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BBDH4103
Human Resource Development
Summary 187
Key Terms 188
Self-Test 1 188
Self-Test 2 189
Answers 211
References 240
INTRODUCTION
BBDH4103 Human Resource Development is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Business and Management at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is an elective course for students undertaking the Bachelor of Business
Administration and Bachelor of Management programmes, majoring in Human
Resource Management. It is a core course for students taking the Bachelor of
Human Resource Management programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the major components in human resource development and their
relationships;
2. Explain the role and importance of training and development; performance
appraisal and career development in an organisation;
3. Formulate the strategies of career development and design effective
training programmes;
4. Apply various methods and techniques in implementing training
programmes and performance appraisal;
5. Evaluate the existing issues and challenges in developing employees and
organisations; and
6. Develop the best practices of human resource development.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
The course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 2 touches on the analysis and design needs of training and development.
Here, you will find out about the two early phases of training and development
training needs analysis and design training programmes.
Topic 4 focuses on training management. It will discuss the role of the trainer,
course management as well as issues and needs in training.
Topic 5 introduces performance appraisal. This topic will explain the differences
between management evaluation and performance appraisal. Besides that, you
will be exposed to the various objectives, uses and implications of a performance
appraisal. This topic will end with a discussion on how to plan a performance
appraisal by looking at how it might fail and the criteria for a successful
performance appraisal.
Topic 8 exposes you to career development and management. It will explain the
definition of career and career planning. A number of career-related terms will be
introduced to help you understand the discussions that follow. The discussions
will then focus on work concepts and identify the roles played by individuals,
managers and organisations in career planning. This topic will end with a few
career paths that an individual will follow in his career.
Topic 10 will focus more on career management as well as issues and challenges
in career development. This topic starts off by identifying the role played by an
individual and the organisation in career management. The topic continues with
the career management process followed by an effective career management
system. Lastly, issues related to career management and development will be
discussed. The three main issues discussed will be career development for
females; dual-career couples; and loss of job as well as down-sizing. The
discussion that follows will be about the three challenges faced by an
organisation, namely, who will be responsible for career development activities,
how much emphasis should be given to help improve employees careers and
developing a unique workforce in an organisation.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Learners of this course are required to pass the BBPB2103 Human Resource
Management course.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bacal, R. (1999). Performance management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Beaver, G., & Stewart, J. (2007). Human resource development in small
organisations: Research and practice. London: Routledge.
Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (1999). Effective training: Systems, strategies
and practices. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Bohlander, G., Snell, & Sherman, A. (2009). Managing human resources (15th
ed.). Ohio: South- Western College Publishing.
Brown, D. (2003). Career information, career counselling, and career
development (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Cardy, R. L., & Dobbins, G. H. (1994). Performance appraisal: Alternative
perspectives. Ohio: South-Western Publishing Co.
Clark, F. A. (1991). Total career management: Strategies for creating management
careers. London: McGraw-Hill.
DeSimone, R. L. Werner, J. M., & Harris, D. M. (2002). Human resource
development (3rd ed.). Orlando,FL: Harcourt College Publishers
Faizuniah Pangil, et.al. (2002). Pengurusan sumber manusia. Malaysia: McGraw-Hill.
Gibb, S. (2007). Human resource development: Processes, practices and
perspectives. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2004). Managing human
resources (4th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson - Prentice Hall.
Grugulis, I. (2006). Skill, training and human resources development: A critical text
(management, work and organisations). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1997). Analyzing performance problems: Or you really
oughta wanna. (3rd ed.). Atlanta, GA.: Center for Effective Performance.
INTRODUCTION
Human resources are a critical component of an organisation. If a human
resource department does not have the knowledge, skills and means to carry out
its job, the objectives of the organisation will not be realised. Training begins
immediately when a person starts work and it continues depending on the needs
of the organisation, the job and the employee. Therefore, the role of training and
development in any organisation cannot be treated lightly.
What are training and development? Why are training and development
important to an organisation? What does the process of training and
development involve? We will try to answer all of these questions in this topic.
We will start our discussion with the concepts of training and development,
All three approaches involve learning activities that are ongoing and systemically
organised by an organisation. The main objective of human resource
development is to improve the effectiveness and productivity of employees,
groups and organisation.
Nadler (1985) also shares the opinion that training and development is one of the
main activities in human resource development. According to him:
(a) Training gives special focus to learning that is related to the current job;
(b) Education involves learning for the job in future; and
(c) Development focuses on an individual in general and is not related to his
current or future job.
What is the actual meaning of development and education in the human resource
context? Refer to Figure 1.1 for the answer.
(a) Development
Development can be viewed as a learning process to develop an employee in
general not relating to his current or future job. There are organisations and
individuals that would like to see improvement, be it related to life or the
organisation of the individual concerned. Organisations that are sensitive to
the needs of their employees will provide facilities and opportunities to
enable them to take up short and long courses that will give them knowledge
and skills in the respective fields.
(b) Education
Education, on the other hand, involves an organised learning process to
provide knowledge, skills and capabilities in general that can be applied in
employees future jobs. An employee will usually take the initiative to
improve his academic qualifications for career advancement. However,
there are organisations that are sensitive to their employees career
advancement. Workers who are noted to have the potential for promotion
or for holding a certain job at some time in the future should equip
themselves with the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed. Therefore, the
organisation might make sure that the employee is well equipped by
sending him for relevant learning programmes, whether at a learning
institute or through certain professional bodies.
ACTIVITY 1.1
State the consequences if an employee is not involved in the
development and learning process.
can be said that training has a positive impact on the individual as well as the
organisation.
Training and development not only equip and enhance the knowledge, skills and
abilities of an individual, they are also important in deciding the individuals
eligibility for career development. An employee who has special skills and gives
an outstanding performance usually has a better chance of being promoted
compared to someone who has not undergone any training and development
programmes.
Why do training and development need to be carried out? Refer to the following
explanations to understand the reasons why training and development are
important and why they should be carried out.
(b) An Employee has the Potential to Advance in His Career with the
Organisation
An employee who has the potential to hold a particular post in an
organisation will be given training as preparation to equip him with the
knowledge, skills, attitude and abilities needed when he is promoted. For
example, an officer who has the potential to be a manager needs a higher
level of efficiency because the duties and responsibilities are different.
Therefore, training must be carried out so that he will be ready with the
knowledge, skills and abilities needed for that position when the time
comes.
Demands by clients that are becoming more precise and challenging are
among the changes that can influence and demand accuracy and speediness
of the production process and work system. To make sure that clients
demands are met, an organisation will be required to evaluate and change
the existing production process. If there are changes in the structure and
work system, the employees involved must be re-trained so that every
individual involved understands and will be able to carry out his job
according to the new system and working procedure.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Why is training given to a new employee? Discuss this with your
coursemates.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Surf http://www.astd.org. Choose one program offered by ASTD
and explain how it will benefit the employee and organisation.
2. Get information on human resource development in Malaysia, surf
the Ministry of Human Resources website at http://www.jaring.my.
Discuss what you have found from the website with your
coursemates.
3. Do you know that there are many internal and external changes in the
organisation that can influence training and development? Discuss
these in a group of four during your tutorial.
There are many theories about learning that influence a training and development
process such as Pavlovs classical conditioning theory, Thorndikes S-R theory and
Skinners operant conditioning theory. Their research concentrates on the outcome
of training that can be observed, which is the behaviour shown by an individual as
a result of training and development. A number of important implications of the
behavioural theory is summarised in Figure 1.2.
(c) Participants should learn how to learn. The ability to learn will help to
increase the participants learning outcome.
Besides the behaviour and cognitive theories, another theory which is closely
related to training is the adult learning theory. This theory focuses more on the
approach that should be used in training, or the andragogy approach. The adult
training approach or andragogy is used with the assumption that adults:
(a) Would like to know why they have to learn something;
(b) Are rich in knowledge and working experience which can be used as a
source to improve learning;
(c) Are more ready to learn something which is necessary or closely related to
their current duties and responsibilities and which are of interest to them;
and
(d) Are more motivated to learn if what they learn can be applied immediately
to solve their work problems.
The three identified factors that can increase learning and influence the
transfer of learning at the workplace are the characteristics of the
participant, the design of the training as well as the work environment.
Figure 1.3 shows more detail on how the three factors are related.
The arrangement and the contents taught during the training programme
also plays an important role in the transfer of training. A programme
usually starts with the basic knowledge and the level will be increased
during training to facilitate understanding and absorption in the learning
process. However, when choosing the contents of a programme, we must
also look at the employees level of knowledge. If the employee has the
basic knowledge on a particular topic, it is not necessary to stress on it
again. It is sufficient to do some revision before going to the next level.
Varying the methods and techniques used while carrying out the
programme is also important to increase learning and transfer of training.
well as that of the department and organisation. Besides that, the employee
must be given the opportunity to practise what he/she has learnt at his/her
place of work. If the opportunity is not given, the knowledge and skills
obtained will be forgotten.
The three factors discussed are important and need to be given close attention so
that the learning process can be carried out effectively. This is because effective
learning can influence transfer of training at the work place.
Transfer of training is important because the training that is carried out involves
costs on the part of the management. When transfer of learning takes place, the
organisation will benefit from the investment made. If not, it is a waste of money
because neither the worker nor the management has benefited from the
programme. So, the effectiveness and success of a training programme depends on
the ability of the employee to transfer and apply the knowledge gained at the work
place in order to improve his or her work as well as the performance of the
organisation.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Goldstein (1993), on the other hand, introduced the General System Model which
emphasises the validity aspect of the training that is carried out. It categorises
four important phases: needs evaluation, training and development, evaluation
and, lastly, training objectives. Figure 1.5 gives us a picture of this model.
From the discussion earlier, we can summarise that in general, the activities in a
learning process can be divided into four phases as shown in Figure 1.7.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Watch this video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85RVEas4AXs
titled HR Management: Training and Development by Dr Alysa
Lambert from the Indiana University Southeast. This video explains the
processes involved in training and development. Compare the training
process in this video with the training process in the module. Discuss
your comparisions during your tutorial.
Training and development are one of the functions of human resource that
should be implemented so that an employee is equipped with the knowledge,
skills and abilities required to help realise the objectives of the organisation.
Staff competition and ongoing changes demand an organisation to react
accordingly. Therefore, an organisation needs employees who are capable,
knowledgeable, skilful and are able to give the organisation a competitive
edge.
Training and development should be done continuously.
Training and development are necessary for new and existing employees,
employees with potential for promotion and even problematic employees.
Training and development are very important in improving the performance
of the employees and the organisation.
Many theories on learning have become the basis for training and learning:
behavioural theory, cognitive theory and adult learning theory.
Training is considered effective if an employee applies the things learnt at the
workplace.
The effectiveness and success of a training programme depends a lot on the
ability of employees to transfer and apply the knowledge and skills gained to
improve their work and organisational performance.
Four key steps or phases in a training process that need to be addressed are
needs analysis, design, implementation and evaluation.
Every step is closely inter-related, and the outcome of each step will form the
input for the next step. Therefore, all the four steps in a training process
should be given special attention.
Essay Questions
1. What is the connection between training and development in human
resource management?
2. Explain the differences between training and development.
3. What do you understand by learning concepts?
4. State the differences between behavioural theory and cognitive theory.
5. Explain the transfer of learning concept.
4. Using the knowledge, skills and ability gained from training at the work
place shows that _____________ has taken place.
A. experience
B. development
C. learning
D. transfer
5. All the steps below are included in the training process EXCEPT:
A. Planning
B. Evaluation
C. Needs analysis
D. Design
Essay Questions
2. Explain briefly the role of the learning theory in training and development.
3. What are the three factors that can influence transfer of learning at the
workplace? Discuss.
4. State the differences and similarities of the three training models discussed
in this topic.
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1, we have already identified four main phases in the training and
development process i.e. needs analysis, design, implementation and evaluation.
This topic will focus on the first and second phases. There are several important
points in the first and second phases of the training process that should be given
priority, namely, the needs analysis and training design phase.
To find out the answers, we will examine the first phase of the training process,
namely, the training needs analysis phase. We shall see how the training needs at
the organisational, work and individual levels are determined. After we have
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 NEEDS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN PHASE 23
identified the training needs, we will move to the second phase, which is the
training programme design phase. In this phase, we will discuss a few important
steps such as determining objectives, choosing an appropriate programme and
trainer as well as developing a training programme.
DeSimone, Werner and Harris (2002) explain that the need for training is due
to some shortcomings or gaps in the actual performance level which can be
rectified by providing training.
Needs analysis can help us identify any shortcoming or gap that exists in
organisational, job or employee performance. It can indicate the need for
training, such as:
(a) Organisational performance can indicate whether the organisation has
achieved its objectives.
(b) Current job performance can ensure that all employees have the
knowledge, skills, attitude and capabilities needed to complete their
present tasks efficiently and effectively.
(c) Future job performance can identify whether the knowledge, skills, attitude
and capabilities that one has are adequate for carrying out his/her tasks in
future.
(d) Employee performance can determine which employees need to be trained
now and in future.
We will now examine the five types of training needs mentioned in Figure 2.1.
(a) Performance Gap
There is a need for training to help employees who have not achieved their
desired performance level. Performance gap here means the comparison
between the actual achievement of the employee and the prescribed
performance level.
(b) Democratic Needs
Training is decided upon request by employees. Sometimes, it is the
employees themselves who will apply to join a particular programme based
on their needs, inclinations and interest.
(c) Diagnostic Needs
The need for training depends on factors that affect employee performance.
Training is more focused on factors that could lead to performance that
would be effective in future and not on the problems of the present
performance.
