CHAPTER-1

LITERATURE REVIEW

In recent years, natural gas has increasingly become the preferred option globally, as it offers clean
and low price energy equivalence to expensive liquid fuel. Considering that the non-renewable sources
of energy like solar, wind, nuclear etc. will take significant time to contribute a large amount in the
energy demand there is an express need for availability of natural gas to be enhanced. Thus, it has
become necessary to look into unconventional resources for energy.

With rapid depletion of producing reservoirs and technically challenging hostile environments, it
becomes imperative to look for the unconventional sources of energy. To achieve commercial
production, these reservoirs should be stimulated through massive hydraulic fracturing and
frequently, through horizontal wells as a means to enhance productivity. And with advancement
of technology and increasing demand for oil and gas the Exploration and Production industries
world over have been resorting to shale gas and shale oil as major unconventional source.

The term unconventional reservoir covers a wide range of hydrocarbon-bearing formations and
reservoir types that generally do not produce economic rates of hydrocarbon without stimulation.
The United States Geological survey defines an unconventional reservoir as one with a very large
coverage area and hydrocarbon initially in place with very low permeability and a low expected
final recovery with the absence of hydrocarbon trap (Arogundade and Sohrabi 2012).
Unconventional reservoirs include: Tight-Gas Sandstones, Gas Hydrates, Oil Shale Formation,
Heavy Oil Sandstone and Shale gas.
 Figure 1.1: Different sources of oil and gas (Source: US energy information Administration)

1.1 Shale
Shale is better known as a source rock that has been responsible for generation and expulsion of
hydrocarbons towards more porous and permeable strata by different courses and mechanism.

Figure 1.2: Shale Structure (Source: Caldara A. M., 2012)

In sedimentary terms, are fine grained clastic rocks typically less than 4 micron in diameter formed
by consolidation of silts and clays. It may contain variable silt size particles up to 62.5 micron.
The term shale suggests a laminar and fissile structure present in certain rocks. The very fine sheet
like clay mineral grains and laminated layers of sediment result in a rock with permeability that is
horizontal and extremely limited to vertical. This low permeability means that gas cannot move
easily within the rock except over millions of years. Mud rocks are also considered as shale and
are referred as silty argillite or shale. Just as sandstones can be composed of different mineral
grains (e.g. Quartz, feldspar, rock fragments, clays, etc.), shales (more properly referred to as
mudstones) also exhibit a wide range of composition (clay, quarts, feldspar, heavy minerals,
kalonite, illite-smectite, etc.).

Sediments that give rise to unconventional shale gas reservoirs generally have marine or lacustrine
origin. Historically, shale is known as source rock however, recently it has been showed that they
can produce in-situ hydrocarbons commercially. They simultaneously serve as source, reservoir
and seal rock.
After overburden maturity takes place controlled by Pressure and heat to which the organic matter
rich strata are subjected, it is during this stage the bitumen and kerogen are produced and
hydrocarbons are generated.

1.2 Shale Gas and Shale Oil

Shale gas is unconventional natural gas that is produced from a type of sedimentary rock derived
from clastic sources often including mudstone or siltstones, which is known as shale. Natural gas
is a mixture of light-end, flammable hydrocarbons primarily composed of methane (CH4) but also
containing lesser percentage of butane, ethane, propane and other gases. Clastic sediments are
composed of fragments of pre-existing rocks that has been eroded, transported, deposited and
lithified into new rocks. Shale contains organic matter which was laid down along with the rock
fragments.

The definition of gas shale that best describes the reservoir is organic rich and fine grained
(Bustin, 2006). To have gas potential shale has to possess sufficient organic content, coming from
fossil deposits which are measured by Total organic carbon and should be thermally mature. TOC
is the measure of the total amount of organic material present in the rock, expressed as a percentage
of weight. Thermal maturity is the measure of the degree of organic matter contained in the rock
has been heated over the period of time, and potentially converted into liquid and/or gaseous
hydrocarbons. And to produce the gas the lithologies should be brittle to allow artificial
fracturations.

