Aestheticization of violence
1.1 In high culture
Grnewalds painting "The Mocking of Christ" depicts Christ be-
ing lashed and abused.
The aestheticization of violence in high culture art or
mass media has been the subject of considerable contro-
versy and debate for centuries. In Western art, graphic
depictions of the Passion of Christ have long been por-
trayed, as have a wide range of depictions of warfare by
later painters and graphic artists. Theater and, in mod-
ern times, cinema have often featured battles and vio-
lent crimes, while images and descriptions of violence
have always been a part of literature. Margaret Bruder
states that the aestheticization of violence in lm is the
depiction of violence in a stylistically excessive, signif-
icant and sustained way in which audience members are
able to connect references from the play of images and
signs" to artworks, genre conventions, cultural symbols,
or concepts.[1]
1 Power of representation
1
High culture forms such as ne art and literature have
aestheticized violence into a form of autonomous art.
In 1991, University of Georgia literature professor Joel
Black stated that "(if) any human act evokes the aesthetic
experience of the sublime, certainly it is the act of mur-
der. Black notes that "...if murder can be experienced
aesthetically, the murderer can in turn be regarded as a
kind of artista performance artist or anti-artist whose
specialty is not creation but destruction (1991: 14). This
conception of an aesthetic element of murder has a long
history; in the 19th century, Thomas de Quincey wrote
that
Everything in this world has two handles.
Murder, for instance, may be laid hold of by its
moral handle... and that, I confess, is its weak
side; or it may also be treated aesthetically, as
the Germans call itthat is, in relation to good
taste.[2]
1.2 In popular culture
In addition to high culture aestheticizations of violence,
mass media forms such as newspaper and television news
reporting have produced sensationalized reports on crime
and warfare. Maria Tatar's book Lustmord: Sexual Mur-
der in Weimar Germany analyzes murders in pre-Hitler
Germany and their artistic representations, investigating
the chilling motives behind representations that aestheti-
cize violence, and that turn the mutilated female body
into an object of fascination.[3]
Lilie Chouliarakis article, The aestheticization of suf-
fering on television (2006), analyzes an example of
war footage in order to trace the ways in which the ten-
sion between presenting airwar as an 'objective' piece of
news and as an instance of intense human suering is re-
solved in televisions strategies of mediation. For exam-
ple, Chouliaraki argues that the bombardment of Bagh-
dad in 2003 during the Iraq war was lmed in long-shot
and presented in a quasiliterary narrative that capitalized
on an aesthetics of horror, on sublime spectacle (Boltan-
ski). She says that the aestheticization of suering on
television is thus produced by a visual and linguistic com-
plex that eliminates the human pain aspect of suering,
whilst retaining the phantasmagoric eects of a tableau
vivant", producing an aestheticization of suering [that]
manages simultaneously to preserve an aura of objectiv-
2 1 POWER OF REPRESENTATION