(d) Analytical Needs
Training is needed to identify new work procedures that are better than the
existing system. This also includes programmes that could encourage
employees to be creative and innovative in order to improve their present
working procedures.
ACTIVITY 2.1
The first step that one must take before developing a training is to
come up with a training needs analysis. In your opinion, why is this
step crucial? How can training needs be identified?
(i) List the tasks and responsibilities required for the job. We will list here
all the activities or steps taken to complete the job.
(ii) Identify the type and level of knowledge, skills and capabilities
required to complete the task.
(iii) Identify the performance level required for a particular task.
(iv) Identify the task and competency that should be included in the
training programme for that particular task. This would involve the
evaluation of the level of difficulty, importance and duration
necessary to complete a task.
(v) Arrange training needs in accordance to their priority. The task and
competency that are on the top of the list should be dealt with first.
From the discussion above, we can conclude that needs analysis is a process
that is systemically done by an organisation to see whether training is
required or otherwise. An effective analysis highlights important points to
the organisation. These include:
(a) The effectiveness of an organisation in achieving its objectives
Comparing actual performance with the one that has been prescribed;
(b) Current competency gap Comparing the employees current
knowledge, skills and capabilities with the prescribed level and type
of competency which are vital in carrying out a given task efficiently
and effectively; and
(c) Future time competency Comparing current competency with
competency that is required for a future task or responsibility.
Every method has its advantages and disadvantages. Thus, to obtain a better
analysis outcome, the normal practice is to use more than one method.
(a) Questionnaires
In this technique which uses forms, a greater number of people are
involved in a shorter period. In addition to its low cost, it is easier to handle
and to make an analysis. However, the responses are difficult to control.
Furthermore, the questions asked have to be few and brief as it would take
a long time to complete it otherwise, and might annoy interviewees. It is
also difficult to gather more information from the completed forms.
(b) Interviews
The interview technique, whether by phone or face to face, is very effective in
gathering more detailed information. Nevertheless, it is time-consuming,
especially if we wish to get information from many respondents. The
information gathered is also difficult to analyse. Furthermore, we need
skilled interviewers to get complete feedback. It can also disrupt the
interviewees work flow as they would have to stop from work for the time
being in order to answer the questions posed to them.
(c) Observation
This technique can provide more accurate information regarding a
particular job because the observations made are based on the employees
job-related movements. Nevertheless, the observer has to be skilful to
ensure that no important aspect is left out. In addition, this technique takes
a longer time to obtain correct and complete information.
(d) Examining Documents
Using documents that are available can provide accurate information on a
particular subject. Nevertheless, the documents may be obsolete and therefore
not suitable to be used. In addition, the information needed may be difficult to
obtain and may take a longer time to locate if the filing system is poor.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Mager and Pipe (1997) suggested a flow chart or algorithm (see Figure. 2.4) to
determine whether training is an appropriate solution to overcome the training
needs that have been identified. The flow chart suggests that needs analysis
should be carried out at every level starting from organisational analysis for a
more accurate outcome.
After we have carried out the needs analysis, we have to determine whether the
needs can be addressed by carrying out a training programme. It must be
emphasised here that not all gaps or shortcomings that have been identified by
needs analysis can be addressed by a training programme. There are problems or
gaps in an organisation that cannot be eliminated by training such as worker
burnout, dissatisfaction over salary or unsatisfactory work environment.
Figure 2.5: Activities carried out at the training programme design phase
The first activity in this phase is defining the objectives of the training
programme. These objectives are statements of what is hoped to be achieved
from the training. It explains the skills or knowledge that will be acquired by the
programme participant. The written objectives should be measurable and able to
be evaluated to facilitate the evaluation that will be conducted after that. The
objectives should be written from the participants perspective so that he would
understand what he should do and the outcome that is expected from the
programme. According to Nadler (1985), good training objectives encompass
three important components, namely:
(a) Performance or achievement outcomes that should be shown by the
participant after he has undergone the training programme;
(b) Conditions or regulations that explain the constraints or needs so that the
learned behaviour can be shown; and
(c) Criteria that state the performance level that a participant is expected to
achieve and show before he is considered successful.
Lawson (1998), on the other hand, suggested that the training objectives can
be divided into three learning categories, namely affective (attitude),
behaviour (skills), and cognitive (knowledge).
In other words, training objectives can ensure whether the thrust of the
programme is to increase the participants knowledge regarding a particular
subject, equip him with the skills necessary for a task, or change his attitude. The
written objectives can cover one, two or all three categories for a particular
training programme.
After having made the decision as to whether to develop our own training or to
outsource it, the next step is to select a trainer or facilitator for the programme.
Similar to the choice we have with regard to the training programme, we also
have a choice as to whether to use an in-house trainer or to get one from outside.
When making a choice, we have to consider a few important aspects such as
expertise and cost. The trainer selected must be an expert in his field and have a
high level of knowledge as well as wide experience in his field.
To solve the problem of a shortage of good trainers, a training programme for new
trainers can be carried out. It is common to conduct training programmes for trainers
to equip in-house trainers with training skills. An alternative is to form a team made
up of a trainer and experts in particular fields so that they will complement one
another. The organisations trainer could be in charge of activities related to the
training process while the experts could handle the more technical aspects.
Now that both the programme and the trainer have been selected, it is time to
prepare the training and lesson plan. The lesson plan should be for every topic or
lesson unit based on the contents of the programme, which in turn, are based on
the objectives of the training programme. This is to ensure that whatever that has
been learnt by the participants will help them attain the expected performance
level at the end of the programme.
After the contents of the programme have been decided on, the next step is to
arrange them in a particular sequence. They may be arranged from the general
to the specific. This is a common approach as it gives a holistic picture of the
subject before dealing with the specific aspects in depth. Conversely, we can use
the order of the specific to the general. Regardless of the approach we take, we
have to make sure that every subtopic follows a certain sequence which will help
in understanding and the learning process. The training plan, meanwhile, covers
all the lesson plans for the whole programme. Figure 2.7 shows a typical lesson
plan.
The lesson plan is crucial to the trainer as it functions as the main guide to the
activities of the training programme. The training and lesson plans normally
consist of many sections including title and objectives, contents in sequential
order, materials and equipment, activities, methods and techniques, time
allocation for every activity and topic, and the type of evaluation used
(DeSimone et al., 2002). One of the aspects that we should be paying attention to
when preparing the training plan is the programme schedule. The date and time
when the programme is going to be held can affect the success of the programme.
We have to choose a suitable date and time to ensure that there will be a trainer
and participants attending the programme. The following are some questions
that are considered important in preparing a training plan:
(a) Are working days more suitable than holidays?
(b) Are office hours more suitable?
(c) Is the middle of the month better than the end or beginning of the month?
These are some of the questions that we should pay considerable attention to
when fixing the training schedule. Another important aspect that we should
consider in preparing the lesson and training plan is choosing suitable learning
methodology and activities. Generally, learning methodologies fall into two
categories (DeSimone, Werner and Harris, 2002):
(a) On-the-job training.
(b) Off-the-job training.
On-the-job training is usually held at the workplace and during office hours. Off-
the-job training, on the other hand, is usually held outside office hours, inside or
outside the premises of the organisation. We will discuss the training techniques for
each methodology under the implementation phase in the next topic.
After the lesson and training plans have been developed, all the training
materials and equipment to be used can be prepared and arranged. Teaching
materials such as facilitators notes make it easier for the facilitator to conduct the
programme, while learning materials such as participants notes will help in
enhancing their understanding. These notes are usually put in a file together with
stationery. Files are usually labelled with information on the programme. We
also have to make sure that equipment such as LCD and/or computer are ready
and functioning. This last point may look trivial but failure to supply them or get
them ready may affect the smooth running of the programme.
Finally, matters pertaining to logistics have to be taken care of. This includes
physical resources such as where the training is going to be held; financial
resources to bear the cost of running the programme; and human resources such
as facilitators who are qualified to conduct the programme. For this purpose, it is
recommended that a checklist be provided as well.
If an organisation has its own training hall, the training can be held there to save
costs. If not, the organisation has to rent a suitable place such as in a hotel or the
training centre of another organisation.
The seating position of the participants in the training hall has to suit the
objectives of the programme, methods and activities planned. It is crucial that the
chairs and desks/tables be arranged in a suitable way to facilitate the running of
the programme. If the methodology and activities of the programme require the
participants to do a lot of group discussions, then it is more appropriate if the
chairs and tables are arranged in such a position that it will facilitate the learning
process. However, if the objectives of the training are cognitive in nature and the
lecture technique is used, the most appropriate seating arrangement is that of a
classroom. Close attention must be paid to the seating arrangement to ensure that
participants have an uninterrupted view of the facilitator and the white screen.
Another critical aspect is finance. Adequate allocation of funds is vital to bear all
the expenditure costs so that the programme will be a guaranteed success.
Expenditure costs include facilitators allowance, training room rental, costs of
materials such as paper, files, stationery, diskettes and refreshments. If the
programme is held outstation, other expenditure such as for transport and
lodging for the facilitator, participants and secretariat have to be considered.
In this topic, we have discussed the first and second phases of the training
process. Before any programme can be developed, it is necessary to conduct a
needs analysis.
The purpose of this process is to ascertain whether training and development
are necessary for an organisation, where the training is to be held and who
needs it. It is also to identify the performance gaps or shortcomings at three
levels i.e. organisational, task and employee.
Organisational analysis entails an analysis of the internal and external
environments which can affect the organisation in its efforts to achieve its
targets and objectives.
Task analysis entails analysis of the job to identify the knowledge, skills,
attitude and capabilities required for the job.
Individual analysis can ascertain which employees need to be trained and the
type of training necessary.
Needs analysis is best done systematically at the three levels using methods
such as questionnaires, observations, interviews and documents which are
available, as well as relevant information resources.
The training programme design phase involves a number of main activities.
The training objectives are defined according to the training needs that have
been identified.
After the training objectives have been determined, the training programme
can be developed by the organisation itself or outsourced. Aspects such as
costs, time, expertise and the organisations experience have to be considered.
Similarly, in choosing a trainer, an organisation may have to engage a trainer
from outside if there is no expert in the required field.
The development of a training plan entails selecting and sequencing contents
of the programme that are appropriate with the objectives, knowledge and
skill levels of the participant, the trainers expertise and the type of contents.
The training methods and activities also have to be considered so as to match
the objectives. Similarly, programme materials and equipment have to be
prepared before the programme is carried out.
Serious attention has to be given to physical, financial and human resources
to ensure that the programme will run smoothly as planned.
1. Legal needs are training needs which are determined by popular request
from employees.
2. Needs analysis is mainly carried out to ascertain whether there is a need for
training in the organisation.
5. An effective needs analysis can identify the present and future competency
gap.
6. The training programme can solve all the problems regarding gaps or
shortcomings that have been identified by training needs analysis.
7. Lesson plans cover all the training plans for the whole programme.
9. The day and time of the training have to be considered in the design phase.
Multiple-Choice Questions
4. All the statements on training objectives stated below are true EXCEPT:
A. The training objectives explain skills or knowledge which is to be
learned by participants.
B The written training objectives can be measured and evaluated.
C The training objectives have to cover all the three categories, namely
affective, behaviour and cognitive.
D. The training objectives have to be written from the trainers
perspective.
Essay Questions
INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we have discussed the first two phases involved in the
training process, namely, the needs analysis and design phases. In the needs
analysis phase, we have seen the three analysis stages to identify the training
needs of the organisation, the job as well as the individual. The various ways and
sources of information that can be used for every stage of the analysis have also
been discussed. The outcome of the needs analysis phase is used for defining the
training objectives, which is the first step in the design stage. A good training
objective will form the basis for carrying out activities in the training process that
follows. When a programme has been designed, it can then be implemented.
used to evaluate the effectiveness of the programme that has been developed and
implemented.
The ice-breaking activities used must suit the situation, place and the level of the
participants in the organisation. Usually, for non-management employees,
activities which are fun and need a lot of movement are used, for example,
blowing balloons, getting signatures of other participants, treasure hunts, portrait
drawings and others. For the management level, the activities used are more
relevant to the programme and their jobs, like creativity testing, planning,
crossword puzzles and many more.
Before we move to the following topic, let us look back at the steps in the
programme implementation phase in Figure 3.2.
There are a number of training methods and techniques which can be used.
However, to facilitate learning and understanding, these methods and techniques
have been grouped and divided according to certain categories. As mentioned in
the previous lesson, in general, training methods can be divided into two
categories (DeSimone, Werner and Harris, 2002), which are:
(a) On-the-job training which involves training carried out at the actual place
of work; and
(b) Off-the-job training which involves training outside the work premises,
whether at another area of the organisation or outside the organisation.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Are the objectives important in deciding a training method? Why?
This method can also reduce costs as it does not require any training
facilities except what is available at the place of work. However, the
weakness of this method is the difficulty of controlling interruptions in the
working environment such as noise, ringing of telephones or other
employees who go in and out or pass by the training venue.
On-the-job training can be carried out using a number of techniques like job
rotation, instructional job training, guidance and counselling as well as the
mentor technique.
(i) The job rotation technique is designed to improve the skills related to
a participants present job. It requires the participants to work in one
department under its supervisor for a certain period of time before
moving to the other departments in the organisation.
(ii) Job instruction training, on the other hand, is the ongoing learning
procedure used by the trainer to train participants to carry out the jobs
and responsibilities entrusted to them. This job instruction training
explains in detail the things that need to be studied and done by the
participant throughout the training period. It is usually divided into
four main steps, beginning with:
Preparing participants so that they understand and know what
the expectations of the organisation for them are.