Shale oil, also known as kerogen oil, is unconventional oil produced from oil shale by Pyrolysis,
Hydrogenation, or Thermal Dissolution.

Shale natural gas is either biogenic in origin, formed by the action of biologic organisms breaking
down organic material within shale, or of thermogenic origin formed at depth and high
temperature.

Gas is trapped and stored in shale in different ways

As adsorbed gas into the kerogen material (organic matter) and mineral surfaces within
natural fracture.
Free gas trapped in nonorganic inter-particle (matrix) porosity and micro fracture porosity.
Dissolved in hydrocarbon liquids present in the bitumen.

The following geologic and reservoir properties are used to provide a basic overview of the
geologic characteristics of the major shale gas formations:
Depositional environment of shale (marine vs. non-marine):
Permeability
Depth (to top and base of shale interval)
Structure, including major faults
Gross shale interval
Organically-rich gross and net shale thickness
Total organic content (TOC, by wt.)
Thermal maturity (Ro).
Shale deposited in marine settings tends to have lower clay content and typically high in brittle
minerals such as quartz, feldspar and carbonates. Hydraulic stimulation is easier in brittle shales.
Shales deposited in non-marine settings (lacustrine, fluvial) tend to be higher in clay, more ductile
and less responsive to hydraulic stimulation. (Parney.R. et.al. 2010)
TOC is the total amount of organic material (kerogen) present in the rock, expressed as a
percentage by weight. Generally, higher TOC results in better hydrocarbon generation. The
thermal maturity of the rock is a measure of the degree to which organic matter contained in the
rock has been heated over time, and potentially converted into liquid and/or gaseous hydrocarbons.
Thermal maturity is measured using vitrinite reflectance (Ro). (Three Legs Resources, 2011).

Shales that host economic quantities of gas have a number of common properties.
They are:
High organic content (0.5% to 25%),
Source rocks in the thermogenic gas window which have resulted in the conversion of
organic matter into natural gas
Highly brittle to ease hydraulic fracturing.
Rigid enough to maintain open fractures.
Source rocks with high natural gamma radiations as high gamma radiation is often
correlated with high organic carbon content.

Table-1.1 Difference between conventional gas and shale gas (Source: Burns et al, 2012)
Conventional Gas Shale Gas
It requires a specific trapping mechanism such It does not require any trapping mechanism.
as structural or stratigraphic trap.

It requires a source, a reservoir and seal The gas is either stored in natural fractures or
lithologies. adsorbed on mineral surfaces; shale acts as a
self source and self seal.

Burial history/thermal maturity/TOC of Burial history/thermal maturity/TOC of shale

source has to be considered. itself has to be considered.

Fractured reservoir account for only ~20% of Gas shales must be fracture stimulated to
conventional HC production produce commercially: artificial reservoir

Sedimentology and facies mapping act as Stress relief analysis, rock brittleness tend to
important indicators for the reservoir quality. be more important due to the need of
 fracturing the reservoir- but local facies
variation can affect the production.

1.3 Key Shale Gas Production Techniques

As we know that, Shales have very low permeability (measured in nanodarcies). As a result of
this, many wells are required to deplete the reservoir and special well design and well stimulation
techniques are required to deliver production rates of sufficient levels to make a development
economic. Horizontal drilling and fracture stimulation have both been crucial in the development
of the shale gas industry.

1.3.1 Horizontal Drilling

Horizontal drilling is a technique that allows the wellbore to come into contact with significantly
larger areas of hydrocarbon bearing rock than in a vertical well. As a result of this increased
contact, production rates and recovery factors can be increased. As the technology for horizontal
drilling and Fracking has improved, the use of horizontal drilling has increased significantly.

