilience and subsequently release it, to
absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting surfaces. They are made of
an elastic material formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural
length when unloaded.
One type of coil spring is a torsion spring. The material of the spring acts in torsion
when the spring is compressed or extended. The quality of spring is judged from the
energy it can absorb. The spring which is capable of absorbing the greatest amount
of energy for the given stress is the best one. Metal coil springs are made by
winding a wire around a shaped former - a cylinder is used to form cylindrical coil
springs.
58
6.2.2 Classification of coil spring
There are three class of coil spring
1) Compression helical springs (or) Open coil springs
2) Tension helical springs (or) closed coil springs
3) Torsion springs
4)Spiral Spring
59
6.2.5 Tension helical springs
It has some means of transferring the load from the support to the body by means of
some arrangement. Thewire is coiled in a sequence that the turn is at right angles to
the axis of the spring.
60
Figure 57 torsion springs
Mouse tracks
Rocker switches
Door hinges
Clipboards
Automobile starters
61
Figure 58 leaf spring
6.4.1 Characteristics:
Leaf spring is also called as a semi-elliptical spring; as it takes the form of
a slender arc shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross section.
The center of the arc provides the location for the axle, while the tie holes
are provided at either end for attaching to the vehicle body.
Heavy vehicles, leaves are stacked one upon the other to ensure rigidity and
strength.
It provides dampness and springing function.
It can be attached directly to the frame at the both ends or attached directly
to one end, usually at the front, with the oth er end attached through a
shackle, a short swinging arm.
The shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when it
gets compressed and by which the spring becomes softer.
Thus depending upon the load bearing capacity of the vehicle the leaf
spring is designed with graduated and un -graduated leaves.
Because of the difference in the leaf length, different stress will be there at
each leaf. To compensate the stress level;pre -stressing is to be done.Pre-
stressing is achieved by bending the leaves to different radius of curvature
before they are assembled with the center clip.
The radius of curvature decreases with shorter leaves.
The extra initial gap found between the extra full length leaf and graduated
length leaf is called as nip.Such pre -stressing achieved by a difference in
the radius of curvature is known as nipping.
62
Figure 59 leaf spring use
63
6.6 Spring making
in this shop all types of springs are prepared and manufactured here.
6.6.1 Coiling
1 Cold winding. Wire up to 0.75 in (18 mm) in diameter can be coiled at room
temperature using one of two basic techniques. One consists of winding the wire
around a shaft called an arbor or mandrel. This may be done on a dedicated spring -
winding machine, a lathe, an electric hand drill with the mandrel secured in the
chuck, or a winding machine operated by hand cranking. A guidin g mechanism,
such as the lead screw on a lathe, must be used to align the wire into the desired
pitch (distance between successive coils) as it wraps around the mandrel .
Figure 61 coiling
64
Figure 62 springs shapes
The wire is pushed forward over a support block toward a grooved head that
deflects the wire, forcing it to bend. The he ad and support block can be
moved relative to each other in as many as five directions to control the
diameter and pitch of the spring that is being formed.
For extension or torsion springs, the ends are bent into the desired loops,
hooks, or straight sections after the coiling operation is completed.
2 Hot winding. Thicker wire or bar stock can be coiled into springs if the
metal is heated to make it flexible. Standard industrial coiling machines can
handle steel bar up to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter, and custom springs have
reportedly been made from bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The steel is
coiled around a mandrel while red hot. Then it is immediately removed from
the coiling machine and plunged into oil to cool it quickly and harden it. At
this stage, the steel is too brittle to function as a spring, and it must
subsequently be tempered.
6.6.2 hardening
Heat treating. Whether the steel has been coiled hot or cold, the process has created
stress within the material. To relieve this stress and allow the steel to maintain its
characteristic resilience, the spring must be tempered by heat treating it. The spring
is heated in an oven, held at the appropriate temperature for a predetermined tim e,
and then allowed to cool slowly. For example, a spring made of music wire is
heated to 500F (260C) for one hour
65
Figure 63 spring hardening
6.6.3 Finishing
4 Grinding. If the design calls for flat ends on the spring, the ends are ground
at this stage of the manufacturing process. The spring is mounted in a jig to
ensure the correct orientation during grinding, and it is held against a
rotating abrasive wheel until the desired degree of flatness is obtained. When
highly automated equipment is used, the spring is held in a sleeve while both
ends are ground simultaneously, first by coarse wheels and then by finer
wheels. An appropriate fluid (water or an oil -based substance) may be used to
cool the spring, lubricate the grinding wheel, and carry away particles during
the grinding.
5 Shot peening. This process strengthens the steel to resist metal fatigue and
cracking during its lifetime of repeated flexings. The entire surface of the
spring is exposed to a barrage of tiny steel balls that hammer it smooth and
compress the steel that lies just below the surface.