Introducing the job carefully so that they will be able to carry out
the particular job.
An employee needs a lot of practice in order to become proficient.
Feedback regarding the employees performance must be given all
the time so that they will know the level of their performance.
This will give them an opportunity to overcome any weaknesses
that they might have.
Lastly, we should monitor the progress of the participants work
performance regularly until they are able to manage on their own.
Noe (2002) divides the training methods into three categories based on the
teaching activities i.e. the presentation methods, the hands-on methods and
the group building methods.
(i) The presentation methods refer to the teaching techniques which can
be used to convey information to the participants without any
involvement from them, like in the lecture and audio-visual methods.
(ii) Meanwhile the hands-on methods refer to the training techniques that
need the active involvement of the participants like in the simulation
technique, case studies, role play, behaviour models and business
games methods.
(iii) The group building methods, on the other hand, involve the training
techniques which can improve group or team work effectiveness like
team building and motivational building.
Junaidah (2001) explains that the choice of training methods and techniques
depends on a number of factors including the outcome and contents of the
programme, background and experience of the participants, costs and the
expertise of the trainer or facilitator.
ACTIVITY 3.2
The evaluation method that can be used can be divided into two, formal and
informal. The formal method involves questionnaires as well as written, oral and
practical assessments and assignments, whereas the informal method is through
discussions, interviews, observation and feedback. The most common method,
however, is the use of questionnaires.
Next, through this evaluation, the organisation can know whether the
participants have gained any knowledge, skills and abilities as stated in the
training objectives or otherwise.
Among the other objectives of carrying out a training evaluation programme are to:
(a) Ascertain whether the training objectives have been achieved or not;
(b) Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the training programme;
(c) Evaluate whether the design and management of the programme has
helped the learning and transfer of training or otherwise;
(d) Identify which participants have benefited the most or the least from the
training programme;
(e) Identify suitable groups of employees to undergo the programme in future;
(f) Gather information to help promotional and marketing activities of the
programme;
(g) Determine the monetary benefits and costs gained; and
(h) Form a database to help the management make a decision concerning the
training.
The evaluation model commonly used and one which has the most influence is
the Kirkpatricks evaluation model. It is one of the earlier models proposed to
evaluate the effectiveness of a training programme. This model proposes four
stages where evaluation of a training programme can be done. They are the
reaction, learning, behaviour and outcomes stages.
Let us have a look at the points that are evaluated at every stage and how it can
be carried out.
(a) Reaction
The reaction stage is evaluated in order to get the participants feedback
and views of the programme. Among the information evaluated is their
perception on the contents of the programme, the performance of the
trainer, surroundings and also how the programme is managed. This stage
is easy to evaluate and is very often used. However, it can only measure the
participants satisfaction towards the particular programme. Anyhow,
many believe that if a participant likes the programme, he will give more
attention during training.
The instruments commonly used at this stage are questionnaires. Table 3.2
shows an example of a questionnaire and the questions that can be included
in the assessment forms at this stage.
Circle the choice which fits you according to the scale below:
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = disagree
4 = strongly disagree
1 This programme is beneficial to me. 1 2 3 4
2 The reading materials given are very useful. 1 2 3 4
3 The contents of this course are very interesting. 1 2 3 4
4 The time of the training is very suitable. 1 2 3 4
5 The choice of place is very suitable. 1 2 3 4
6 The trainer is very well-prepared for this course. 1 2 3 4
7 The trainer was able to make me interested to 1 2 3 4
follow the programme till the end.
8 The trainer was able to deliver the contents very 1 2 3 4
well.
9 I am very satisfied with this course. 1 2 3 4
(b) Learning
This stage is evaluated to measure how much the participants have learned
from the training programme. It is easier to measure the training objectives
at this stage because we can evaluate whether the level of the participants
knowledge, skills, attitude and abilities have improved after attending the
programme. The method commonly used is through written and practical
assessments. Written assessments are more appropriately used to measure
the level of knowledge, whereas practical assessments are more appropriate
for measuring the participants skills. Figure 3.4 shows a few sample
questions for measuring the participants level of learning.
(c) Behaviour
This stage will measure the transfer of training taking place, i.e. looks at
whether the participants can apply the things that they have learnt at their
own workplace or otherwise. Therefore, it should best be carried out a few
weeks after the training programme is over. This is to give the participants
enough time to try and use the materials that they have learnt at their
workplace.
(d) Outcome
The evaluation at this stage tries to measure the effectiveness of the
organisation as a result of the training carried out. This evaluation is
important for the management to ensure that the returns from the
investment are made. The information for this evaluation can be obtained
from the records, reports and also the index of the organisation. However,
this kind of evaluation is quite difficult to carry out as we are not able to
Kirkpatrick also stresses that evaluation need not be done at every stage. It
can be done at one of the stages or at the combination of any stages,
depending on the points that we wish to measure.
We have completed discussing the third and fourth phases of the training
process. The third phase, which is the implementation phase, involves the
actual delivery of the training programme to the participants.
The first issue touched is the choice of a suitable training method. Training
methods can be divided into two, i.e. on-the-job and off-the-job training.
After a programme has been designed, all the management activities before
training are done. This includes sending confirmation letters to the
participants and their supervisors to inform them about the programme as
well matters concerning logistics.
During and also after the training is carried out, the evaluation process is
implemented to monitor the progress and effectiveness of the programme.
Training evaluation is carried out to ensure that the objective of the training is
achieved, to improve the steps taken in the training process, to make sure the
training is well managed, to measure whether the participants have learnt
anything and to make sure that they are satisfied with the particular
programme.
Every model will determine whether the evaluation can be done before
and/or after the programme. The most commonly used model is the
Kirkpatrick model which proposes four stages where evaluation of training
can be done.
4. All the training techniques below need active participation from the
participants EXCEPT:
A. Case studies
B. Lectures
C. Simulation
D. Behaviour model
Essay Questions
1. Explain four training techniques which can be used for on-the-job training.
INTRODUCTION
We have already discussed the training process and the four main phases,
namely, the needs analysis, design, implementation and evaluation phases in the
previous topic. It is not enough to only know and understand the training
process and its significance. We have to be able to manage it well and effectively
ensure that it can achieve the desired objectives or needs.
Thus, this topic will discuss the activities that need to be carried out to ensure
that the training programme takes place as planned. We will begin by discussing
the different roles of a trainer in an organisation and the skills required. We will
then focus on the activities that need to be carried out before, during and after
the training programme. We will end the topic with a discussion on some
common issues and trends in training.
According to DeSimone, Werner and Harris (2002) and Analoui (1993), a trainer
can play many different roles as shown in Figure 4.1.
If we review the different roles, we could connect each role with the steps
involved in the training process. Nevertheless, in an organisation, a trainer puts
on many hats, according to the size of the training unit or department in the
organisation. A large organisation usually has a few staff members in charge of
training, with one staff member having probably one or two roles only. In a small
organisation, however, one training staff will take on different roles to make sure
that everything will run smoothly as planned.
ACTIVITY 4.1
What are the roles of a trainer in your organisation? What are the
skills required to be a good trainer? Discuss your answers in the
myVLE forum.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Think of the steps involved in the training process and list other
roles and the skills required from a trainer.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Discuss with your coursemates in the myVLE forum the activities
involved in running a training programme.
Table 4.1 shows some activities that have to be considered in the implementation
phase.
ACTIVITY 4.4
In addition to the activities listed above, think of other activities that
have to be implemented before, during and after the programme
has started.
To ensure that the training programme proceeds smoothly, the teaching and
learning materials have to be prepared and the equipment checked to ensure that
it works. A good trainer would normally join in the preparation to prevent any
unfavourable event from happening. Refer to Table 4.2 for a sample of a trainers
checklist.
The trainer has to arrive early at the training venue on the day concerned and has
to make sure that everything is ready. He can have a chat with the participants
before starting the programme. Participants have to register by signing
attendance forms. This is essential to make sure that all participants are present
and take part in the programme from start to finish. Remember that the
programme has to start on time.
If you are the trainer, try to have a good start for the training programme and
speak with confidence. You should create a positive learning atmosphere and
motivate participants to be actively involved throughout the programme. Be
prepared to use different techniques to suit the conditions or environment at that
time. Remind participants to be punctual so that the programme can proceed
according to schedule.
Figure 4.4 shows a list of things that you should do at the start of the programme.
Starting off with a warm welcome will give participants a sense of comfort being
in the room. There should be an ice-breaking session where participants can get
to know one another. This will also enable the trainer to identify the participants
background, work experience and level of knowledge of the programme
contents.
In addition, the trainer has to explain the learning aims, objectives and activities
of the training programme so that the participants understand what is expected
of them. The regulations which are drawn up together have to be explained too.
Participants also have to be informed of matters related to logistics,
administration and support services available. Name tags have to be worn at all
times for easy identification. Finally, the role of the trainer has to be explained.
Before you end the programme, make sure you have re-evaluated its contents
and the training plan, assessed the learning and motivated participants to
continue learning and apply whatever they have learned at the workplace. Ask
participants to review what they have learned from the programme and share it
with other participants. Make sure participants complete the programme
evaluation forms.
After the programme has ended, the completed evaluation forms have to be
analysed. The feedback received has to be given due attention and all training
records of participants have to be updated. The final action is to prepare a report
on the training programme and implement the monitoring process.
ACTIVITY 4.5
Let us now see what happened when the country was gripped with the economic
crisis of late 1997. The government and Bank Negara Malaysia agreed to
implement the merging process in the financial industry in order to stabilise the
countrys financial situation. All the financial institutions were requested to
merge to form eight main banks. As a result of the merger, workers from two or
three banks merged. One significant effect of this move was the computer system
used to handle customers transactions. Workers from other banks who joined
the main banks needed special training on the use of the system to prevent
problems later. All workers also needed a reorientation training to introduce
them to the new management as well as the banks new mission and vision. This
was important in order to get unified support from all the workers to achieve the
banks objectives.
Internal changes, on the other hand, may result in customers demands that are
increasingly challenging, restructuring, changes in policies and regulations, new
management, implementation of quality management system, use of new
equipment, etc. Customers demands that are increasingly more challenging are
among the changes that may require the banks services and work system to be
faster and more efficient. An organisation may therefore have to re-evaluate and
adjust its current services and work system to cater to customers demands.
When there are changes in the work system and structure, the employees
involved have to be retrained so that they understand what their duties are and
can carry them out according to the new work systems and procedures.
ACTIVITY 4.6
What are the issues in a training programme that are constantly raised
in an organisation? What are the trends that usually influence a
training programme? Discuss the questions in the myVLE forum.
ACTIVITY 4.7
Think of how other changes can influence training in your
organisation. Discuss with your friends.
How can globalisation influence training?
Essay Questions
3. Elaborate on the five categories of skills that are required in order to play
the different roles of a trainer.
INTRODUCTION
Managers usually carry out performance appraisal on their subordinates.
However, many managers might not be able to answer if they are asked whether
they are satisfied with the existing evaluation system. This is because they do not
know whether the way they are handling the performance appraisal is right.
The task of evaluating a worker is not easy. The performance appraisal process is
not only important to the organisation but also to the employees. An employee
would like to know his situation in the eyes of the employer particularly in
relation to his job. At the same time, the organisation must know whether an
employee has achieved the objectives it set.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Based on your understanding, try to give the meaning of performance
appraisal. Compare your answer with your classmates in the myVLE
forum.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Table 5.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of formal and informal
performance appraisal.
Table 5.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal and Informal
Performance Appraisal
Informal Performance
Formal Performance Appraisal
Appraisal
Kossek and Block (2000) as well as Bohlander, Snell and Sherman (2004) also find
that the performance appraisal outcome is used for the following purposes:
(a) To provide opportunities for workers to discuss their performance with
their supervisors on a regular basis;
(b) As a means or way of making it easier for supervisors to identify their
employees strengths and weaknesses;
(c) To prepare a format to enable supervisors to propose a special programme
to improve job performance; and
(d) As a basis for salary revision or for promotions.
After learning about the uses and purposes of performance appraisal, lets find
out what are its implications for the organisation, appraiser and individual
evaluated? According to Mohrmarn, Jr, Resnick West and Lawler lll (1989), a
performance appraisal carried out in an organisation has positive or negative
implications depending on how it is managed. These implications can be seen in
Table 5.1.
In short, we can sum up that most performance appraisal outcomes are used for
the administration and development of the employee. The performance appraisal
managed can also bring about positive and negative implications, depending on
how it is implemented.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Elaborate the aims and purpose of a performance appraisal. What are
the implications of implementing a performance appraisal in an
organisation?
ACTIVITY 5.4
Discuss with a human resource officer the aims, use and implications
of performance appraisal in your organisation.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the factors that should be considered in planning a
performance appraisal system? Explain.
Besides that, managers should also know why a performance appraisal fails to
achieve its expected objectives and identify the criteria of successful performance
appraisal before developing any performance appraisal system in an
organisation. The following sections will discuss these matters further.
Besides the reasons stated above, there are other causes that can lead to the
failure of a performance appraisal process, such as the following:
(a) Managers feel it is a waste of time and energy implementing the process;
(b) Managers do not like to confront employees face to face;
(c) Managers are not competent in giving feedback concerning performance;
(d) Supervisors are not keen to carry out evaluation; and
(e) Managers face the conflict between the role of judging and the role of
helping to develop employees.
Besides training, managers should also make sure that the evaluation forms are
effective and suitable for the organisations use. Before an evaluation is carried
out, the performance standards that will be evaluated should be translated
clearly and conveyed to all the employees.