1.3.2 Directional Drilling

Directional drilling is the science of deviating a wellbore along a planned path to a target located
a given lateral distance and direction from vertical. This includes drilling as vertically as possible
from a given TVD.

1.3.3 Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation

Hydraulic fracture stimulation, or fracking, is a process through which a large number of
fractures are created mechanically in the rock, thus allowing the natural gas and/or crude oil
trapped in subsurface formations to move through those fractures to the wellbore from where it
can then flow to the surface. Fraccing can both increase production rates and increase the total
amount of gas that can be recovered from a given volume of shale. Pump pressure causes the rock
to fracture, and water carries sand (proppant) into the hydraulic fracture to prop it open allowing
the flow of gas. Whilst water and sand are the main components of hydraulic fracture fluid,
chemical additives are often added in small concentrations to improve fracturing performance.
Micro seismic monitoring is a proven technology and has been widely used to monitor and evaluate
the effectiveness of hydraulic fracture treatments in various formations, including shale.
 Figure 1.3: Hydraulic Fracturing Technique (Source: Weymuller B., TPA, Total, 2012)

1.3.4 Pad Drilling

In shale drilling it is becoming increasingly common to use a single drill pad to develop as large
an area of the subsurface as possible. One surface location may be used to drill multiple wells. Pad
drilling increases the operational efficiency of gas production and reduces infrastructure costs and
land use. Any negative impact upon the surface environment is therefore mitigated. (Three leg
resource, 2011)
Figure 1.4: Pad Drilling (Source: Tyndall centre report: Shale Gas: A provisional assessment of
climate change and environment, 2011)

1.3.5 Stacked Wells

The drilling of stacked horizontal wells may be possible where the shale is sufficiently thick or
multiple shale rock strata are found layered on top of each other. One vertical well bore can be
used to produce gas from horizontal wells at different depths. One area where this technology is
being employed is in the Pearsall and Eagle Ford plays in southern Texas. Cost savings and
efficiencies can be achieved as surface facilities are shared. As in pad drilling, the environmental
impact on the surface is mitigated as a result of reduced land use. This technology can be
particularly beneficial in the thicker shales. (Three leg resource, 2011).

1.3.6 Multilateral Drilling

Multilateral drilling is similar to stacked drilling in that it involves the drilling of two or more
horizontal wells from the same vertical well bore. With multilateral drilling, the horizontal wells
access different areas of the shale at the same depth, but in different directions. With the drilling
of multilateral wells it is possible for production rates to be increased significantly for a reduced
incremental cost. (Three leg resource, 2011)

Figure 1.5: Multilateral Drilling (Source: Baker Hughes INTEQ)

1.4 Environmental Challenges while Drilling and Producing Shale Gas
During drilling and hydraulic fracturing of shale gas well requires 3 to 6 million gallons of water
per well. There are different types of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing which are hazardous
for the enviromnemt.The rapid development of this resource, however, has attracted, and continues
to attract, significant and at times extreme attention. This attention is particularly focused on the
potential environmental impacts of the extraction process

1.4.1 Water Contamination

Groundwater contamination can happen through spillage via the surface route or by leakage from
the wellbore. Leakage of fluids through the rock formations between the targeted shale and shallow
freshwater aquifers is in principle also possible, but much less likely. (Daniel J., et.al, 2009).

1.4.2 Induced Seismicity

Hydraulic fracturing causes millions of very small and localized seismic events when the fractures
are actually produced in the shale. Recorded by special equipment, operators benefit

Strongly from this seismic response by pinpointing the spatial and temporal distribution of
Produced fractures in the underground. (Daniel J., et.al, 2009).

1.4.3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Methane, the main component of natural gas, may act as a potent greenhouse gas that contributes
to global warming when released into the atmosphere. Large quantities of methane may be released
into the atmosphere during the flowback-phase of a shale gas well.
Figure 1.6: Composition of the Fracking fluid (Source: Tarek S., et al., 2012)
1.5 Shale Gas Scenario

The image below shows the conventional and shale gas resources available (in TCM) world-
wide.

