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New Opportunities for Solar

Adsorption
Refrigeration
By Kai Wang, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE; Edward A. Vineyard, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE to the unit. By contrast, in adsorption

A
systems the adsorbent remains in a solid
dsorption (also called solid sorption) refrigeration systems use state, which means no crystallization is-
sues.
solid sorption material such as silica gel and zeolite to produce Suitability for application where se-
rious vibration occurs.3,4 Absorption
cooling effect. These systems are attracting increasing attention because systems cannot operate normally under
conditions where serious vibration oc-
they can be activated by low-grade thermal energy and use refriger- curs, such as in fishing boats and loco-
motives, because the absorbent in these
ants having zero ozone depletion potential and low global warming systems, which is in a liquid state, may
flow from the generator to the condenser
potential. The adsorption refrigeration system has several advantages or from the absorber to the evaporator.
Adsorption systems are suitable for such
compared to the absorption refrigeration system.
applications, because their adsorbents
Wide range of operating tempera- corrosion might occur in absorption sys- stay in a solid state.
tures.1 Adsorption systems can be acti- tems when the regeneration temperature Depending on the nature of attractive
vated by a heat source with a temperature is greater than 200C (392F). forces existing between the adsorbate
as low as 50C (122F), while the heat No crystallization issue. In the lith- and adsorbent, adsorption can be clas-
source temperature for an absorption ium bromide (LiBr) /water absorption sified as physical adsorption or chemi-
system should be at least 90C (194F). system, there is a specific minimum solu-
Also, adsorption systems have less cor- tion temperature for any given LiBr solu-
About the Authors
rosion issues for the adsorbentrefriger- tion concentration below which the salt
Kai Wang, Ph.D., is a postdoctoral research associ-
ant working pairs when they incorporate begins to crystallize out of the solution.2 ate, and Edward A. Vineyard, P.E., is group man-
high temperature heat sources compared Crystallization results in interruption of ager of the Building Equipment Research Group at
to an absorption system, while severe machine operation and possible damage Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