All the standards that will be used should be related to the job as described in the
job description and specifications.
ACTIVITY 5.5
(c) Adaptable
The organisation needs to develop an evaluation system that can be used
and adapted in various situations or changes. As an example, a
performance system that is highly adaptable can be used in a number of
business philosophies and in different geographical and cultural areas.
Only in certain situations, the organisation needs to prepare a few
evaluation sets especially for the group of employees who are really
different, or according to locations.
(d) Predictable
The time when the performance appraisal will be carried out and other
feedback should be told to the employees earlier. This is to give the
employees some space to prepare themselves. Some organisations will
carry out performance appraisal annually or once in six months beginning
from the date the employee joins the organisation. There are also some
organisations that prepare two sets of performance appraisals, one for
compensation and the other for development purposes. Regardless of the
number of evaluations that will be carried out by the organisation, the
employee has the right to know what will be evaluated and when it will be
carried out.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Essay Questions
INTRODUCTION
Designing a performance appraisal system is not a simple task. An organisation
has to be cautious in deciding what needs to be measured because it may not
want to lose employees who are really talented and may also not want to take the
risk of any legal action for abusing the performance appraisal and using it to
dismiss its workers. Realising that the quality of performance measurement
depends on the designing process, we will focus our discussion on three key
matters, namely, the performance appraisal design process, the common
approaches used in measuring employee performance and identifying
appraisers resources.
(b) Second Step Decide on the Process that Will Help You during the Design
Stage
After selecting those that will be part of the design team, you now have to
think of how to develop the evaluation system and how to involve all the
three parties mentioned previously. Most organisations will seek the views
and opinions of external consultants before starting the system. The
consultants will normally help to prepare the framework to make it easy for
the team to start the process of designing.
(d) Fourth Step Develop the Aims and Objectives of the Evaluation System
The evaluation system has many aims and it is up to the different
organisations to define them. These aims can be used as a basis for, among
other things, payment of salaries and remunerations, career planning,
human resource planning, improvement of performance etc.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
ACTIVITY 6.1
According to Bohlander, Snell and Sherman (2001), there are four criteria to
consider when developing performance standards, namely, strategic relevance,
criterion deficiency, criterion contamination and reliability.
(d) Reliability
This refers to the degree of consistency and stability of a particular standard
when it is applied at another time. When doing a rating, reliability may be
measured by looking at the co-relationship between two sets of rating done
by one assessor or two different assessors. For example, two managers may
be evaluating the same employee for a promotion. The rating can later be
compared to see the reliability of the assessors. Considering that performance
ACTIVITY 6.2
ACTIVITY 6.3
Discuss with the human resource manager the criteria used by your
organisation in designing the performance appraisal.
ACTIVITY 6.4
ACTIVITY 6.5
Do some reference work and discuss with your friends the methods
for measuring performance that are commonly practised in Malaysia.
8 July 2001 Employee still refused to observe the dress code in spite of
being warned.
When using this method, one thing to bear in mind is that every incident
that happens must be recorded immediately because evaluations that are
solely based on memory would not be effective. From one aspect, this
method is good because it is based on the actual performance. Aided by the
written journal, the assessor is able to record every single performance of
the employee and is not only focused on his recent performance.
Although this scale has a very high reliability and objectivity rate, the
manager has to consider whether to adopt the list or not because it is rather
difficult to design and is also costly.
Behaviour observation scale that shows effective and less effective performance of the
Assistant Corporate Loans officer.
EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE
1. The assistant corporate loans officer prepares the credit report on time.
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
2. The assistant corporate loans officer provides warm and friendly service to his
customers.
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
3. The assistant corporate loans officer is very effective when interviewing loan
applicants.
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
2. The assistant corporate loans officer does not help customers fill up application
forms.
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
3. The assistant corporate loans officer has to be taught how to prepare credit
reports.
No Always
1 2 3 4 5
ACTIVITY 6.6
(a) Essay
Unlike the more structured rating scale, the essay method requires the
assessor to write a description of the employee being assessed. The assessor
is usually directed to write down the employees strengths and weaknesses
and give suggestions on his or her development. Normally, this method is
used together with other rating scales. In this context, the written essay
could supply additional descriptive information on the rating being done.
This method uses a scale that is divided into several rating levels. The
normal number of levels is five, and uses adjectives such as very
unsatisfactory or very satisfactory at the two ends of the scale (e.g. 1 = very
unsatisfactory and 5 = very satisfactory). The assessor will look at the
qualities to be assessed and determine the level of the employee according
to the scale. This method can actually evaluate the employees overall
performance, although it is usually used to evaluate characteristics such as
quality and knowledge of work. Every value is then added to obtain the
total value. Refer to Table 6.2 for an example of a graphic rating scale.
1 2 3 4 5
Very Very
Unsatisfactory Satisfactory
4 = Performance meets all objectives and has exceeded some expected objectives
in some areas. Outcome achieved exceeds normal level expected for the task
ACTIVITY 6.7
Instructions: Read every statement given. The individual being assessed has to follow
the scale provided below. Place your feedback in the space provided.
Note:
Statement 1 (high), 3 (moderate) and 8 (low) indicate three levels of absenteeism.
Statement 2 (high), 7 (moderate) and 5 (low) indicate three levels of willingness.
Statement 9 (high), 6 (moderate) and 4 (low) indicate three levels of capability.
Marking Key
Determine the feedback pattern of the behaviour dimension and match the pattern
with the matrix below. Marks for each pattern are given below.
Statements
High Moderate Low Marks
+ + + 7
0 + + 6
- + + 5
- 0 + 4
- - + 3
- - 0 2
- - - 1
Please tick the best statement that describes the employee being assessed.
Note: Discrimination means a statement that looks the same in terms of social needs but
differs in terms of its capability in determining a high or a low performance employee.
However, this method has some disadvantages. Firstly, there is the problem
of criterion contamination, i.e. how far are the measurement standards free
of factors that are beyond ones control which influence the actual work
performance. For example, uncertain economic conditions will certainly
affect the sales volume of a salesman. It certainly would not be fair if the
organisation were to blame the salesman for low sales volume and rate his
performance as low.
Secondly is the problem of criterion deficiency, which means that there are
some aspects of the actual performance that are not measured. It is not
reasonable to make an evaluation based solely on volume of sales or
This method is considered strategic and involves a cycle which starts with
stating the aims and objectives of the organisation. It acts as a process for
defining aims, whereby objectives are developed for the organisation, every
department, manager and employee. As this method is a top-to-bottom
approach, top management is responsible for defining the objectives of the
organisation and department.
Once the organisations objectives have been defined, the management has
to define the employees objectives. The supervisor and employees will
determine the objectives and targeted date. These objectives play an
important role in the feedback process and final evaluation, especially for
employees who receive continuous feedback on their performance in
achieving the aims and objectives determined.
Should there be changes in the objectives, they would be discussed with the
employees during the feedback session or when reviewing the performance
appraisal. This method is undoubtedly very popular because of the very
high degree of employee involvement. This method has also been
successfully used to improve communication between top management
and the low-ranking workers.
(i) Specific
The objectives have to identify the level of expected behaviour or total
output required for a certain job. This would help in reducing the
variations in the performance or rating.
(ii) Punctual
The deadline for completion of a particular task has to be set.
(iii) Existing Conditions
Any qualifications related to achieving the objectives have to be
elaborated because there are many factors beyond the control of the
employee which can influence the achievement of the objectives.
(iv) Priorities
The supervisor has to decide which behaviour is the most important
in achieving the objectives. Both supervisor and employee may
consider the priorities together or base them on the job description.
(v) Cause or Effect
The cause or effect of achieving or not achieving the objectives have to
be clearly explained.
(vi) Same Objectives
The individuals objectives have to be in line with those of the
department.
(a) Checklist
This method lists adjectives or short descriptions of work-related
behaviour. If an employee exhibits these traits, the related items will be
ticked. Conversely, the items will be left blank if they are not related to the
employees behaviour. Every listed item indicates whether the quality of
the employee is positive or negative. One point will be awarded for every
positive quality ticked, while one point will be deducted for every negative
quality. Qualities that are left blank will not be calculated. Refer to Table 6.5
for an example of this method.
Instructions: Please read every item below and decide whether the individual you are
assessing exhibits the quality indicated. If your answer is Yes, please tick in the space
provided. If your answer is No, leave it blank.
Instructions: Below is a list of qualities to evaluate each individual. If you believe that
that individual has the qualities listed, please tick ( ) in the space provided. If the
quality is not relevant, leave the space blank.
Value*
______ His colleagues always seek advice from him. 3.0
______ Follows instructions well. 2.0
______ Cannot work in a group. - 1.0
______ Is able to work well without being instructed by 2.5
supervisor.
______ Does not complete work according to schedule. - 2.0
______ Solves problems that frequently occur hastily. - 1.0
______ Is fair to everyone. 1.0
*All these values will not be shown on the actual assessment form.
(c) Ranking
This method is seldom used compared to other methods. The usual
procedure used in this method is to grade the employees overall
performance from the highest to the lowest. Using this method, the
problem of tendency to centralise and being generous may be eliminated
because the assessor has to evaluate employees based on the domains that
have been set. Considering that this method is comparative by nature, the
supervisor or other assessors have to compare an employees performance
and that of another. One advantage of using this approach is that it is
simple and fast to implement. In addition, the evaluation may be directly
related to salary increment or staffing of employees. However, because of
its comparative nature, it will produce ordinal data. In other words, the
differences that exist between one employee and another will not be
known.
Above
Unsatisfactory Below Average Moderate Satisfactory
Average
(10%) (20%) (40%) (10%)
(20%)
Jannatu Arumugam Bakar Linda Seelan
Haniff David Abd. Razak Maria Rizal
Aminah Jenny Pauline
Marianne Mariammal Rafidah
Ooi Yeng Keat
Shamsul
Safinas
Source: Carell, Elbert and Hatfield (1995)
As some of the performance appraisals are more subjective, the manager has
to use different dimensions for different employees. If the assessor uses
more than one dimension (D), then the number of pairs = D{[N(N-1)]/2}. If
there are ten employees to be compared using five types of dimensions, then
the number of comparisons is equal to 225.
Instructions:
The list below shows some features, capabilities and characteristics that are crucial to
ones success. Please tick x for every scale awarded. Evaluation should be based on the
description that best describes the individual being assessed.
CREATIVITY refers to the innate ability to create new ideas, find better ways of
implementing something and is imaginative.
______ Continuously tries to find new, better ways in doing a job; is highly
imaginative.
______ Moderately imaginative; has several new ideas.
______ Frequently contributes new ideas; is highly imaginative.
______ Seldom has new ideas; lacks imagination.
______ Contributes new ideas now and then.
LIKEABILITY is the sociability and likeability of an individual and his attitude towards
his customers, other workers, supervisor and those under his supervision.
______ Is approachable; friendly once you get to know him.
______ Very sociable; good at developing close relationships.
______ Very cold and unfriendly.
______ Very sociable and friendly.
______ Warm and sociable.
PERSONALITY refers to behaviour or personal characteristics that are suitable for the
job.
______ Has the personality required for the job.
______ Has a personality that is unattractive for the job.
______ Has a personality that is very attractive for the job.
______ Has a personality that is satisfactory for the job.
______ Has a personality that is questionable for the job.
ATTENDANCE refers to devotion in coming to work every day and observing office
hours.
______ Is always punctual; offers to work over-time whenever asked.
______ Is always absent without good reason and/or frequently late to work.
______ Always punctual; has regular attendance.
______ Careless in attendance and/or reporting.
______ Is usually present and punctual.
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WORK refers to information about work that an individual has
to know to enable him to do his job better.
______ Knows little about some phases of the job.
______ Knowledgeable about all the phases of the job.
______ Understands all the phases of the job.
______ Not informed of his job responsibilities.
______ Moderately knowledgeable; able to answer general questions.
STABILITY refers to the ability to withstand pressure and being calm in a crisis.
______ Able to work under pressure; likes to solve crisis.
______ Cannot work under pressure; easily startled and prone to worrying.
______ Can stand some pressure; likes crises more than normal individuals.
______ Has moderate level of tolerance for crises; normally calm.
______ Cannot stand pressure at all; very sensitive.
Notes:
After learning several methods used for making evaluations, which one do you
think is the most appropriate to use? Actually, studies on this subject are limited.
Some methods could be better than others, and it depends on the situation and
purpose for which it is used. According to Schuler (1998), whatever method we
choose, it has to have these characteristics:
(i) Strategic
Is related to business needs (if customer service is important, could it
measure customer service?).
(ii) Constructive
Motivates employees to do the job better, provides feedback and helps in
career planning and development.
(iii) Able to Evaluate
Helps in decision-making for promotion, compensation, dismissal and is
able to compare between employees and department.
(iv) Economical
In the aspects of development, implementation and usage costs.
(v) Free of Mistakes
Free of assessors bias such as the halo effect, generosity, etc.
(vi) Interpersonal Nature
A level at which the supervisor is able to gather useful and legal data to
help him conduct evaluation interviews.
(vii) Practical
An evaluation system that is simple to design and implement.
(viii) User Acceptance
A level at which users could accept the evaluation format that is considered
reliable, legal and useful.
Table 6.9 shows the strengths and weaknesses of six performance appraisal
techniques. Please note that the cheapest and simplest method usually provides
rather inaccurate information. Researchers and human resource managers
generally tend to believe methods that are more sophisticated and take a longer
time offer more useful information although in reality it does not happen this
way. What is important is that the manager has to make decisions based on the
costs/benefits of the desired method.