Figure 1.7: Conventional gas reserves and Shale gas resources worldwide (Source: The EIA
report, 2011)

1.6 Global Scenario of Shale Gas

1.6.1 United States of America

Over last few years, advancement and research in drilling and production technologies have lead
to the huge shale gas reserves in United States. United States, which was a gas deficient country a
few years ago, is now more than self sufficient in gas production and utilization. The Barnett shale
in North Texas and the Marcellus shale spread across Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West
Virginia, and adjacent states are two of the most established and prolific shale gas-producing plays.
Shale gas accounted for approximately 20 percent of total U.S. natural gas supplies in 2010, and
is projected to increase to 45 percent by 2035. (KPMG global institute of energy, 2012) In 2010,
the total mergers and acquisitions (M&A) in the U.S. shale gas segment was US$39 billion
equivalent to 21 percent of the global upstream M&A value. (Oil and Gas Journal, January 26,
2011) In the United States, shale gas reserves are found across most of the lower 48 states. The
major shale plays include the Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, Woodford, and Eagle
Ford. In 2009, the Barnett shale play was the most prolific play, accounting for almost 62 percent
of the total shale gas production. The second largest production was from the Fayetteville play,
accounting for 8 percent of the total production. (EIA, March 2, 2010) Across the U.S., About
35000 wells were drilled in 2006 in 19 identified geographic basins from the west coast to
Northeast. Presently, Barnett Shale in the Fort Worth Basin, Lewis Shale in the San Juan Basin,
Antrim Shale in the Michigan Basin, Marcellus Shale and others in the Appalachian Basin, and
New Albany Shale in the Illinois Basin are producing commercial shale gas significantly.

1.6.2 Australia
Total Proved Natural Gas Reserves in Australia stands at 110 trillion cubic feet. Technically
Recoverable Shale Gas Reserves in Australia stands at 396 trillion cubic feet from four main basins
five major shale gas formations. Shale Gas Formations in Place points to a far larger potential
resource 1,381 trillion cubic feet (EIA/ARI) to 2,313 trillion cubic feet (H-H Rogner). The EIA
report from 2011 provides the following overview of the four main basins reviewed.

The Cooper Basin, Australias main onshore gas-producing basin could be the first to
develop. Other prospective shale basins in Australia include the small, scarcely explored
Maryborough Basin in coastal Queensland, The Perth Basin in Western Australia, and finally, the
large Canning Basin in Western Australia.

1.6.3 Europe
Unlike the US, Europe has not completely leveraged the potential of its shale gas reserves
estimated at 1200 TCF, with Western Europe accounting for shale gas resources of nearly 510
TCF. Germany, Poland, Sweden, France, Austria, Hungary, and the UK are presumed to have
shale gas reserves.(Economist, December 3, 2009) Poland is estimated to have 48 TCF of
unconventional gas, which could increase the EUs proven natural gas reserves by 47 percent, to
101 TCF, according to Wood Mackenzie estimates.(The Sunday Times, April 5, 2010). According
to IHS CERA, the commercial viability of these five plays in Europe can be identified only after
drilling minimum 12 exploratory wells. However, According to European Policy, even after
spending over drilling exploratory wells, the company may or may not be granted the access to the
reserves. As a result, there is little incentive for companies to drill further wells. (Oil and Gas
Financial Journal, November 1, 2010).

1.6.4 China
Largely untapped shale gas reserves in China are expected to become considerable sources of
energy. Chinese shale gas reserves are spread across four big provinces including South China,
North China, Northeastern China, and North-western China. The total shale gas resource estimates
range from 759.26 to 1589 TCF, with an average estimate of 1084 TCF. (Lexis Nexis, 2009).