66
6 Setting. To permanently fix the desired length and pitch of the spring, it is
fully compressed so that all the coils touch each other. Some manufacturers
repeat this process several times.
67
6.7 Machines used in spring shop
The springs are feed into the machine by means of a rotary table with bushings to hold the springs. It
is important that the springs are carried across the entire face of the wheel. If the grinding wheels
have a center hole, the springs should break into the center by approximately of the spring
diameter. If the springs do cross the entire grinding wheel face, the wheel will not wear evenly and
develop a high center. This will require frequent dressing and will cause problems keeping the
springs square.
68
6.7.3 Crush Grinders
Crush grinders, also known as downfeed grinders, look very much like crash grinders, but grind the
springs differently. The grinding wheels are kept flat and parallel to each other. The springs are
placed in a rotary carrier and passed between the wheels many times while the top wheel is fed down
incrementally, as depicted in the graph. The carriers for downfeed grinders typically run at a faster
speed than crash grinders. The grinder will often have two carriers, one that can be loaded while the
other is grinding. It is claimed that downfeed grinders can hold tighter tolerances for squareness and
free length than crash grinders, but they typically sacrifice speed. Most spring grinders are run
without coolant and have
6.8.1 Tempring
tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such
as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the
alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility,
thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed
after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state.
Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work -piece to a
temperature below its "lower critical temperature". This is also called the lower
transformation temperature or lower arrest (A 1 ) temperature; the temperature at
which the crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin
combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred to as austenite. Heating
above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched
microstructure, called martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is cru cial to
achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures
may only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a
majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater
reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength and tensile strength for an
increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing
other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low temperatures may
produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will
69
decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying elements behave
like precipitation hardening alloys , which produces the opposite effects under the
conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as maraging steels
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the
martensite, forming a microstructure called "tempered martensite". Tempering is
also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility,
machinability, and impact strength. [3] Steel is usually tempered evenly, called
"through tempering," producing a nearly uniform hardness, but it is sometimes
heated unevenly, referred to as "differential tempering," producing a variation in
hardness
6.10 Quenched-steel
Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated above its upper
critical (A 3 ) temperature and then quickly cooled, in a process called quenching,
70
using methods such as immersing the red -hot steel in water, oil, or forced-air. The
quenched-steel, being placed in, or very near, its hardest possible state, is then
tempered to incrementally decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the
desired application. The hardness of the quenched -steel depends on both cooling
speed and on the composition of the alloy. St eel with a high carbon-content will
reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon -content. Likewise, tempering
high-carbon steel to a certain temperature will produce steel that is considerably
harder than low-carbon steel that is tempered at the same temperature. The amount
of time held at the tempering temperature also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly
elevated temperature for a shorter time may produce the same effect as tempering at
a lower temperature for a longer time. Tempering times va ry, depending on the
carbon content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically range from a
few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and 148 C (151
and 298 F), will usually not have much ef fect other than a slight relief of some of
the internal stresses. Tempering at higher temperatures, from 148 to 205 C (298 to
401 F), will produce a slight reduction in hardness, but will primarily relieve much
of the internal stresses. Tempering in the range of 260 and 340 C (500 and 644 F)
causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in brittleness, and is referred to as the
"tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in the case of
blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel req uiring more strength than
toughness, such as tools, are usually not tempered above 205 C (401 F). Instead, a
variation in hardness is usually produced by varying only the tempering time. When
increased toughness is desired at the expense of strength, hig her tempering
temperatures, from 370 to 540 C (698 to 1,004 F), are used. Tempering at even
higher temperatures, between 540 and 600 C (1,004 and 1,112 F), will produce
excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction in the strength and hardness. At
600 C (1,112 F), the steel may experience another stage of embrittlement, called
"temper embrittlement" (TE), which occurs if the steel is held within the TE
temperature range for too long. When heating above this temperature, the steel will
usually not be held for any amount of time, and quickly cooled to avoid temper
embrittlement
72
Chapter 7: Wheel shop
Wheel shop is the sub shop of machine shop. The maintenance of wheel is taking
into the machine shop. The couple of axle and dick is called wheel. The wheel is
enter into the wheel shop .the dick is dismount from the axle .different operation
are used to machine and maintain the axle and disk.
Cutting
Drilling
Grinding
Turning
Internal facing
External facing
Shamfring
73
7.1 Wheel
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail
tracks. A rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly
on a rail car or locomotive or indirectly on a bogie (UK), also called a truck (North
America). Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a
specific hardness. New wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before
being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles need t o be periodically monitored to
ensure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling
resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad
wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre)
around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated
and pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools.
Monobloc wheels do not have encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a
resilient material, such as rubber, between the wheel and tire.