14 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2011

cal adsorption. In physical adsorption, the forces of attraction
between the molecules of the adsorbate and the adsorbent
are of the Van der Waals type. Since the forces of attraction
are weak, the process of physical adsorption can be easily re-
versed by heating. In chemical adsorption, the forces of attrac-
tion and chemical bonds between the adsorbate and adsorbent
molecules are strong. The adsorbate and adsorbent molecules
change their original state after the adsorption process, e.g.,
complexation occurs between chlorides and ammonia. More-
over, chemical adsorption also exhibits the phenomena of salt
swelling and agglomeration, which are critical to heat and
mass transfer performance.1 The major drawbacks of adsorp-
tion systems are their low energy efficiency, the COP (coeffi-
cient of performance: the ratio of cooling capacity to thermal
energy supplied to the system) is usually less than 0.4, due to
the thermal coupling irreversibility.5
Adsorbents and Refrigerants
The adsorbents used in adsorption systems are categorized
as physical, chemical, or composite adsorbents, according to
the nature of the forces involved in the adsorption process. The
types, characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of differ-
ent adsorbents are summarized in this section. Two parameters
are widely used to evaluate the performance of an adsorption
system and adsorbents, namely, COP and SCP (specific cool-
ing power: the ratio of cooling capacity to mass of adsorbent
in the adsorbers).
Physical Adsorbents
The commonly used physical adsorbents for adsorption re-
frigeration systems are activated carbon, silica gel and zeolite.
Activated carbon is a form of carbon that has been pro-
cessed to make it extremely porous, and it has a large
surface area available for adsorption. Methanol and am-
monia are the most common refrigerants paired with ac-
tivated carbon. Activated carbonmethanol is one of the
most promising working pairs in practical systems because
of its large adsorption quantity and low adsorption heat
(about 1800 to 2000 kJkg1 (773.9 to 859.8 Btu/lb).1 Low
adsorption heat is beneficial to the systems COP because
the majority of heat consumption in the desorption phase
is the adsorption heat. Another advantage of activated car-
bonmethanol is low desorption temperature (about 100C
[212F]), which is within a suitable temperature range for
using solar energy as a heat source. However, activated
carbon will catalyze methanol to decompose into dimethyl
ether when the temperature is higher than 120C (248F).6
Since typical pressures in an activated carbonmethanol
system are subatmospheric, a hermetically sealed outer
vessel is required.
Activated carbonammonia has almost the same adsorp-
tion heat as the activated carbonmethanol working pair. The
main difference is the much higher operating pressure (about
1600 kPa [232 psia] when the condensing temperature is 40C
[104F]) of activated carbonammonia. The high operating
September 2011 ASHRAE Journal 15
pressure leads to rather small pipe diameters and relatively
compact heat exchangers, as compared to activated carbon
methanol. Another advantage of activated carbonammonia
is the possibility of using heat sources at 200C (392F) or
above.7 The drawbacks of this working pair are the toxicity
and pungent smell of ammonia.
Silica gel is a granular, highly porous form of silica made
synthetically from sodium silicate. For the silica gelwa-
ter working pair, the adsorption heat is about 2500 kJ/kg
(1074.8 Btu/lb) and the desorption temperature could be
as low as 50C (122F).1 Such a low desorption tempera-
ture makes it suitable for solar energy use. There is about
4% to 6% (by weight) of water connected with a single hy-
droxyl group on the surface of a silica atom, which cannot
be removed; otherwise the silica gel would lose its adsorp-
tion capability. Thus, the desorption temperature cannot be
higher than 120C (248F), and it is generally lower than
90C (194F).1 One of the drawbacks of the silica gelwater
working pair is its low adsorption quantity (about 0.2 kg
water/kg [0.2 lb water/lb] silica gel). Another drawback is
the limitation of evaporating temperature due to the freezing
point of water.
Zeolite is a type of alumina silicate crystal composed of
alkali or alkali soil. The adsorption heat of zeolitewater is
higher than that of silica gelwater, at about 3300 to 4200
kJkg1 (1418.7 to 1805.7 Btu/lb).1 The desorption tempera-
ture of zeolitewater is higher than 200C (392F) due to its
stable performance at high temperatures. The drawbacks of
zeolitewater are the same as for silica gelwater, low adsorp-
tion quantity and inability to produce evaporating tempera-
tures below 0C (32F).
Chemical Adsorbents
Chemical adsorption is characterized by the strong chemical
bond between the adsorbent and the refrigerant. The chemical
bond mainly includes the functions of complexation, coordi-
nation, hydrogenation and oxidization.1 The chemical adsorp-
tion reaction is represented in Equation 1:8
<S > + v(G ) <S > + vH
(1)
The equilibrium of this reaction is monovariant. Since the
liquid-vapor equilibrium is also monovariant, the solidgas
and liquidvapor equilibrium lines can be calculated using the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation,8
H S
Ln ( Peq ) = + (2)
RT R
H is the reaction enthalpy, S is the reaction entropy, R is
the gas constant. The most commonly used chemical adsor-
bentrefrigerant pair is metal chlorides and ammonia, which
exhibits the complexation force. The metal chlorides include
calcium chloride (CaCl2), strontium chloride (SrCl2), magne-
sium chloride (MgCl2), barium chloride (BaCl2), manganese
chloride (MnCl2), and cobalt chloride (CoCl2), among others.
As an example, the complexation reaction of CaCl2 and am-
monia (NH3) can be written as
CaCl2 ( n1 n2 ) NH 3 + n2 NH 3 CaCl2 n1 NH 3 + n2 H (3)
where the numbers of n1 and n2 could be 2, 4 and 8.
The advantage of metal chlorideammonia working pairs
is the higher adsorption quantity than that of physical adsor-
bentrefrigerant pairs. The drawbacks of metal chlorideam-
monia pairs are: 1) they require more energy to remove the
adsorbed molecules than in physical adsorption, and 2) ad-
sorption performance is degraded because of salt swelling and
agglomeration in repeated adsorption/desorption processes.
Composite Adsorbents
The composite adsorbents (or complex compounds)9,10 are
made from porous media, and chemical sorbents are commonly
a combination of metal chlorides and expanded graphite, acti-
vated carbon, active carbon fiber, zeolite or silica gel. The ob-
jectives of using composite adsorbents are: 1) improve heat and
mass transfer of chemical adsorbents11, 2) increase the adsorp-
tion quantity of physical adsorbents.12 The addition of chemi-
cal sorbents to the physical adsorbents could result in higher
adsorption quantity than that of physical adsorbents alone.
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16 A S H R A E J o u r n a l September 2011
The main composite adsorbentsrefrigerants in the recent
literature can be categorized as silica gel and chloridewater,
and chlorides and porous mediaammonia.
Composite adsorbents of silica gel and chloride are usually
produced using the impregnation method. The silica gel is im-
mersed in a chloride salt solution and is then dried to remove
the water. The adsorption characteristics of silica gel and chlo-
ride composite adsorbents could be modified by 1) changing
the silica gel pore structure, 2) changing the type of salt, and
3) changing the proportions of chloride and silica gel.13 Daou,
et al.,14 impregnated silica gel with calcium chloride, which
improved the COP by 25% and increased the SCP by 283%
compared to pure microporous silica gel.
Four types of porous media reported in the recent literature
were used to produce composite adsorbents with chlorides: ex-
panded graphite,11,12,15 activated carbon,16 and activated car-
bon fiber as well as vermiculite.17,18 Han, et al.,19 measured
the effective thermal conductivity and gas permeability of a
composite adsorbent made from expanded graphite impreg-
nated with MnCl2 using the consolidation method. The mea-
sured effective thermal conductivities ranged from 14.0 to 25.6
Wm1K1 (8.1 to 14.8 Btu/hftF) and permeability ranged
from 8.11015 to 2.51013 m2 (8.71014 to 2.71012 ft2).
Wang, et al.,11 used the same method to produce the composite
adsorbent of expanded graphite and CaCl2. Effective thermal
conductivities of the expanded graphiteCaCl2 consolidated
composite adsorbent are in the range of 7.05 to 9.2 Wm1K1
(4.07 to 5.3 Btu/hftF). The obtained results indicated that the
thermal conductivity of the composite adsorbent has a strong
dependence on the bulk density, the mass fraction of expanded
graphite and the ammoniated state of CaCl2. Wang, et al.,20
investigated the effective thermal conductivity of a compos-
ite consolidated adsorbent of expanded
graphite and activated carbon, and test
results showed that its thermal conductiv-
ity could reach as high as 30 Wm1K1
(17.3 Btu/hftF).
ducing the desired refrigeration effect. This step is equivalent
to the evaporation in the vapor-compression cycle. The ba-
sic adsorption refrigeration cycle is an intermittent system
and the cooling output is not continuous. A minimum of two
adsorbers are required to obtain a continuous cooling effect
(when the first adsorber is in the adsorption phase, the second
adsorber is in desorption phase). These adsorbers will sequen-
tially execute the adsorption-desorption process.