1.6.5 South Africa

The heavy power shortage has made South Africa realize the need of alternative energy source.
Karoo Basin (which spans nearly two-thirds of the entire country) is the one where shale gas
reserves are expected to be significant. Petroleum Agency South Africa has granted the exploration
rights for South Western Karoo basin to Shell to assess the viable unconventional gas resources.
In addition, firms such as BHP, Billiton and Sasol have shown interest in gas exploration in the
country.

1.6.6 Canada
While large-scale commercial production of shale gas has not yet been achieved in Canada, many
companies are now exploring for and developing shale gas resources in Alberta, British Columbia,
Quebec, and New Brunswick. Development of shale gas, and other unconventional resources, will
help ensure supplies of natural gas are available to the growing North American natural gas market
for many decades

1.6.7 India
In India it has been found that basins having shale gas potential are: Cambay, Assam-Arakan,
Rajasthan, Vindhyan, Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basin. From all the potential basins known,
Cambay is said to be the most prolific for shale gas production.

1.6.8 Shale Gas efforts in India

This study has assessed risked gas-in-place of 290 TCF with technically recoverable resource of
63 TCF for 4 out of 26 sedimentary basins in India. In view of the advances made by the USA in
exploration and recovery of shale oil and gas resources, MOPNG (Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas) has entered into and MOU with the United States Geological survey (USGS).

As reported by Hindustan Times (24th September, 2013) the Policy for the Exploration &
Exploitation of Shale Gas in India had been approved by the government of India on 24th
September, 2013. The government's policy initially permits state-run Oil and Natural Gas Corp
(ONGC) and Oil India Ltd (OIL) to explore shale resources from on land blocks that were allotted
to them on a nomination basis before the advent of the New Exploration Licensing Policy in 1999
- under which exploration blocks are offered on a bidding basis. In the second phase, the
government will offer shale oil and gas blocks to other companies through another Cabinet
approval that is likely in next upcoming months.

The first Shale Gas well of Asia had been drilled by Schlumberger under contract by ONGC, India
in the Damodar River valley.
 Table 1.2: Comparison of Cambay Basin Shale Gas with North America Shale Gas Basin

SHALE GAS BAR FAYET EAGLE EOCENE- HAYN MARC

BASIN FORD CAMBAY
NETT TEVILLE ESVILLE ELLUS

Estimated 5000 9000 12000 62 PSC area 9000 95000

Basin Area, only
Square miles

Depth, meters 1980- 305-2135 2895-3260 1675-2440 3200-4115 1220-2590

2590

Net Thickness, 30-180 6-60 15-70 140-400 60-90 15-60

meters

Total Organic 4.5 4.0-9.8 3-10 1-3 0.5-4.0 3-12

Carbon, %

Total 4-5 2-8 5-11 5-18 8-9 10

Porosity,%

Well spacing, 60-160 80-160 30-120 80-120 40-560 40-160

Acres

OGIP, Tcf 327 52 NA 16-21 717 1500

Technically 44 41.6 NA 4 PSC area 251 262

Recoverable only
resources/
Basin, Tcf
Technical 13% 80% NA ~10% 35% 17%

OILEX operates the Cambay field production sharing contract on behalf of its joint venture with
GSPC (Source: https://www.oilex.com.au/docs/default-source/announcements/100906-cambay-
resources)
 CHAPTER-2

STUDY AREA

2.1 Cambay Basin (Sanand-East)

A rich petroleum province of India, Cambay Basin is a narrow, Elongated rift graben, starting from
Sanchor in north to Surat in south. The basin narrows towards north but tectonically continues to
pass into the Barmer basin. On southern side the basin merges with Bombay offshore basin. The
rough estimation of the situation of basin is latitudes 210 00N and 250 00N and longitudes 71
30and 730 30E. The general basinal axis is NNW-SSE, but swings are noticed across lineaments/
faults. (Infraline energy business report series, 2011) Entire basin is divided into five tectonic
blocks based on transverse fault system, and the associated depocentres are governed by rifted
basement and the study area is Sanand East. Sanand field lying in the northwest of Ahmedabad is
located on the southern part of Mehsana-South Kadi-Jhalora-Sanand high trend in north Cambay
Basin. It is an elongated doubly plunging anticline trending NNW-SSE direction. (Mishra and
Patel, 2012)
2.1.1 Area

The total area of the basin is about 53,500 sq. Km.and the area of Sanand field is 81.36 sq.km.