74
7.3 Set wheel
The steel wheel is a mechanical device, which produce rotary motion by means of a
disk or circular frame revolving an axis. The steel wheel can be used for heavy
loads and traction services, such as truck and train. The size and contour of a
specific wheel design is based on the load it must carry and the space limitation of
the equipment on which it is used. The contour of the wheel composed of five parts;
the hub, plate, rim, trade and flange. Classifications are based on service to which
the wheels are applied are defined as:
1. Industrial car wheels for use on various cars such as those used in mining,
railroads and transfer cars.
2. Crane truck wheels, for use in travelling, gantry, bridge cranes and floor -type
changing and drawing machines.
3. Railroad freight car wheels, used according to their capacity and
applications.
Heavy duty wheels, for used under railroad and electric railways car, rapid transit
passenger cars and locomotives.
Most wheels for railways and industrial services are manufactured either by forming
a solid block of metal by a sequence of hot forging and rolling operations or by
casting them directly from liquid into its final shape metal. Mechanically speaking,
steel castings are considered inferior to hot forging and rolling products. The
casting of steel is, however, the most direct method of producing a desired shape.
Today, the steel wheel has been partially replaced by the aluminum alloy wheel on
vehicles, especially light vehicles such as compact cars, Multi -Purpose Vehicle
(MPV) and others, and this trend is expected to continue and become more popular
in the near future. The changeover has already been introduced in General Motors
and Ford in the USA, where new vehicles are introduced with the aluminum wheels
is now rolling off the production lines. There are at least four main reasons why
wheel industries are now prefer to use aluminum alloy to replace wrought steel:
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3. It is fuel-efficient. Basically, a 1kg loads decrease on a car will raise mileage
5-8 meters for every litre of gas used. In other words, fuel -efficiency is
raised about 8.5% for every 10% reduction in car weight. The one -third to
one-fifth work saved will surely prolong the service life of the car engine.
4. Suspension improvements. The suspension system of aluminum alloy wheels
is capable of responding much more quickly to changing surfaces and road
conditions. This increased traction can improve vehicle acceleration,
manoeuvrability and brake performance. It is particularl y noticeable while
driving at high speeds or on rough roads .
However, in production of train wheel, most of the production lines still used steel
instead of aluminum because train is considered as heavy weight vehicles. Besides
that, to run on the steel and strong rail road, the train needs the wheels made of the
very strength steel in order it can run well and there is no obstacle. Absolutely, the
steel which is used to make the wheel must be made of strong steel too, otherwise it
will cause the damages of the wheel, and it cannot stay longer to run on the railroad
Therefore, both metal working processes, train wheel and automobile wheel rim will
be explained briefly in the next chapter as the process may be differs in some part
as it used different material.
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completely in the mold. The molten metal also may be forced upward by a vacuum,
which also removes dissolved gases and produces a casting with low er porosity.
The Plant utilizes Railway scrap as raw material. Thescrap is melted in three
ElectricArc furnaces. The chemistry ofthe molten metal is precision controlled
using Computerized Spectrometers. This enables precise control of steelcomposition
during steel making for obtaining optimum metallurgical characteristics needed for
tough service and long life. The casting is done in graphite molds, which are
precisionmachined using forming tools. This ensures that all wheels are cast to the
same dimensions and tolerances.
The Controlled Pressure Pouring Process is employed for casting. The molten metal
ladle is placed in a chamber and sealed with an airtight cover. A ceramic pouring
tube isattached to the cover. Compressed air, forced into the chamber,pushes the
steel up through the pouring tube and into the graphite mold positioned over the
tube. The steel fills the mold from bottom to form the wheel. As the steel is forced
into the mold at a controlled rate, the wheel is cast to extremely close tolerances
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0the finished ring wheels. As the ring wheel rotates, the diameter of the ring is
gradually increased because of rolls pressure. And, after the ring wheels have been
shaped into the proper and final diameter, they are transferred to a pressing
machine. It will also be treated in the dishing and sizing operation in the other
machines.
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Figure 72 heat treatment
The wheels as cast are normalized in a huge rotary hearth furnace to improve
metallurgical structure and relieve internal stresses. Quenching of the rim and tread
area is done to increase theirhardness. The wheels are shot peened to induce
compressivestresses so that the cast wheels donot fail due to crack propagation
inservice. Each wheel is subjected tomagnetic particle testing for surface flaws and
ultrasonically tested for internal flaws to ensure maximum reliability.
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Figure 73 heat treatment diagram
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Figure 74 finishing process
Among all the process which supports the manufacturing process of the train
wheels, the rolling process has the important roles. Almost all the process like
rolling, pressing, and heat treatment are done for giving the high dens ity of the
steels. However, the rolling process is the most advantages and the most important
role among the others because there are some advantages of using this, they are:
Long-lasting experience on machining of railroad wheels, Wide variety of vertical -
turning machines, Single-source supplier for entire process and manufacturing
system, Machine tool products designed for the highest rigidity and output.