Adsorption Cycle Description

Basic Adsorption Cycle
A basic adsorption cycle consists of
four steps (Figure 1): heating and pres-
surization, desorption and condensa-
tion, cooling and depressurization, and
adsorption and evaporation. In the first
step, the adsorber is heated by a heat
source at a temperature of TH. The pres-
sure of the adsorber increases from the
evaporating pressure up to the condens-
ing pressure while the adsorber temper- Advertisement formerly in this space.
ature increases. This step is equivalent
to the compression in the vapor-com-
pression cycle. In the second step, the
adsorber continues receiving heat and
its temperature keeps increasing, which
results in the desorption (or generation)
of refrigerant vapor from adsorbent in
the adsorber. This desorbed vapor is
liquefied in the condenser and the con-
densing heat is released to the first heat
sink at a temperature of TC. This step
is equivalent to condensation in the
vapor-compression cycle.
At the beginning of the third step, the
adsorber is disconnected from the con-
denser. Then, it is cooled by heat trans-
fer fluid at the second heat sink tempera-
ture of TM. The pressure of the adsorber
decreases from the condensing pressure
down to the evaporating pressure due
to the decrease in the adsorber tem-
perature. This step is equivalent to the
expansion in the vapor-compression
cycle. In the last step, the adsorber keeps
releasing heat while being connected to
the evaporator. The adsorber tempera-
ture continues decreasing, which results
in the adsorption of refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator by adsorbent, pro-

September 2011 ASHRAE Journal 17

 Ln(P)
Heating and Pressurization
A Ln(P)
Desorption and
Condensation B
Pc Pc

PE PE

1/T 1/T

Desorber Condenser Desorber Condenser

Desorbed QH Desorbed
TH QH TC TH TC
Vapor QC Vapor QC

QM QM
TM Throttling TM Throttling
Valve Valve

TE TE
QE QE

Ln(P) D Ln(P)
Cooling and
Depressurization C
Pc Pc

PE PE

Adsorption and
Evaporation

1/T 1/T

Adsorber Condenser Adsorber Condenser

QH QH TC
TH TC TH
QC QC

QM TM QM
TM Throttling Throttling
Valve Valve

Absorbed Vapor Absorbed Vapor TE

TE QE
QE

Evaporator Evaporator

Figure 1: Basic adsorption refrigeration system. A. Heating and pressurization. B. Desorption and condensation. C. Cooling and
depressurization. D. Adsorption and evaporation.29