Table 6.9: Strengths and Weaknesses of Several Performance Appraisal Techniques
Critical Assessment
Rating Ranking BARS MBO
Incidents Centre
Significant
Sometimes Seldom Sometimes Often Often Often
dimensions
Time needed Low Low Moderate High High High
Development
Low Low Low High Moderate High
costs
Potential for
errors in High High Moderate Low Low Low
rating
Approval by
Low Low Moderate High High High
subordinates
Approval by
Low Low Moderate High High High
top officials
Useful when
giving Weak Weak Moderate Good Good Moderate
arrears
Useful when
counselling Weak Weak Moderate Good Good Good
workers
Useful for
identifying
Weak Weak Moderate Moderate Moderate Good
potential for
promotion
ACTIVITY 6.8
Design a table to show the methods of measuring performance complete
with explanations. Compare your work with that of your friends.
ACTIVITY 6.9
(b) Subordinates
Although this approach is seldom used, it will nevertheless be used by
organisations that practise total quality management and are always
looking for ways of continuous improvement to evaluate the managers
performance. It cannot be denied that subordinates are the most
appropriate people to do the evaluation task because they frequently
interact with the manager and are in a position to observe work-related
behaviour, especially in leadership, oral communication, delegation of
authority and other aspects. However, not many managers would want to
implement this approach because they do not want to give the power to
evaluate to their subordinates, especially when the information given will
be used for promotion purposes. But if the information is used for
development purposes, the manager would be more than willing to use it.
(c) Self-assessment
Although self-assessment is not suitable for all situations, there are times
when employees are required to fill up certain sections in the performance
appraisal forms. This method is useful if:
(i) The employer wants its employees to be involved in the process.
(ii) There are employees living far from their co-workers.
(iii) Employee has excellent and unique skills not found in other
employees.
(d) Co-workers
Co-workers who are in the same job position as the one being assessed
could be an input for performance appraisals because they meet frequently,
interact and work together. Thus, they are able to identify each others
interpersonal skills, leadership skills as well as strengths and weaknesses.
This approach would be very useful if the supervisor or manager does not
have the opportunity to observe the performance of every employee. Some
organisations have found that this method increases the satisfactory level of
their employees, especially with regard to matters related to their self-
development.
However, peer evaluation is not very popular because of the fear that it
could lead to abuse by employees looking for popularity or to take revenge
against co-workers they do not like. In addition, those who have received
negative evaluations from their peers could adversely affect productivity,
team intimacy and job satisfaction. Another reason for its unpopularity is
that the manager himself is reluctant to surrender his evaluative power to
his subordinates.
(e) Team
Besides using peers as assessors, evaluation can also be done by team
mates. It is based on the total quality management (TQM) concept which
encourages workers to work in teams. Although co-workers are at the same
level, position-wise, they do not work as closely together as they would in a
team. Usually, the work produced as a result of teamwork would be
difficult to be judge individually. Therefore, team evaluation is normally
done by looking at the overall product, rather than individual effort.
(f) Customers
Customers as a resource may be obtained internally as well as externally.
Internal customers refer to those inside the organisation who depend on the
work produced by the employee being assessed, while external customers
are those who buy or use the products or services of the organisation
(Faizuniah, 2002).
In general, the feedback obtained is more comprehensive and may be used for
self-development. Some organisations use it as an input in decisions on
compensations and other administrative purposes. However, problems arise if
the assessor is inefficient or biased. Glaring discrepancies in the evaluation marks
will create problems for the administration when tallying the results. The
following are the advantages and disadvantages of the 360 evaluation technique.
Refer to Table 6.10.
ACTIVITY 6.10
There are some samples of performance appraisal for an effective
human resource management such as the 360-degree, the Harrison, the
Campbells and the Myers-Brigg. Watch this video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJj91ycYdNg&feature=fvw title
Human Resources: Employee Performance Appraisal Samples and
answer the questions below:
(a) What are the key points of employee performance appraisal
samples mentioned in the video?
(b) Discover why the 360-degree sample is an effective performance
appraisal?
Discuss the answers in the class or the myVLE forum.
ADVANTAGES
Is a more comprehensive evaluation system because the feedback is obtained
from many sources;
Better quality information. (Respondents quality is more important than
quantity);
Is able to complement the TQM initiative by emphasising evaluation from
internal and external customers and teams;
As the feedback is from many sources and not from individuals, it can reduce
bias and prejudices; and
Feedback from co-workers and other sources may help in improving employees
self-development.
DISADVANTAGES
System will become more complex if various feedback is combined;
Feedback could create resentment if the employee knows the respondent is
trying to destroy him;
There could be contradictory opinions although all opinions are true from the
assessors perspective;
Employees might give an illegal evaluation of each other; and
Assessor might not be accountable for the evaluation he or she has made if his or
her name is not stated.
Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly four things that you need to pay attention to when
developing performance standards.
1. The assessor usually does not know the weightage value allocated for each
item in the weighted checklist method.
2. Although employee performance may be measured by the sales volume
and total production, this method has the problem of criterion
contamination.
3. The behavioural-anchored rating scale method measures the frequency of
the expected behaviour only and does not require the assessor to select the
behaviour that contributes the most to the dimension of the job being
measured.
1. The ____________ method requires the assessor to read carefully every item
that is paired before making a selection.
A. forced distribution
B. ranking
C. forced choice
D. paired comparison
4. The following are the advantages of the 360 degree evaluation resource
EXCEPT:
A. Information is of better quality.
B. The system will be more complex if the various feedback is combined.
C. The feedback obtained can help improve the employees self-
development.
D. It is a more comprehensive evaluation system.
INTRODUCTION
At this stage, you would have understood and have an idea of what a
performance appraisal is. By now, you should be able to explain the meaning of
performance appraisal, why it is implemented, the reasons for its failure and how
to plan and achieve a successful performance appraisal.
You have also learnt the process of designing a performance appraisal, such as
determining the criteria for the performance measurements, matters that should
be considered when developing performance standards, approaches to be taken
in measuring performance and selecting individuals as appraisers.
After knowing which approach to use for measuring performance and after
identifying the individuals who will be responsible for carrying out the
evaluation, now it is time for us to implement the evaluation that has been
designed. In this topic, we will continue discussing performance appraisals by
looking at the reasons why it is important for an organisation to educate the
appraiser and the individual to be appraised, and the ways of implementing it.
Other than that, a few common errors by appraisers will also be discussed. After
a performance appraisal has been implemented, it will be good to have a
performance interview because it gives the supervisor and the employees an
opportunity to find a way of improving the employees performance in future.
This topic will end by highlighting three issues and challenges in implementing a
performance appraisal.
However, not all errors are made consciously. There are errors that are not done
on purpose by the appraiser. This might be due to a lack of experience in
handling a performance appraisal or due to the weaknesses that are present in
the evaluation method developed by the organisation. Although it is difficult to
overcome all these errors over a short period of time, training can be given to the
appraiser from time to time.
Two kinds of training can be given to an appraiser namely the appraiser error
training and appraiser accuracy training.
Besides giving training to the appraiser, Noe, et.al (2000) has suggested a
few more methods to reduce the errors in managing a performance
appraisal. Among them are:
(i) Strengthening the support of the higher authority for the evaluation
system and actively discouraging the appraisers from deviating;
(ii) Giving the appraiser a little freedom to act and to measure the
performance objectives and the criteria of the employee being
appraised;
(iii) Recognising the achievement of the employee which is not self-
motivated;
(iv) Ensuring that constraints like budget do not obstruct the process;
(v) Ensuring that the evaluation process is consistent for the whole
organisation; and
(v) Instilling transparency to encourage employees to be honest about
their weaknesses.
ACTIVITY 7.1
If you have been an appraiser before, name five kinds of training that
were provided by the management for you before handling a
performance appraisal. Were you satisfied with the training given? If
your management had not provided you with the training, what
would you have done to ensure that the evaluation done was the best?
Below are among the errors commonly made by an appraiser and if they are not
given due attention, it will lead to dissatisfaction among employees. These errors
are shown in Figure 7.1.
appraisal given to employee A. Employees may get high marks for all
aspects including the quantity and quality of work because the appraiser
fails to value each item separately.
Other than that, there will be a negative halo effect or better known as horn
effect/devils horn in the appraisal. In this context, a supervisor will give a
low evaluation for all the items based on one bad performance displayed by
the employee. For example, if employee B always makes mistakes in taking
telephone messages, a supervisor will assume that employee B is inefficient
although he has no problems with the other duties. This problem can be
overcome by giving training to the appraiser and indicating the category
that should be evaluated clearly.
(b) Stereotype
Stereotypes are common errors in any evaluation method. It happens when
an appraiser places employees into categories or classes according to age,
sex, race, and disability or criteria related to the organisation, like seniority,
employees membership in the organisation, rank or his relationship with
the higher authority. For example, employees aged 50 and above will be
regarded as individuals who are difficult to train, unable to carry out a job
efficiently and difficult to accept changes. This negative perception will
then influence the overall performance appraisal of the employees.
Conversely, if an employee has a close relationship with higher authority, a
high evaluation will be given. Just like the halo effect, stereotype problems
can be overcome by giving specific training to the appraisers. Besides that,
the organisation must make sure that it does not set scales which are not
related to the appraisal standards.
(c) Attributes
An appraiser might justify every behaviour, which then influences the
employees performance. When a supervisor connects an excellent
performance with an external cause like luck, holding an easy post or
getting help from other friends, the evaluation given will be low.
Conversely, if the excellent performance of an employee is connected to an
internal cause like effort and ability, the employee will get high marks in
his performance appraisal. In short, a supervisor will give high marks in a
performance appraisal to an employee when it is connected to an internal
cause compared to an external one. The attributes error can be avoided by
using the scale method based on behaviour as this method requires an
appraiser to make an evaluation regarding behaviour and not to judge it.
This situation can actually make the employees who are really excellent and
hardworking, feel dissatisfied. This can lead to the decline in their motivation
and productivity. The hire and fire rate will also rise as excellent employees
will migrate to other organisations which can afford to give them an accurate
performance appraisal as well as the acknowledgement that is due.
Besides having supervisors who like to give a high evaluation to all employees,
there are those who are too strict and give a very low evaluation to all
employees, although they have displayed good work performance. This
situation will also cause problems which are similar to the supervisor who is
lenient, although this error is not often done as compared to the leniency error.
Besides educating the appraisers, the individual being appraised should also be
educated and informed of the performance appraisal system practised by the
organisation; how it will be done, what kind of performance is expected by the
organisation, what will be measured and so on. Be doing so, the supervisors and
managers will not be accused of manipulating the evaluation conducted. An
individual who is clear about what is expected and what is desired will be more
satisfied and will usually perform excellently. The appraiser errors can be summed
up as shown in Table 7.1.
Errors Details
Halo and Horn Effect Halo Effect: Positive evaluation towards employees based on
one criteria.
Horn Effect: Negative evaluation towards employees based
on one criteria.
Stereotype Evaluation based on personal criteria
Attributes Evaluation based on the causes of an employees particular
behaviour
Recency Effect Evaluation based on employees latest performance
Leniency/Strictness Leniency error: evaluation given is higher than what it is
Errors supposed to be.
Strictness error: evaluation given is lower than what it is
supposed to be.
Central Tendency Average evaluation for all employees
Contrast Error Evaluation based on comparison among employees
Similar-to-me Error Evaluation based on the similarities between the appraiser
and employee.
Evaluation Politics Evaluation based on personal or companys interests.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Depending on the objectives of the evaluation system, the interview carried out
may try to fulfil a number of the following aims:
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What is the purpose of interviewing an employee in carrying out a
performance appraisal? Explain.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Discuss with your coursemates the preparations of a sample format
for handling a performance interview in your organisation or in your
friends organisation.
ACTIVITY 7.4
ACTIVITY 7.5
(a) Self-assessment
Before handling a performance appraisal interview, it would be better if the
employees are given the opportunity to carry out self-assessment first.
Although this particular information may not be used formally, it can
actually help the employees think about their achievements. After an
employee has conducted a self-assessment, the interview process that
follows will be easier, where both the supervisor and the employee will
find a way to solve the conflicting issues. In many of the researches done, it
is found that a number of employees are more satisfied when they are also
involved in the evaluation process.
However, this method sometimes does not bring about a positive effect.
The employee already expects that he or she will be criticised after being
praised. So, it is better if the employees are given criticism first before they
are given positive words about their achievements. However, if the
employees are given continuous feedback, this technique need not be used.
ACTIVITY 7.6
ACTIVITY 7.7
ACTIVITY 7.8
Based on your experience and observation, what are the steps taken
by the management to handle employees with performance
problems?
(c) It is important to provide staff that can voluntarily help employees who
need help;
(d) The supervisors intervention is only to carry out his responsibility in
ensuring that the employees display the desired performance and it is also
his responsibility to give them guidance, training and encouragement;
(e) Continuous monitoring of job performance is one of the ways for managers
and supervisors to have an objective evaluation. If it is found that the
employees performance is not satisfactory, the manager and supervisor
have the right to discuss this with the employee and advise him on how to
improve his job performance;
(f) Recommendations to see a counsellor will only be done if the manager and
supervisor fail to solve the problems through formal channels; and
(g) The procedure for help for employees programme should be adjusted
according to the organisations existing policies.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What are the methods that can be used to handle ineffective work
performance?
ACTIVITY 7.9
In your opinion, what are the issues and challenges that will arise in
developing an effective performance appraisal?