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Figure 75 overall w heel process
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Fig.7.10
Let me give you an example to make this easy to understand. Have you ever
wrinkled aluminum foil and then tightened it as much as possible by hitting it w ith
a spoon to shape a ball? If you have, this is essentially what forging is. Once that
little ball is as small as possible it is extremely hard. This is virtually what happens
during forging, to an infinite power. The piece is pressed between a Ram and a n
Anvil. (See diagram)
Forging can produce a wheel that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined
part. During the process the internal grain is deformed and rearranged to the shape
of the part. This deformation due to compressive force improves the strength
uniformly throughout the entire structure of the wheel. As a result you have a
stronger, lighter wheel.
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Figure 76 forging process
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copy machining, leak testing, defeating, spray painting, baking, finish copy
machining and bush inserting.
The wheels are then passed down to the automatic inspection line where they are
checked for correct rim circumference, and thickness, for the thickness and height
of the flange, for concentricity and diameter of the bore, location of hub with
reference to rim, hub wall thickness, rotundity, and plate thi ckness. The rims of the
wheels of the wheels are ultrasonically inspected to evaluate their internal quality.
The amount of energy used by the tires is proportional to the weight that is on them.
Since a car is relatively light, this amount of energy is acceptable (you can buy low
rolling-resistance tires for your car if you want to save a little gas).
7.6 Traction
Traction when going around turns is not an issue because train wheels have flanges that keep
them on the track. But traction when braking and accelerating is an issue.
This locomotive can generate 64,000 pounds of thrust. But in order for it to use this thrust
effectively, the eight wheels on the locomotive have to be able to apply this thrust to the track
without slipping. The locomotive uses a neat trick to increase the traction.
Figure 77 traction
In front of each wheel is a nozzle that uses com pressed air to spray sand, which is
stored in two tanks on the locomotive. The sand dramatically increases the traction
of the drive wheels. The train has an electronic traction -control system that
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automatically starts the sand sprayers when the wheels sli p or when the engineer
makes an emergency stop. The system can also reduce the power of any traction
motor whose wheels are slipping.
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locomotive. They provide the propulsion, the suspensions and the braking. As you
can imagine, they are tremendous structures.
7.9 Propulsion
The traction motors provide propulsion power to the wheels. There is one on each
axle. Each motor drives a small gear, which meshes with a larger gear on the axle
shaft. This provides the gear reduction that allows the motor to drive the train at
speeds of up to 110 mph.
7.10 Suspension
The trucks also provide the suspension for the locomotive. The weight of the
locomotive rests on a big, round bearing, which allows the trucks to pivot so the
train can make a turn. Below the pivot is a huge leaf spring that rests on a platform.
The platform is suspended by four, giant metal links, which connect to the truck
assembly. These links allow the locomotive to swing from side to side.
The weight of the locomotive rests on the leaf springs, which compress when it
passes over a bump. This isolates the body of the locomotive from the bump. The
links allow the trucks to move from side to side with fluctuations in the track. The
track is not perfectly straight, and at high sp eeds, the small variations in the track
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would make for a rough ride if the trucks could not swing laterally. The system also
keeps the amount of weight on each rail relatively equal, reducing wear on the
tracks and wheels.
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CONCLUSION
This training focussed upon increasing our knowledge and interest in toward the
Production of Railway Carriage & Wagons and workshops . Because It is most
efficient and necessary needs to peoples in these days so its production at most
efficient method with minimum cost and in proper sequence with less wastage. I
learnt how to produce it by turbine, generators, cooling towers, water and maintain
it. It was a great experience. It increase my practical skills thats the main thing
which i learnt in the training session. Thus, I believe that my training session will
be beneficial for various purposes & hence our efforts will be fruitful.
Finally I would like to thank my instructor and all the person of this organization
who had helped me lot during my course.
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Future Recommendations about
Pakistan railway workshops
Motivation comes for any work, from within and heavily depends on individual
consideration, which are bound to be different for each human positiveness of
character makes him/her flexible , tolerant and sound in any specific consideration.
The positiveness heavily depends on the individuals education and curiosity
Pakistan railway workshop mughalpura Lahore is the best place where you can learn
many things aout related to mechanical works.this is the asia,s largest mechanical
workshop here you can see all operations and mechanical practicals.
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References
1. http://www. pakrail.c om/ ybook 2.pdf
4. "$8.2b railtr ack upgrade project wi ns go -ahead - The Express Tri bune". The Ex press Tribune.
2016-06-08. Retriev ed 2016-06-23.
5. W ikipedia: Metr e gauge rai lway
8. Lis ze wski, Andrew ( 15 March 2017). "The Reason Trai ns Hav e Angl ed Wheel s Is Incredibly
Clever ". Gi zmodo. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
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