2.1.2 Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness

The evolution of the Cambay basin began following the extensive outpour of Deccan Basalts
(Deccan Trap) during late cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India. Its a
narrow half graben trending roughly NNW-SSE filled with Tertiary sediments with rifting due to
extensional tectonics. Seismic and drilled well data indicate a thickness of about 8 km of Tertiary
sediments resting over the Deccan volcanic.

2.1.3 Tectonic History

Type of Basin
Intracratonic rift basin
Different Tectonic Zones with in the Basin
The Cambay rift valley is bounded by well demarcated basin margin step faults. Based on the cross
trends the basin has been divided into five tectonic blocks. From north to south, the blocks are:

Sanchor Tharad
Ahmedabad - Mehsana
Cambay Tarapur
Jambusar Broach and
Narmada Block.
Figure 2.1: Map of Cambay Basin with Blocks (Source: DGH)
Generalized Stratigraphy

The formation of the Cambay Basin began following the extensive outpour of Deccan basalts
(Deccan Trap) during late Cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India. The NW-
SE Dharwarian tectonic trends got rejuvenated creating a narrow rift graben extending from the
Arabian Sea south of Hazira to beyond Tharad in the north. Gradually, the rift valley expanded
with time.

During Palaeocene, the basin continued to remain as a shallow depression, receiving deposition
of Conglomerate, trap conglomerate, trapwacke and claystone facies, especially, at the basin
margin under a fluvioswampy regime. The end of deposition of the Olpad Formation is marked
by a prominent unconformity. At places a gradational contact with the overlying Cambay Shale
has also been noticed.

During Early Eocene, a conspicuous and widespread transgression resulted in the deposition of a
thick, dark grey, fissile pyritiferous shale sequence, known as the Cambay Shale. This shale
sequence has been divided into Older and Younger Cambay Shale with an unconformity in
between. In the following period, relative subsidence of the basin continued leading to the
accumulation of the Younger Cambay Shale. The end of Cambay Shale deposition is again marked
by the development of a widespread unconformity that is present throughout the basin.

Subsequently, there was a strong tectonic activity that resulted in the development of the Mehsana
Horst and other structural highs associated with basement faults.

Middle Eocene is marked by a regressive phase in the basin and this led to the development of the
Kalol/ Vaso delta system in the north and the Hazad delta system in the south. Hazad and Kalol/
Vaso deltaic sands are holding large accumulations of oil.

Major transgression during Late Eocene-Early Oligocene was responsible for the deposition of
the Tarapur Shale over large area in the North Cambay Basin. The end of this sequence is marked
by a regressive phase leading to deposition of claystone, sandstone, and shale alternations and a
limestone unit of the Dadhar Formation.
The end of the Palaeogene witnessed a major tectonic activity in the basin resulting in the
development of a widespread unconformity.

During Miocene the depocentres continued to subside resulting in the deposition of enormous
thickness of Miocene sediments as the Babaguru, Kand and Jhagadia formations.

Pliocene was a period of both low and high strands of the sea level, allowing the deposition of
sand and shale.

During Pleistocene to Recent, the sedimentation was mainly of fluvial type represented by
characteristic deposits of coarse sands, gravel, clays and kankar followed by finer sands and clays,
comprising Gujarat Alluvium.