a form of expressive art...[in which the]...violence is so

physically graceful, visually dazzling and meticulously
executed that our instinctual, emotional responses under-
mine any rational objections we may have. Tarantino is
able to transform an object of moral outrage into one of
aesthetic beauty...[, in which,]...like all art forms, the vio-
lence serves a communicative purpose apart from its aes-
thetic value. When the female sword-wielding protago-
nist "...skillfully slices and dices her way through...[the
opposing ghters]...we get a sense that she is using
them as a kind of canvas for her expression of re-
venge...[,]...like an artist who expresses herself through
brush and paint,...[she]...expresses herself through sword
and blood.[7]
The bombed-out remains of the Baath Party Headquarters in
Baghdad. Film critics analyzing violent lm images that seek to
aesthetically please the viewer mainly fall into two cat-
egories. Critics who see depictions of violence in lm as
ity and impartiality, and to take a pro-war side in the war supercial and exploitative argue that it leads audience
footage.[4] members to become desensitized to brutality, thus in-
creasing their aggression. On the other hand, critics who
view violence as a type of content, or as a theme, claim
1.2.1 In lms it is cathartic and provides acceptable outlets for anti-
social impulses.[1]
A number of lmmakers from the 20th century have
Adrian Martin argues that critics who hold violent cinema
used aestheticized depictions of violence. According
in high regard have developed a response to anti-violence
to James Fox, lmmaker Donald Cammell "...looked
advocates, those who decry everything from Taxi Driver
upon violence as an artist might look on paint. [He
to Terminator 2 as dehumanising, desensitising cultural
asked:] What are its components? Whats its nature? Its
inuences. Martin claims that critics who value aestheti-
glamour?"[5] Thomas Harris created a ctional charac-
cized violence defend shocking depictions onscreen on
ter called Hannibal Lecter, a cannibal and aesthete killer.
the grounds that screen violence is not real violence, and
In the lms adapted from his work, The Silence of the
should never be confused with it. He claims that their
Lambs (1991) and Hannibal (2001), directors Jonathan
rebuttal also claims that movie violence is fun, spec-
Demme and Ridley Scott, respectively intentionally gen-
tacle, make-believe; its dramatic metaphor, or a neces-
erate excitement and anticipation when Lecter is about to
sary catharsis akin to that provided by Jacobean theatre;
kill (and eat) a victim. Lecter was portrayed by Anthony
its generic, pure sensation, pure fantasy. It has its own
Hopkins. In David Lynch's Blue Velvet (1986), the vil-
changing history, its codes, its precise aesthetic uses.[8]
lain of the lm, Frank Booth, is an excessively violent
man who obsesses over small fetishes (such as blue vel- Margaret Bruder, a lm studies professor at Indiana Uni-
vet) when he is attacking and raping his victims; his ob- versity and the author of Aestheticizing Violence, or How
sessions help him achieve orgasm. To Do Things with Style, proposes that there is a distinc-
tion between aestheticized violence and the use of gore
In the lm Man on Fire, which tells the story of a burnt-
and blood in mass market action or war lms. She argues
out former Black Ops agent who seeks to avenge the kid-
that aestheticized violence is not merely the excessive
nappers of a young girl he was bodyguarding, a character
use of violence in a lm. Movies such as the popular
says that the agent is an artist in killing. He says the
action lm Die Hard 2 are very violent, but they do not
man is about to paint his masterpiece as he seeks out
fall into the category of aestheticized violence because it
and kills all of the members of the criminal organization
is not stylistically excessive in a signicant and sustained
who were connected with the child abduction.[6]
way.[1]
In Xavier Morales review of Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill:
But Bruder classies lms as using stylized [e.g. aes-
Volume 1, entitled Beauty and violence, he calls the lm
theticized] violence if they revel in guns, gore and explo-
a groundbreaking aestheticization of violence. Morales
sions, exploiting mise-en-scene not so much to provide
says that the lm, which he calls easily one of the most
narrative environment as to create the appearance of a
violent movies ever made, a breathtaking landscape in
'movie' atmosphere against which specically cinematic
which art and violence coalesce into one unforgettable
spectacle can unfold. In movies with aestheticized vio-
aesthetic experience.[7]
lence, she argues that the standard realist modes of edit-
Morales argues that "... Tarantino manages to do pre- ing and cinematography are violated in order to spectac-
cisely what Alex de Large was trying to do in Stanley ularize the action being played out on the screen"; direc-
Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange: he presents violence as
2.2 15th century 17th century 3