Figure 7.4 shows the suggested actions that can be taken by a manager on four
categories of employees. To make sure that the actions taken are relevant,
managers should take into account factors like ability and motivation. In
determining the level of ability, managers must make sure whether an employee
has the knowledge, skills and ability that will enable him to carry out his job
effectively. For a new employee or an employee who has been transferred to a
new post, this matter can pose a problem.
From the aspect of the employees motivation level, a manager must first make
sure that the employee gets a suitable job match besides getting a salary that
commensurates with the job done. If all these matters have been considered,
then,any sudden changes that occur in an employees performance may show
that he is having personal problems.
Now let us look at the four categories of employees that are based on their ability
and motivational level. An employee with a high level of ability and motivation
are in the same category as other employees who have a solid performance. In
many cases, this type of workers are usually marginalised from training and self-
development programmes by managers because they assume that employees
with solid performances do not need guidance or training. However, it would be
best that training and development programmes are continued even though the
managers know that these employees are in the same category as the employees
with solid performances. This is to enable them to continue being successful and
to maintain their existing performances.
Employees in the second category have a high level of motivation but lack ability
(misdirected efforts). They can be helped through training. Employees in the
third category who have the ability but lack motivation (low use), can be helped
by focusing on problems between individuals and incentives. For work
performance that is chronic(deadwood) i.e. employees who lack ability and
motivation, termination may be the best solution.
For the last few years, the Industrial Court is very consistent with its message to
employers. It cannot be denied that the employer has the right to dismiss any
employee who fails to display a satisfactory performance, but the employees
must be treated as fairly as possible. The Industrial Court has demanded that
employers take the following actions before dismissing an employee.
(a) An employee should be told in writing that his job performance cannot be
accepted. The letter to the employee should contain:
(i) An accurate elaboration on what is lacking in his current
performance;
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 IMPLEMENTATION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM 149
(b) The management must discuss with the employee the problems related to
their performance and develop an action plan together to overcome the said
problem. Depending on the nature of the problems faced, the employer
may be forced to give training, retraining or counselling to the employee
concerned.
ACTIVITY 7.10
In your opinion, is it proper for an employer to monitor your
movements in the office through a closed circuit camera? Give
justifications.
Essay Questions
2. List five techniques that are needed when handling a problem solving
interview.
3. Give two causes for the decline in performance among employees from the
sources below:
A. Organisations practices and policies
B. Job related
C. Personal problems
D. External factors
7. Explain briefly the matters that should be looked into in implementing the
help for employees programme.
1. Kamil gave Razak a high performance because they were in the same
university. Kamil has committed a leniency error.
2. Hasnah obtained low marks for her evaluation performance because her
supervisor assumed that she has an easy job and is always helped by her
friends. This is an attribute error.
3. Azizul was so busy with his new project that he forgot to prepare the
performance reports for 10 of his employees. As a result, he hurriedly wrote
a report only based on facts that were fresh in his mind. The error
committed by Azizul is a halo error.
4. Suhaini is not satisfied with the performance appraisal marks that she
obtained, although the marks are high. This is because her co-worker, who
always plays truant, also obtained the same marks. The error committed by
her supervisor is called contrast error.
5. Jaja always gets a negative perception from her manager who thinks that
she is not efficient in doing her job and that she cannot work under
pressure because she is a female. This is an example of a stereotype.
5. Employees in the low use category can be helped through the following
EXCEPT:
A. Counselling
B. Increment freeze
C. Training
D. Direct and sincere feedback
INTRODUCTION
Career planning is a continuous process in which an individual sets his career
objectives and identifies the steps he should take to achieve them. It is a difficult
process because, nowadays, an average worker who graduates from an
institution of learning will change jobs at least three times during his career. This
is due to changes in technology, environment, economy, politics as well as the
individual himself. Employees nowadays want a job that is challenging and
different than that of other people. This is because when the individual is
exposed to various tasks and responsibilities, he will acquire more skills, abilities
and capabilities. This will expose the employees to a variety of job environments
and at the same time, they can gain valuable experience.
When we were young, we were often asked what we would like to be when we
grow up. The common answers would be a teacher, nurse, soldier or doctor. This is
because when we were 10 years old, we could not differentiate between the
concept of adult and career. We would always give this answer because these
were the people that we often came across and in our eyes, they have great careers.
However, as we grew up, we became more curious about careers. As teenagers,
we would explore many things to find out what activity interests us the most.
Then, we started to think of a career that is closest to the activity that we like.
Thus, teenagers who like to draw are keen on taking up architecture or art as
their career.
Nevertheless, we have to realise that the working world of today is far different
from that of yesterday. If our parents had only one job throughout their working
lives, we, on the other hand, have to perform a multitude of tasks in different
organisations during our 30-year career span. Things such as globalisation,
technology and innovation are reasons for the changes in our jobs as well as in
our careers. These indirectly have caused retrenchment and downsizing which
have made it almost impossible for the individual to remain in the same job in
the same organisation. In view of the challenges of todays working world, this
topic is thus important for us to examine and study.
The focus of this topic is on the concept of career planning itself. Students will be
exposed to what career planning is, its role from the perspective of the individual
and the organisation and the different types of career path.
Career planning is a process that involves the individual and covers activities
such as self-appraisal and assessment of career opportunities. It is also an
opportunity to improve ones self and help one to achieve the objectives and
aspirations of ones career.
...the journey or development in ones life that he has chosen as his field of
work as a means of livelihood. It is also an activity that is done continuously
to earn an income to support ones life.
... the pattern in the journey that is related to work during someones
working life.
.... a job that has been chosen to be accomplished during someones working
life.
What comes to your mind when you hear the word career? You might think
that a career is the same as a job. Actually, these are two different concepts. A
career refers to all the types of work that a person has held throughout his
working life. Normally, an individual with a career will try to improve his
knowledge, skills and capabilities in order to get a higher position in an
organisation compared with an individual who has a job. At the organisation
level, what the human resource manager does to help the employee achieve his
career objectives is known as career development.
To help students understand the full meaning of career, we will explain the terms
related to it. There will be a detailed explanation of some of these terms in Topic
9 and 10. These terms are explained in Table 8.1.
Terms Definition
Career Anchors The things or values that an individual places priority on in his
career. Besides support, great importance is placed on
autonomy, independence, creativity and job assurance.
Career Audit Review of career planning and achievements. It is normally
done annually, semi-annually or quarterly. It is also regarded
as a company strategy in helping an individual understand
why he or she is doing what he or she is doing, how to be
accountable for his or her own career and how to identify the
resources required to manage a career in an ever-changing
environment.
Career A programme that helps employees understand and learn
Counselling about his or her capabilities, assets, limitations, interests and
objectives. It also helps the employee identify his or her
position in the organisation, internal and external
opportunities as well as the training required to enable him or
her to exploit his talents. In addition, it helps him or her
develop his or her career planning using the information on a
particular career and identifying the organisations needs,
development opportunities as well as his or her own needs
and interests.
Career A process that assesses, coordinates and balances the needs,
Development capabilities, opportunities and challenges of the organisation
and individual. It also focuses on the individual who carries
out and adapts himself to the various job roles. The
programmes main interventions include conducting self-
assessment and carrying out the development process that can
influence both organisation and individual to formulate an
optimistic match between the job and the individual.
Career Mobility Desire to make several changes in ones career instead of
being committed to only one aspect of the career.
Career Plateau A level in ones career where the prospects for job promotion
no longer exist. This could be because the individual has
reached the highest level in the same organisation or industry
or because of age discrimination, downsizing, restructuring or
lack of skills or motivation.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Something that may exist in the short or long run. Long-term plans are
between seven and ten years, while short-term plans are more current in
nature and are between one and three years.
It also helps the employee in his self-development in terms of his or her interests
and skills. In addition, it may give greater job satisfaction because it helps the
employee identify the job that matches his or her interests and plans. From the
perspective of the organisation, it may save time in terms of staff recruitment,
helps in the planning of staff replacement, identifies the capable employees, and
helps the employee identify his objectives and self-development in order to reach
his targets.
Career planning also covers the process of assessing someones strengths and
weaknesses and is related to career objectives. This process also identifies the
necessary measures which one must take to achieve ones career objectives.
Thus, from the explanations above, we may conclude that career planning is the
relationship between an individuals efforts to manage his career and his efforts
to develop his career. These efforts include:
(a) Determining career objectives, i.e. what the employee wants in his career;
(b) Assessing ones strengths and weaknesses from many aspects such as skills,
expertise and self-potential; and
(c) Developing specific planning to reach the objectives by taking into account
ones strengths and weaknesses.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Try to explain what you understand by career planning. Why does
an employee need to plan his career?
ACTIVITY 8.2
As a career person, what are your objectives for the next five and ten
years? What do you plan to do to meet these objectives?
Although the responsibility for implementing his or her career plans lies on the
individual, the organisations career planning has to be in line with that of the
individual so that it can retain its best and most productive employees.
Employees have to view the organisations career planning as an effort to help
them achieve their career objectives as well as guarantee their jobs. The
organisation should provide opportunities to its employees to further their
education and perform various jobs because if they repeat the same tasks year in
and year out, it will not do much for their self-development.
An organisations career planning has to start with defining how a job is done.
Creativity, flexibility, innovation and adaptability are becoming more important
than the ability to perform a particular task. An organisation would be able to
develop the existing structure for future development through effective career
planning. Thus, an organisation should implement its career planning in a way
that can contribute towards realising its current and future objectives. The
approach to and reasons for having the plans differ from one organisation to
another. Career planning programmes could achieve one or more of the
following objectives:
(a) Effective development for talented individuals.
(b) Opportunities for self-assessment which takes into consideration new or
non-traditional career paths.
(c) Career path development that is a cross-section between the department
and its geographical location.
(d) Show of a clear commitment.
Effective career planning depends on the organisations ability to satisfy those who
it views as important for employee development and the realisation of its
objectives. We all have our own plans for what we want and ways of achieving
them. We also have our own ways of doing what we want. If there is some
planning, our methods will be clearer and indirectly, we would have a framework
which would help us determine when and how we are going to reach our target.
For a career-based individual, such a planning would help him or her assess
whether he or she is able to get the post that he or she wants and when he or she
would be able to get it. If he or she has done some planning, he or she would be
able to improve his or her existing skills, expertise and capabilities. There are
many paths open to him or her in order to do this, such as taking up certain
courses, furthering his or her studies or getting a mentor.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Read the following situation and suggest the adjustments Ana should
make regarding her problems and the actions she should take. You
may share your thoughts with your friends.
In addition, she has taken the opportunity to apply for other posts
advertised by the organisation she is working at although she does not
have some of the skills and knowledge required for the post. She failed
to get the post several times; in fact, she was not even called for the
interview. Then, she started to change and became depressed as
compared to her previous cheerful self. This has badly affected her job
performance.
There are many types of paths which can be taken by an individual in his or her
career. It is related to the advancements he or she experiences in his or her career.
Normally, after working for a number of years, an employee would be promoted
provided he/she has performed well. His or her seniority in a particular post would
also be a factor. However, changes in time, technology and environment have
changed all that.
In general, a career path may be seen as a job sequence or network related to the
career opportunities of an employee. According to Mondy and Noe (2005), there
are six types of career paths, which are:
(a) Traditional
In this type of career path, an individual experiences vertical career
advancement from one post to another. This means that an employee moves
step by step from one post to another to gain knowledge and experience. For
example, an employee starts off as an executive and after five years is promoted
to senior executive, and three years later becomes the chief executive. As we can
see, the career path takes an individual from a low rung of the ladder to a
higher one. This type is seldom used now because it does not promote loyalty
towards the organisation and is less appropriate for a working environment
that requires new skills which can develop consistently.
(b) Network
This type of career path is characterised by vertical career advancement and
lateral career opportunities. It acknowledges internal transfers at a certain
career level and requires one to gain experience at each level before being
promoted. This type is more realistic in that it offers the employee the
opportunity to develop his career as compared with the traditional type. For
example, an employee who has been working as an inventory manager for
several years becomes a shift manager before being promoted. The
drawback to this type is the difficulty in explaining to the staff the particular
path they have to go through at the same job level.
(e) Demotion
Demotion is normally due to failure. It can also be due to limited
opportunities for future promotion and technological changes. However, it
may be a career opportunity someday, especially if there is a dead-end career
path. It also helps senior employees lessen their pressures at the workplace.
Based on the types of career path mentioned above, we can see that there are
many ways for an individual to choose his or her career. Factors which may
influence an individuals career path include interests, opportunities for self-
improvement, the organisation he or she works for and the working environment.
If the career path in a particular organisation is not satisfactory, he or she may
choose to work in another organisation where he or she can develop his or her
own career. You may refer to Figure 8.2.
Essay Questions
10. Employees may increase their potential and abilities while the organisation
may plan its manpower needs.
11. An organisation has career planning for its employees to show that it is
serious in taking care of the workers welfare and future.
12. Studies have shown that an individual who plans his career is usually more
successful than one who does not plan.
13. When an individual plans his career, it will help him plan his future from all
aspects.
14. Organisations should provide career counsellors to help employees look for
jobs.
4. Aishah has just completed her sixth form. She has just started working as a
clerk and finds that the job is not challenging. Deep inside her heart, Aishah
desires to be a nurse. What steps should she take to plan her career?
A. Identify her own interests and abilities
B. Stop working
C. Work as a clerk at other organisations
D. Talk about the negative aspects of her present career
5. The type of career path where an employee becomes his own boss is
___________ .
A. demotion
B. lateral
C. free agent
D. insurance agent
INTRODUCTION
Azri has been working as a technician at Syarikat Posim in Kuala Lumpur for
almost eight years. He is an excellent employee and performs his job well.