Throughout the geological history, except during early syn rift stage, the North Cambay Basin
received major clastic inputs from north and northeast, fed by the ProtoSabarmati and Proto
Mahi rivers. Similarly, the ProtoNarmada river system was active in the south, supplying
sediments from provenance, lying to the east. (DGH, 2013)

Petroleum System

Source Rock
Thick Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon source rock in the Cambay Basin. In the
northern part of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, coal, which is well developed within the deltaic
sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and Mehsana fields, is also inferred to be an important hydrocarbon
source rock. The total organic carbon and maturation studies suggest that shales of the
Ankleshwar/Kalol formations also are organically rich, thermally mature and have generated oil
and gas in commercial quantities. The same is true for the Tarapur Shale. Shales within the
Miocene section in the Broach depression might have also acted as source rocks.
Reservoir Rock
There are a number of the reservoirs within the trapwacke sequence of the Olpad Formation. These
consist of sand size basalt fragments. Besides this, localized sandstone reservoirs within the
Cambay Shale as in the Unawa, Linch, Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan, fields, etc are also present.
Trap Rock
The most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Olpad
Formation is the favourable lithological change with structural support and short distance
migration. The lithological heterogeneity gave rise to permeability barriers, which facilitated
entrapment of hydrocarbons. The associated unconformity also helped in the development of
secondary porosity.

Transgressive shales within deltaic sequences provided a good cap rock. (Fig 6: Generalized
Tectono Stratigraphy Map Showing Source rock, Reservoir Rock, and Oil and Gas Occurrences.)

Timing of migration & Trap formation: The peak of oil generation and migration is understood
to have taken place during Early to Middle Miocene.

Petroleum Plays
Structural Highs and fault closures & Stratigraphic traps (pinch outs / wedge outs, lenticular
sands, oolitic sands, weathered trap) in Palaeocene to Miocene sequences have been proved as
important plays of Cambay Basin.

Palaeocene Early Eocene Play

Formations: Olpad Formation/ Lower Cambay Shale.

Reservoir Rocks: Sand size basalt fragments & localized sandstone. Unconformities
within the Cambay Shale and between the Olpad Formation and the Cambay Shale have
played a positive role in the generation of secondary porosities. The Olpad Formation is
characterized by the development of piedmont deposits against fault scarps and fan delta
complexes.

Middle Eocene Play

Formations : Upper Tharad Formation

Reservoir Rocks: In Southern part, Hazad delta sands of mid to Late Eocene & in the
Northern part the deltaic sequence is made up of alternations of sandstone and shale
associated with coal. Plays are also developed in many paleo-delta sequences of Middle
 Eocene both in northern and southern Cambay in the Northern Cambay Basin; two delta
systems have been recognized.

Late Eocene Oligocene Play

Formations: Tarapur Shale, Dadhar Formation.

Reservoir Rocks: This sequence is observed to possess good reservoir facies in the entire
Gulf of Cambay. North of the Mahi River, a thick deltaic sequence, developed during
OligoMiocene, has prograded up to south Tapti area.

Miocene Play
Formations: Deodar: Formation (LR. Miocene), Dhima Formation (Mid Miocene), Antrol
Formation (UP. Miocene) The Mahi River delta sequence extends further westward to Cambay
area where Miocene rocks are hydrocarbon bearing. (DGH, 2013).
Figure 2.2: Generalized Stratigraphy of Cambay Basin (Source: DGH)
As seen in the above figure, the main shale formations in the basin are, Tarapur Shale of Upper
Eocene - Oligocene age, Younger Cambay shale unit of lower Eocene, Older Cambay shale unit
of Paleocene- lower Eocene age and overlaying the Deccan trap, Olpad formation of Paleocene
age.

Among all the shale units present, we are interested in the study and analysis of Younger and Older
Cambay shale units. The Younger Cambay shale unconformably overlies Older Cambay shale. It
mainly consists of grey to black massive sideritic and pyritic shales along with coal bands. The
thickness varies from 520 to 1500 meters in Ahmedabad-Mahesana tectonic block.