Advanced Adsorption Cycle
Since the efficiency of the basic adsorption refrigeration
cycle is low, and the cooling output is not continuous, many
advanced adsorption refrigeration cycles (such as the heat re-
covery cycle, mass recovery cycle, thermal wave cycle, forced
convective thermal wave cycle, etc.) have been developed to
improve efficiency and practicability.
The heat recovery cycle is an advanced adsorption cycle used
in a system with two or more adsorbers. Figure 2 shows the
heat recovery system on the P-T diagram. After the adsorption
phase and desorption phase are finished in the adsorbers, the
heat from the hot adsorber is transferred to the cold adsorber
by circulating heat transfer fluid between them in a closed loop.
The experimental results show that the COP of the system will
increase by up to 25% with the heat recovery cycle.21,22
The mass recovery cycle uses refrigerant mass recovery
between two adsorbers to effectively increase cooling output
and COP of the system. Figure 3 presents a diagram of the
mass recovery cycle of an adsorption system. In the end of
the desorptionadsorption phase, the high-pressure adsorber

18 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2011

 Ln(P) High Pressure Low Pressure
Heating and Pressurization Desorber Adsorber
Pc Open
TH TM
Refrigerant
Vapor

PE
Figure 3: Diagram of mass recovery cycle.

Energy Supplied by Energy Released

Cold Adsorber 1/T The Heat Source To the Adsorber
Heat
Source
Ln(P)

Temperature
B C
Adsorber 1
Pc Heat Sink
Adsorber 2
A
D
Cooling and Condenser
Depressurization
PE

Hot Adsorber 1/T

Figure 2: Pressure-temperature diagram of heat recovery cycle.

is connected to the low-pressure adsorber in a closed loop. The
refrigerant in the high-pressure adsorber will be re-adsorbed
by the adsorbent in the low-pressure adsorber due to the pres-
sure difference between the two adsorbers. In a mass recov-
ery process, the adsorption quantity of adsorbent is increased,
which causes the cooling capacity and COP to increase. The
experimental results showed the mass recovery cycle may help
obtain a COP increase of more than 10%.21
The concept of thermal wave cycle, proposed by Shelton, et
al.,23,24 is shown in Figure 4.25 The heat transfer fluid circu-
lates through four components: (1) Adsorber 1 in adsorption
phase, (2) the heat source; (3) Adsorber 2 in desorption phase,
and (4) heat sink. The adsorption heat released from Adsorber
1 is recovered by the heat transfer fluid and transferred to Ad-
sorber 2, and only limited thermal energy is required from the
heat source since about 65% of the total energy received by
each adsorber can be internally recovered.26 Experimental re-
sults showed the COP of a two-bed adsorption air conditioner
(zeolitewater) with thermal wave cycle was approximately
1.0 in cooling season.27 Critoph28 invented and theoretically
investigated the convection thermal wave cycle, which uses re-
frigerant as a heat transfer medium for internal heat recovery.
The simulation results predicted a COP of 0.95 for this system
when the evaporating temperature and condensing tempera-
ture are 0C and 42C (32F and 107.6F), respectively. hermetically sealed outer vessel is essential to maintain good
Performance of Adsorption Systems
Table 125 summarizes the performance of some typical ad-
sorption refrigeration systems that were manufactured and
tested in the last 20 years for use of waste heat and solar en-
ergy. These results were obtained under various operating con-
ditions; hence they should not be compared to one another.
Evaporator
Reversible Pump
Figure 4: Thermal wave adsorption cycle.
However, they could be used as a reference to what can be
expected from adsorption refrigeration systems.
Summary
Compared to the vapor compression refrigeration systems,
adsorption systems have the following advantages: 1) they can
be driven by waste heat and low-grade heat such as solar en-
ergy; 2) they use environmentally friendly fluids such as water
or ammonia as refrigerants. The major drawbacks of adsorption
systems are their low energy efficiency (low COP and SCP).
Silica gelwater and activated carbonmethanol are suitable
working pairs for low temperature waste heat and solar energy
due to their relatively low desorption temperatures. Zeolite
water, activated carbonammonia, and metal chloridesam-
monia, as well as composite adsorbentsammonia can be used
in adsorption systems driven by high temperature waste heat.
Since the typical pressures in silica gelwater, zeolitewater,
and activated carbonmethanol systems are subatmospheric, a
machine performance.
The basic adsorption refrigeration cycle is an intermittent
system and the cooling output is not continuous. A minimum
of two adsorbers are required to obtain a continuous cooling
effect (when the first adsorber is in the adsorption phase, the
second adsorber is in the desorption phase). Several advanced
adsorption cycles (such as heat recovery cycle, mass recov-