However, for the past year, Azri has been disappointed and has lost his trust in
the company. Throughout his service with the company, he has always hoped for
a promotion.
Last year, when his office supervisor retired, he was hoping to take over the
vacant post. He voiced out his interest in the post to Encik Lutfi, his Unit
Manager and was given the assurance that the matter would be considered.
Unfortunately, the post was given to an employee who had just been recruited.
Azri was very disappointed and upset. He did not understand why he was not
successful in getting the post. In his opinion, he performed excellently
throughout his service with the company. He has a lot of knowledge and
technical skills and has always achieved the targets set by the organisation.
A few weeks after the incident took place, Azri decided to meet Encik Lutfi for an
explanation. Encik Lutfi was surprised as he did not expect Azri to be very keen on
the vacant post. The excuse that Encik Lutfi gave was that the new employee was
more qualified than Azri. Encik Lutfi also advised Azri to carry on trying and
believed that eventually Azri would get the job that he wanted. Disappointed with
the explanation, Azri planned to get another job in a different organisation.
What Azri went through is a common scenario that occurs in many organisations. In
reality, many managers do not know the aims and aspirations of their employees.
Although there are some employees who have unrealistic aims and aspirations, the
lack of opportunities for employees to develop and build their careers will have a
negative effect on their work performance and that of the organisation too. In
addition, the responsibility for career development should be shared by the
employer and employees. Having realised this matter, we will look at a number of
issues and challenges that managers and employees have to go through when
developing a career in an organisation.
Realising how big the challenges are in the current working world, this topic is
considered very important for us to study. In this topic, our main focus is more
on understanding the concept of career development. Students will be exposed to
the various stages of career development as well as the three processes of
designing the programme. The discussions will end by looking at the link
between the choice of career and personality.
DeSimone, Werner and Haris (2002), on the other hand, define career development
as:
ACTIVITY 9.1
What are the efforts that you have made towards your career
advancement? Were you successful in your efforts?
According to Ivancevich (2004), there are four stages that every individual must
go through at certain age levels. A persons needs and expectations will also
change when he goes through the stages shown in Figure 9.1. Below are brief
characteristics of all the stages.
While Ivancevich (2004) has divided the career in an organisation into four levels,
Bohlander, Snell and Sherman (2004) have divided career development into five
phases. Figure 9.2 shows a summary of these phases.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Think of the various stages of career development from the time you
started work until your retirement.
The first stage i.e. the preparation for work covers the period until the individual
reaches the age of 25. During this period, an individual will acquire the
knowledge, ability and skills needed to compete in the working world. It is
during this period, too, that careful planning is done.
The second stage is where an individual will concentrate fully on getting job
offers and choosing the right job. The next three stages involve adapting to the
job and organisation chosen, making changes to the objectives made, making a
few career choices, maintaining productivity and getting ready to retire.
ACTIVITY 9.3
(i) Self-assessment
When carrying out self-assessment, employees can use career planning
workbooks that contain the organisations policies, work procedures and
career opportunities in the organisation. Besides using career planning
books, employees can also attend career planning workshops managed
by the human resource department or outside parties like consultant
firms and local universities. These workshops are able to provide
information about career opportunities in the organisation and will also
give the employees feedback on their career strategies and aspirations.
Methods Details
Career Planning Contains organisations policies, career procedures and career
Workbooks opportunities in organisation.
Managed by human resource department or external parties
Career Planning
and gives information on career opportunities and feedback to
Workshop
employees regarding their career strategies and aspirations.
Skills Evaluation
Identifies employees skills.
Training
Measures employees interests so that a suitable career can be
Interest Inventory chosen. One of the popular inventories is the Strong Vocational
Interest Inventory.
Involves choice of career according to the priorities of self-
Clarification Values
values.
Methods Details
Situational training is used to select managers and used for career
development. The evaluation centre is also used to measure the
Evaluation
ability required for each job and to prepare feedback for the
Centre
employees regarding their weaknesses and strengths that are not
found in any training situation.
Psychological
Helps employees to understand their skills and interests.
Test
Performance
Carry out evaluations on past performances.
Evaluation
Promotion
Enables managers to decide on potential employees for promotions.
Predictions
Replacement Career development programme to prepare suitable candidates to fill
Planning executive posts.
Methods Details
Organisation announces job opportunities through notice board,
Career
computer system and companys bulletins. The benefit is to
Dissemination
motivate employees performance in order to reduce staff turn-
System
over.
Records that contain data of employees skills, knowledge,
Skills Inventory
education and background which is kept by the organisation.
A chart which shows career opportunities in the organisation
Career Path
and the steps that need to be taken to achieve them.
Career Resource A centre for collecting career development materials like
Centre workbooks, tapes and printed materials.
(ii) Coaching
Coaching is a spontaneous and continuous discussion between the
manager and the employee about his job objectives and career
development. There are five characteristics of an employee that will
allow coaching to take place:
An employee who shows new interests and skills;
An employee who requires feedback;
An employee who shows interest in the changes that take place in
the organisation;
An employee who experiences unsuitable job experiences; and
An employee who expresses the desire to get development
opportunities.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
The career development process involves three phases, the evaluation,
direction and development phases. Elaborate the three phases.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Based on your own experience, try to recollect the methods you used
to choose a career. Make a list of the factors which influenced your
choice. Then, state whether you are satisfied with your current
career. You can share your opinions with your friends.
In choosing a desired career, an individual can get help from various sources. A
university counsellor or consultant, for example, can help in making evaluations
on attitudes, abilities, interests and the values related to the career chosen. Other
than that, success in career development also depends partly on the individuals
ability to carry out an accurate self-evaluation. In carrying out self-assessment,
the individuals personal factors like academic level and achievement, job
attitude and skills, social skills, communication skills, the ability to be a leader,
interests and values are important. These factors can be measured using the tools
developed by psychologists like the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB) and
Campbell Interest and Skill Recovery (CISS). SVIB was developed by E.K. Strong
Jr. and is regarded as the earliest measurement for testing an individuals
interests. SVIB is now known as Strong Interest Inventory.
Other than that, John L. Holland, an expert in career counselling, has carried out
research and has proposed a career choice theory. According to Holland, the
choice of career actually displays a persons personality and is not caused by an
event although sometimes opportunities do play a part. Holland also believes
that every achievement in an individuals career depends on his personality and
his work environment. Therefore, he believes that all of us have at least one of
the six kinds of personalities as mentioned in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Hollands Career Choice Models
Enterprising
Management, law, sales, employee
Enjoys oral activities and influencing other
relationship
people
Artistic
Enjoys own creative sayings, does not like Arts, music, drama, interior decoration
repeated activities
Source: Adapted from Kossek and Block (2000)
After making a career choice, although tentatively, the next step is to decide
where you want to work. The choice of organisation is usually based on factors
such as location, the job vacancy that is to be filled, salary and others.
ACTIVITY 9.5
ACTIVITY 9.6
What are your comments on Hollands career choice model? You can
discuss and exchange ideas with your friends.
(d) Career Counselling for All Employees and Career Development Workshops
for All Managers
The first time an organisation starts a career development programme, the
focus is more towards efforts in giving career counselling for every
employee. The human resource experts will be given the responsibility of
handling one-to-one counselling to discuss interests, objectives and other
important factors for career progress. Nevertheless, when the programmes
scope becomes wider, the high dependency on individual counselling will
lead to an increase in costs. However, when an organisation becomes more
experienced in handling career development programmes, group career
development workshops can be used.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
ACTIVITY 9.7
Discuss with your friends the best strategies in planning your
present career.
Career and jobs are two different concepts. Career can be referred to all the
jobs held by an individual throughout his working life.
In an organisation, the efforts carried out by the Human Resource Manager to
help an employee achieve his job objectives is known as career development.
An individuals career begins when he accepts the first job offer and through
the opportunities given, will rise in the same organisation or in a different
one.
Although the time frame for every stage of the career is different for every
individual, many of them will go through the same stages.
In the process of designing a career development programme, three main
phases i.e. the evaluation phase, the direction phase and the development
phase need to be followed.
The evaluation phase involves self-assessment activities and evaluation on
the part of the organisation.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
188 TOPIC 9 CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The direction phase involves defining the kind of career desired by the
employee and the steps to be taken so that the career objectives will become a
reality.
The development process, on the other hand, involves activities for
developing and improving the skills as preparation for getting job
opportunities in the future.
Lastly, John L. Holland, a career counselling expert, believes that the
achievement of every individual depends on his personality and his job
environment.
Therefore, each of us has at least one of these six personalities: realistic,
investigative, sociable, conventional, enterprising and artistic.
Essay Questions
2. Give two differences between the apprenticeship phase and the strategic
thinking phase.
4. Those who are still learning about their jobs, the organisations rules and
norms are actually at their mid-career level.
6. The key needs at the improvement phase are pride and realising self-desire.
10. If Linda were to get a job offer from an organisation of her choice, Linda has
actually entered the second phase which is joining an organisation.
11. The evaluation phase involves deciding on the kind of career desired by
the employee and the steps that should be taken to achieve the career
objectives.
12. One of the characteristics that will allow guidance to take place is that an
employee needs feedback.
14. The skills inventory collects materials for development like workbooks,
tapes and printed materials.
16. While carrying out evaluation at the organisation level, career development
workbooks can be used.
18. Among the advantages of using the job dissemination method are that it
can improve employees motivation and work performance as well as
reduce the hire and fire rate.
19. Job rotation is able to equip employees with specific skills in a particular
field because the time frame allocated is sufficient.
20. Team mentoring can be carried out to help women and the minority groups
that have problems in getting a mentor.
1. Muslim has just completed his Form Five. He is beginning to imagine a job
that he desires and is evaluating some job opportunities in the local
newspapers. Which stage of the career development is Muslim at?
A. Early career
B. Preparation for work
C. Joining an organisation
D. Mid-career
5. The tool that enables an employee to identify his strengths and weaknesses
by answering and completing questions and the training given is known as
_________________.
A. training workbooks
B. self-assessment books
C. career workbooks
D. skills evaluation books
INTRODUCTION
Career management can be seen as a continuous process in which an individual
prepares, implements and controls his career plans individually or jointly with
the career system of the organisation he works for. Career management covers
activities which enable the individual to develop and implement his career plans,
but the focus is more on the ways the activities are carried out to achieve the
plans. Greenhaus, Callhan and Godshalk (2002) define career management as:
... all the levels of career development, from the aspect of knowing oneself to
developing its objectives and planning up to the implementation of the plans.
How can we know whether a person has managed his career well? Usually,
success in doing so would be reflected in an improvement in his rank, position,
finances, power and status. We can say that those who are successful have
managed their career effectively? How about those who are not happy at the
workplace? Does it mean that they do not have effective career management? In
fact, there are two criteria for measuring the effectiveness of career management:
(a) Whether an individual has chosen a career that suits his values, talents,
interests and lifestyle; and
(b) Whether an individual can adapt himself to the changes in him and the
environment, and adapt his experiences with his values, talents, interests
and lifestyle.
Employees have to ensure that all the career plans and development will
succeed. Career management may be seen as an indication of an
individuals progress and abilities which should be in line with the
organisations needs. Employees have to be informed of their career
opportunities to help them plan their career objectives. This is important to
ensure that their objectives do not clash with those of the organisation.
Employees should accept the responsibilities that come along with the
career they have chosen. Thus, they should choose a career which suits
their interests, expertise, abilities and values. They should also obtain the
information and sources of their career as well as develop their own career
plans. They ought to get the views of the manager and discuss their careers
with him. They can do this by taking followup actions on their career to
ensure that their career management is achieved. The following are some of
the actions:
(i) Taking the initiative to get feedback from the manager and colleagues
about the strengths and weaknesses of their skills.
(ii) Identifying the stage of their career development and its needs.
(iii) Getting exposure to the various learning opportunities such as
marketing tasks, product development tasks and administrative tasks.
(iv) Interacting with employees from different work groups inside and
outside the organisation.
After we have studied the role of the employees, let us now look at the role
of the manager.
Having studied the roles of the employees and manager, let us now look at
the role of the organisation in career management.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
What are the roles of the organisation, manager and the employees
themselves in managing the career of employees in an organisation?
ACTIVITY 10.1
Discuss with the Human Resource Officer from your organisation, the
measures being taken by the management and organisation to assist
employees in their career development.
Process Explanation
ACTIVITY 10.2
Discuss with your friends in what way the process of career
management can help an individual and the organisation.
(a) Self-assessment
Self-assessment refers to the use of information by individuals to identify
their interests, values and behavioural tendencies. They assess themselves,
for example, by identifying their strengths and weaknesses on a piece of
paper. They could also find out their likes and dislikes. In addition, they
have to identify their true personality and understand themselves, their
interests, style and likes. This would help in facilitating the process of self-
assessment.
The employer, on his part, will ensure that the organisation has developed
and defined the criteria to be achieved.
The employer or organisation has to define the objectives based on the right
foundation so that they can be achieved. For example, one objective could
be an increase of 10% profit the following year.
The employer, on its part, will set the career plan strategies to achieve the
objectives. These strategies are usually in the form of a blueprint and will be
related to the employees. Some examples of strategies are providing
various training programmes for employees such as workshops, on-the-job
training and allowing them to attend seminars.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
What are the measures that should be considered when developing
effective career management?
ACTIVITY 10.3
Review your own career development and management. Have you
managed your career well so far? If yes, share your success story
with your friends. If no, what measures should you take to develop
your career?
Downsizing may bring about two effects on employees i.e. job lay-off and
job loss.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Discuss with your friends the issues in career management and
development. Begin the discussion by looking at the three issues in
career management faced by organisations today. The issues are
career development for women, dual-career couples, retrenchment
and downsizing. These are shown in Figure 10.3.