tors use quick and awkward editing, canted framings, in your home, in your fantasy life, are connected to what
shock cuts, and slow motion, to emphasize the impacts of one does in real life.[10]
bullets or the spurting of blood.[1] Aristotle, though, advocated a useful role for music,
For viewers of lms with aestheticized violence, such as drama, and tragedy: a way for people to purge their neg-
John Woo's movies, she claims that One of the many ative emotions. Aristotle mentions catharsis at the end
pleasures from watching Woos lms, such as Hard Tar- of his Politics, where he notes that after people listen to
get is that it gets viewers to recognize how Woo plays with music that elicits pity and fear, they are liable to be-
conventions from other Woo lms and how it connects come possessed by these negative emotions. However,
up with lms...which include imitations of or homages to afterwards, Aristotle points out that these people return
Woo. Bruder argues that lms with aestheticized vio- to a normal condition as if they had been medically
lence such as "Hard Target, True Romance and Tombstone treated and undergone a purge [catharsis] ... All expe-
are [lled] with... signs and indicators, so that the styl- rience a certain purge [catharsis] and pleasant relief. In
ized violence they contain ultimately serves as...another the same manner cathartic melodies give innocent joy to
interruption in the narrative drive of the lm.[1] men (from Politics VIII:7; 1341b 35-1342a 8).[11]
Writing in The New York Times, Dwight Garner reviews
the controversy and moral panic surrounding the 1991
novel and 2000 lm American Psycho, which concerns 2.2 15th century 17th century
Patrick Bateman, an Exeter and Harvard grad, a gour-
mand, a tanning enthusiast and a ruthless fashion critic The artist Hieronymus Bosch, from the 15th and 16th
who is also a serial killer. Garner concludes that the lm centuries, used images of demons, half-human animals
was a coal-black satire in which dire comedy mixes and machines to evoke fear and confusion to portray the
with Grand Guignol. Theres demented opera in some of evil of man. The 16th-century artist Pieter Brueghel the
its scenes. The book, meanwhile, has acquired grudg- Elder depicted "...the nightmarish imagery that reect, if
ing respect and is seen as a transgressive bag of broken in an extreme fashion, popular dread of the Apocalypse
glass that can be talked about alongside plasma-soaked and Hell.[12]
trips like Anthony Burgesss A Clockwork Orange".[9] Mathis Gothart-Neithart, a German artist known as
Garner claims that the novels author, Bret Easton Ellis, Grnewald (14801528) depicted intense emotion,
was racing ahead of the culture and that his book was especially painful emotion. His painting of the Cru-
ahead of its time": The culture has shifted to make room cixion "...does not spare the beholder. Grnewald re-
for Bateman. We've developed a taste for barbaric lib- lentlessly brings out all the marks of terrible suering
ertines with twinkling eyes and some zing in their tortured and agony, induced by the cruelty and torture of the
souls. Tony Soprano, Walter White from "Breaking Bad", executioners...[vividly conveying] a sense of horror and
Hannibal Lecter (who predates "American Psycho") pain.[13] Grnewalds 'Isenheim Altarpiece' also shows a
here are the most signicant pop culture characters of violent image of Jesus on the cross, with his body cov-
the past 30 years... Thanks to these characters, and to ered in wounds, with the focus on "... Jesus suering
rst-person shooter video games, weve learned to iden- and his death.[14]
tify with the bearer of violence and not just cower before
him or her.
2.3 18th century present

In the mid-18th century, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, an

2 History in art
2.1 Antiquity
Plato proposed to ban poets from his ideal republic be-
cause he feared that their aesthetic ability to construct at-
tractive narratives about immoral behaviour would cor-
rupt young minds. Platos writings refer to poetry as a
kind of rhetoric, whose "...inuence is pervasive and of-
ten harmful. Plato believed that poetry that was un-
regulated by philosophy is a danger to soul and commu-
nity. He warned that tragic poetry can produce a dis-
ordered psychic regime or constitution by inducing a
dream-like, uncritical state in which we lose ourselves in
...sorrow, grief, anger, [and] resentment. As such, Plato
was in eect arguing that What goes on in the theater,
Italian etcher, archaeologist and architect active from
1740, did imaginary etchings of prisons that depicted
people stretched on racks or trapped like rats in maze-
like dungeons, an aestheticization of violence and
suering.[15] In 1849, as revolutions raged in European
streets and authorities were putting down protests and
consolidating state powers, composer Richard Wagner
wrote: I have an enormous desire to practice a little artis-
tic terrorism.[16]
Laurent Tailhade is reputed to have stated, after Auguste
Vaillant bombed the Chamber of Deputies in 1893:
"Qu'importent les victimes, si le geste est beau ? [What do
the victims matter, so long as the gesture is beautiful]. In
1929 Andr Breton's Second Manifesto on surrealist art
stated that "Lacte surraliste le plus simple consiste, re-
volvers aux poings, descendre dans la rue et tirer au
4 3 THEORIES AND SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS

The Crucixion, central panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece.