20 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2011

 Application Heat Source Temperature or Insolation Working Pair COP SCP or Ice Production Year

20 MJ m2 day1 ACMethanol 0.12 6 kg day1m2 1986

105C ACNH3 0.10 35 W kg1 1997

18.1 to 19.2 MJ m2 day1 ACMethanol 0.12 to 0.14 5.0 to 6.0 kg day1m2 2002

17 to 20 MJ m2day1 ACMethanol 0.13 to 0.15 6.0 to 7.0 kg day1m2 2004

Ice Making
15.4 MJ m2 day1 Silica GelWater 0.16a 2.05 MJ m2day1 2004

20 MJ m2 day1 ACBlackened SteelMethanol 0.16 9.4 kg day1m2b 2004

<120C ACMethanol 0.18 27 W kg1 2005

115C AC+CaCl2NH3 0.39 770 W kg1c 2006

55C Silica GelWater 0.36 3.2 kW Unit1 2001

100C ACMethanol 0.40 73.1 W kg1 2001

65C Silica GelWater 0.28 12.0 kW Unit1 2004

Chilled Water
75 to 95C Silica GelWater 0.35 to 0.60 15.0 kW m3 2004

80 to 95C Silica GelWater 0.30 to 0.60 20 W kg1d 2004

80C Silica GelWater 0.33 to 0.50 91.7 to 171.8 W kg1 2005

232C ACNH3 0.42 to 1.19 NIe 1996

204C ZeoliteWater 0.60 to 1.60 36 to 144 W kg1 1988

230C ZeoliteWater 0.41 97 W kg1 1999

Air Conditioning
310C ZeoliteWater 0.38 25.7 W kg1 2000

100C ACNH3 0.20 600 W kg1 2003

230 to 300C ZeoliteWater 0.20 to 0.21 21.4 to 30 W kg1 2004

a Average value obtained during 30 days of continuous operation; b Based on the area of the adsorber, which was different from the area of the reflector panels;
c The SCP is based on the mass of CaCl inside one adsorbent bed and only for the duration of the adsorption phase; d At generation temperature of 95C; e Not informed.
2

Table 1: Performance of adsorption refrigeration systems for different applications.25

ery cycle, and thermal wave adsorption cycle) have been de-
veloped to improve efficiency and practicality. Although the
advanced cycles can improve the adsorption system perfor-
mance, the complexity and the initial costs of the system also
increase. In these advanced cycles, the mass recovery cycle
has the potential to be a cost-effective way to boost the COP
and SCP of the adsorption systems.25
Although the adsorption refrigeration systems have several
advantages over vapor compression refrigeration systems,
there are several challenges (such as improvement in systems
energy efficiency and/or reduction of manufacturing costs, ad-
vanced cycles with less thermal coupling irreversibilities, and
formulation of new composite adsorbents with enhanced ad-
sorption capacity and improved heat and mass transfer prop-
erties) to overcome before they can be considered as possible
alternatives to replace the present vapor compression systems,
especially in regions with abundant waste heat or solar en-
ergy resources available. These challenges also point to new
research and development opportunities and leave opportunity
for considerable creativity.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Liwei Wang
and Dr. Ruzhu Wang of Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, and Dr. Abdolreza Zaltash, Dr. Moonis R. Ally
and Erica Atkin of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, Tenn., for their support, enlightening discussions and
insights.
Note
Figure 4 and Table 1 are reprinted from Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science, 32(4), R.Z. Wang, R.G. Oliveira,
Adsorption refrigerationAn efficient way to make good
use of waste heat and solar energy, pp. 424458 with per-
mission from Elsevier.
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