ACTIVITY 10.5
Most women consider the corporate culture that is dominated by
men an obstacle in achieving a higher position in the organisations
structure, although they are as highly qualified as the men. In fact,
many studies have shown that gender difference is not related to job
performance. List five human resource management practices that
you feel can handle the dilemma faced by women employees and
make them feel that they are getting fair treatment from the
organisation.
Essay Questions
1. A layoff will only be implemented when all these factors take place
EXCEPT:
A. There is no work
B. The 'no work' situation is temporary
C. Excessive manpower
D. Employees will be called back
5. Issues that exist but are not apparent and are a hindrance to an individual
who is qualified to progress and hold a position at a higher level are
known as:
A. Glass ceiling
B. Old boys' network
C. Stereotyping of managers
D. Retrenchment and downsizing
Answers
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
5. The transfer of training concept refers to the use of knowledge, skills and
abilities learnt from the training programme at the place of work.
Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. A
Essay Questions
2. Among the implications of the adult learning theories towards training and
development are:
(a) Employees must have the interest and desire to learn in order to give
full concentration;
(b) All the parties involved in the training programme including the
management, trainers and employees need to understand and know
the objectives and expectations of the training outcome clearly;
(c) Training must be designed, implemented and evaluated
systematically based on the needs and objectives of the organisation
and must fulfil the objectives as well as the needs that have been
identified;
(d) It has to be adapted to the desires and needs of the participants; and
(e) The methods used to implement the training programme should be
varied because every individual has his/her own learning style.
3. The three factors that have been identified to influence transfer of training
are the characteristics of the participant, the training design and the job
environment.
(a) The stress or focus of each model Critical Event Model stresses the
learning aspect in training in order to equip the employees with the
knowledge, skills and abilities required. General System Model
stresses the validity aspect of the training carried out. The training
programme development process stresses on the learning
environment aspect and the transfer of learning.
(b) Steps proposed Critical Event Model proposes nine steps. General
System Model encompasses four key phases. The training
development programme process proposes seven main steps that
have to be taken in the training process.
(c) Generally, the activities in all three models can be divided into four
phases that are inter-related. Close attention is given from the first
step to the last in the said process.
(d) Every model stresses on the evaluation aspect to identify any
weaknesses or errors that exist and to ensure that the objectives of the
programme are attained.
Self-Test 1
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True
6. False
7. False
8. False
9. True
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214 ANSWERS
Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D
Essay Questions
Four sources of information which can be used in the needs analysis phase
are:
(a) Human resource inventories, which can determine vacancies that
need to be filled as a result of resignations, retirement etc.
(b) Skills inventories, which show the number of employees in a
particular position, the skills required and the training that has been
and will be done.
(c) Organisation indexes, which involves data such as the rate of
grievance, turnover, absenteeism, productivity and customers
complaints which may indicate existing problems that may determine
the needs for training.
(d) Efficiency indexes, which involve data such as the costs of resources
used, quality of products produced, dismissal rate, repair rate and
delays in deliveries may indicate true performance as opposed to
expected performance.
[Students may choose any information source discussed in this topic]
4. The main activities involved in the training programme design phase are:
(a) Determining/defining objectives
(b) Selecting programme and trainer
(c) Preparing training programme
(d) Preparing training materials
(e) Managing logistics
Self-Test 1
True (T) and False (F) Statements
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True
Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. A
Essay Questions
1. (a) Four training techniques that can be used for on-the-job training are:
The job rotation technique to improve job-related skills. This requires
an employee to work in a department for a certain period of time
under the supervisor of that particular department before being
transferred to the other departments in the organisation. The main
purpose of using this technique is to familiarise the employee with the
activities of all the departments and understand the entire running of
the organisation. Normally, an employee who undergoes this kind of
training is at the lower management level as preparation for climbing
the managements hierarchy.
(d) The mentor technique involves a senior employee who will be paired
with a young employee with the intention of giving advice and
support and helping him/her learn the duties until he/she becomes
proficient and is able to carry heavier responsibilities. Normally, a
new employee will observe a senior employee do his/her job. Then
the senior employee will give the junior employee a chance to try the
particular task while being observed by the senior employee. Any
weaknesses or errors will be corrected immediately so that the junior
employee will understand what is to be done and the level of
performance that needs to be displayed.
(a) Reaction this stage is evaluated to get the feedback and opinions of
the participant about the programme carried out. Among the
information evaluated is their perception of the programmes
contents, the trainers performance and the way the training is
managed. This is the easiest stage to evaluate and the most commonly
used.
(b) Learning this stage is evaluated to measure the participants level of
learning from the training. It is easier to measure the objectives of the
training at this stage because we can evaluate whether the knowledge,
skills, attitudes and the capabilities of the participants have improved or
otherwise after undergoing the programme. The method normally used
is through written and practical Self-Checks. Written Self-Checks are
suitable for measuring the level of knowledge while practical Self-Checks
are more suitable for measuring the skills of the participants.
(c) Behaviour this stage measures the transfer of training taking place to
see whether the participant can apply what has been learnt at their
own place of work or otherwise. Therefore, it should be done a few
weeks after the training programme is over. This is to give the
participants sufficient time to try and use the things that they have
learnt. Evaluation can be done through observation, interviews and
also job records. Observation can be done by supervisors and co-
workers who can evaluate any change in the participants job
behaviours. Interviews can be done by supervisors as well as
subordinates or employees from other departments.
(d) Outcomes evaluation at this stage tries to measure the effectiveness
of the training carried out. This evaluation is important to the
management who wants to ensure the returns on the investment
made. The information for measuring this improvement can be
obtained from records, reports as well as the organisations index.
However, this evaluation is rather difficult to carry out because we
cannot determine whether the outcome of the organisation is the
effect of the training or other factors.
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
1. The training manager is responsible for all the activities of the training unit
or department. All the staff members will report on their developments and
problems to him/her so that he/she can solve them immediately.
Normally, he/she would be involved in meetings with the management
and be responsible for giving them reports on training activities. He/she is
also responsible for applying for financial approval for training purposes
within the organisation.
2. Things which need to be done at the start of the training programme are:
(a) Welcome the participants
(b) Start ice-breaking session
(c) Explain learning aims, objectives and process
(d) Make sure participants understand
(e) Explain logistics toilet, telephone, breaks and refreshments,
materials etc.
(f) Use name tag/card
(g) Explain rules and expectations
(h) Explain your role
3. Five categories of essential skills in order to play the various training roles
are:
(a) Training skills these involve knowledge, abilities and capabilities in
order to carry out all the steps of the training process.
(b) Communication skills verbal or non-verbal skills necessary for
trainer.
(c) Interpersonal skills skills for understanding the needs and wishes of
the organisation and individuals to ensure that all needs are identified
and appropriate actions are taken.
(d) Computer skills skills required to facilitate preparation of materials
such as participants notes and slides or transparencies so that they
look professional.
(e) General skills broad knowledge, other skills and capabilities such
as knowledge about the organisation or the industry that one is in as
well as knowledge about marketing to ensure the accuracy of needs
analysis being done.
5. Among the changes which may influence and those which demand
preciseness and promptness in the production process and work system are
customers demands, which are becoming more challenging. To ensure that
these demands are met, the organisation may have to re-evaluate and
adjust the existing production process and work system. When there are
such changes, employees involved have to be retrained so that they
understand and are able to carry out their job according to the new work
system and procedures.
Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. C 2. D 3. B 4. A
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
Disadvantages:
(a) Too subjective in nature and can lead to bias
(b) Depends too much on one appraiser
(c) No checks done to ensure its objectivity and sincerity
(d) Not comprehensive in nature
(e) Appraisers may forget important matters because no records are kept
(f) Difficult to determine whether it is properly implemented or otherwise
(Choose any two of the above answers)
(d) Predictable
(e) Performance dialogue
(f) Suitable evaluation forms
(g) Continuous checking system
(h) Job related criteria
(i) Standard evaluation instruments
(j) Trained appraisers
(k) Continuous open communication
(Choose any of the five answers above)
Disadvantages:
(a) Too taxing, for example, in the case of performance forms that are too
difficult to understand or forms that are too long
(b) Too formal and bureaucratic in nature
(c) Can be misused
(d) Difficult to modify evaluation forms that are found to be ineffective
(Choose any three of the answers above)
Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice Questions
1. D 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. A
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
Advantages:
(a) It is a more comprehensive system because the feedback is obtained
from all parties;
(b) Quality of information is better. (Quality of respondents is better than
quantity);
(c) It complements the initiatives of TQM by emphasising customers
evaluation and internal and external teams;
(d) Problems of bias and prejudice can be reduced because feedback is
from all parties; and
(e) Feedback from co-workers and other parties can help employee
improve his self-development.
Disadvantages:
(a) System will become more complex if all the feedback is combined;
(b) Feedback may cause resentment among employees when they learn
that respondents are trying to sabotage them;
(c) Possibility of contradictory opinions although all opinions are true
from the perspective of the assessor;
(d) Employees may give invalid opinions about one another; and
(e) Assessor may not be responsible for his evaluation if he is not named.
Self-Test 2
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
Multiple Choice Questions
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. A
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
1. The factors that should be given attention to before giving criticism are:
(a) Is the criticism really necessary? Managers who are disappointed
with their employees performance may vent their anger through the
criticism given. Make sure that the criticism given is really focused on
the problems that take place.
(b) Do not blow the issues out of proportion. Try to give brief criticism
based on facts and focus on the problems that need to be solved.
(c) Make improvements as your objective. Giving criticism without
giving suggestions for improvement makes the discussions pointless.
Criticism given should be followed by full support from the
management to overcome the problems that exist.
(b) Job-related
(i) Job needs are always changing and are not clear
(ii) Fed-up with the job
(iii) Lack of career opportunities
(iv) Obscure job functions
(v) Conflict between management and employees
(vi) Problems with co-workers
(vii) Unsafe job environment
(viii) Lack of raw materials and tools
(ix) Inability to perform a job
(x) Excessive workload
(xi) Insufficient workload
(xii) Lack of job skills
(d) Deadwood
(i) Stopping increment
(ii) Demotion
(iii) Termination of job
(iv) Direct and specific feedback for handling performance problems
(c) It is crucial to provide staff that can help employees who voluntarily
ask for help;
(d) Supervisors interference is confined to implementing his
responsibilities in ensuring employees display the desired
performance and it is also the responsibility of the supervisor to give
guidance and training in encouraging them;
(e) Continuous monitoring of job performance is one of the methods for
managers and supervisors to carry out an open evaluation. If the job
performance is found to be unsatisfactory, managers and supervisors
have the right to discuss with the employees and advise them to
improve their performance again;
(f) Recommendations to see a counsellor will only be done if managers
and supervisors fail to solve the problems through formal channels;
and
(g) The procedure for the help for employees programme should be
adapted to the managements existing policies.
Self-Test 2
True (T) and False (F) Statements
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True
1. C 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. B
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
(e) Demotion
This is usually due to failure. It may also be due to future
opportunities for promotion which are limited and technological
changes. It could be a career opportunity someday, especially if the
career path is a dead end. It could also help senior employees lessen
their pressure at the workplace.
(d) Realising Changes in Interests and Self Objectives When Career and
Living Conditions Change
Environmental factors have a big influence on an employees interests
and self-objectives. If he/she has lost interest in the job he or she is
doing, then he or she has to make plans so as not to affect his or her
career. For example, take a clerk who is more interested in business
than in performing his or her clerical duties. Thus, he or she has to re-
evaluate himself or herself. If he or she decides to leave, he or she
should prepare and plan for a career change.
Self-Test 2
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. True 9. False
2. True 10. True
3. True 11. True
4. False 12. True
5. True 13. True
6. True 14. False
7. False 15. False
8. True
1. B 2. D 3. B 4. A 5. C
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
1. Career development has a wider scope and focus and encompasses a longer
time frame. If the main objective of training is to improve the employees
performance, the career development objective is more towards producing
employees who are capable and competitive in all aspects. Therefore, a
career development programme cannot be implemented in a short span of
time and is more focused on continuous efforts that are formal and
organised in nature.
Apprenticeship Phase:
(a) Also known as the development phase
(b) Time frame is the first five years after the apprentice joins an
organisation
(c) Main focus is more on the job security and job guarantee aspects
3. The programmes that are regularly carried out in the development phase
include mentoring, guidance, job rotation and personal help.
Self-Test 2
True (T) and False (F) Statements
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. C
Self-Test 1
Essay Questions
1. There are several reasons why women find it difficult to hold important
positions in an organisation. First, negative perception. Many people
believe that women do not have the capabilities, style and background for
them to be effective managers. Second, women do not have a network or
role model. Men have an old boys network in which more senior members
of an organisation will offer opportunities for promotion and share views
on careers with junior members. Furthermore, women do not have many
role models who can be their mentors. Thus, they often miss the
opportunity for promotion.
2. Job layoffs are often temporary in nature and do not bring much pressure
to employees. Job layoffs happen when there is no work to be done at that
time and employees are asked to go home. The Management expects it to
be temporary and plans to call them back. On the contrary, they would not
be called back when conditions improve. Workers who lose their jobs will
usually be under pressure and feel extremely sad.
Self-Test 2
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. A
References
Ibrahim, Mamat. (2001). Effective design and successful management of training.
Selangor: Eastview Publications Sdn. Bhd.
Sidek, Mohd Noah. (2002). Perkembangan kerjaya: Teori & praktis. Serdang:
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
OR
Thank you.