the production and consumption of commodities", post-

modern societies are organized around simulation and the
play of images and signs". As such, in "...the postmod-
ern media and consumer society, everything becomes
an image, a sign, a spectacle. For Baudrillard, the
Wests commercialization of the whole world...will turn
out rather to have been the aestheticization of the whole
worldits cosmopolitan spectacularization, its transfor-
mation into images, its semiological organization. As a
result, the previously separate domains of the economy,
art, politics, and sexuality become collapsed into each
other, and art penetrates all spheres of existence. Thus,
Baudrillard argues that "[o]ur society has given rise to
a general aestheticization: all forms of culturenot ex-
cluding anti-cultural onesare promoted and all mod-
els of representation and anti-representation are taken on
board.[17]

3.2 Semiotic analysis

3.2.1 Still images

When a person views an isolated painting, photograph or

Fall of the Damned into Hell
cartoon, they are viewing a static image. If a photogra-
pher takes a still photo of a police ocers struggle to
hasard, tant quon peut, dans la foule" [The simplest Sur- arrest a young man, for example, the denotative mean-
realist act consists of running down into the street, pistols ing might be there was a man dressed as a police ocer
in hand, and ring blindly, as fast as you can pull the trig- placing his hand on the shoulder of another man of a cer-
ger, into the crowd].[16] tain age whilst a photographer took a picture. On the
other hand, the connotative meanings might range from,
law enforcement in action to a heroic ght to subdue
a dangerous terrorist about to release sarin gas", to po-
3 Theories and semiotic analysis lice use excessive force to arrest non-violent protesters,
to fancy dress party ends badly. The attribution of the
3.1 Baudrillard specic subtext is left to the caption writer, the text ac-
companying the photo, and the audience.
French postmodernist theorist Jean Baudrillard argues Critic Susan Sontag argued that, through repeated expo-
that whereas modern societies were "...organized around sure, certain well-known photographs have become eth-
3.2 Semiotic analysis
ical reference points, such as the many images depicting
the victims and liberation of the Bergen-Belsen concen-
tration camp (1977). From this perspective, the subtext
of such images, though still connotatively open to inter-
pretation, has been somewhat restrained by familiarity,
predominant cultural beliefs regarding the Holocaust, and
perhaps by overusage.
News reporting If there is a motion picture or video
recording of the previously described scenario of a po- Analysis of selected lms
lice ocer arresting a man, the lmmakers, videogra-
phers, and editors may reframe this scene, by fragmenting
the recording, depicting it from dierent vantage points,
editing the material, and reassembling these components.
A lm editor can produce a non-realistic sequence of in-
tercut, edited images, which forces the audience to inter-
pret those images according to a dierent set of semiotic
rules. Even without editing or alteration, a lm or video
recordings mise en scne and non-verbal signs become
much more explicit and enable the audience to attribute
meaning to the scenario.
The value of this video as a signier will be determined
by its relation to the other signiers in the system. Thus,
if the video is included in a reputable television news pro-
gram, it will acquire a greater claim to be indexical and its
status is more likely to be considered reliable evidence
of real world events. In semiotic terms, the words spo-
ken by the television presenter will be symbolic, and the
images will have both iconic and indexical qualities.
The semiotic value of the video will change if it is trans-
posed into a polemical or satirical programme, presented
by a commentator, or screened with on-screen captions
(e.g., Crime Wave in the Streets, or Protesters Brutal-
ized by Police). These substitute contexts form modality
indicators that may help the viewer to assess the plausi-
bility, credibility, or truthfulness of the content. The vi-
olence shown on-screen can be aestheticized by the val-
ues of the symbolical signs used by the news presenter, by
captions placed on-screen, or by the relations with other
signiers in the same programme (e.g., if the arrest video
is preceded by a report about antisocial and criminal be-
haviour).
Fictional lm or video If a lm or television director
staged a similar ctional scene, the audience will be pre-
disposed to consider it less real. They know that the
scenario is being ltered through the lm makers sensi-
bilities and the outcome will reect the directors motives.
Hence, the lighting, makeup, costumes, acting methods,
cutting, and soundtrack music selection are understood
to be combined to inform the audience about the lm
makers intentions.
The culture industry's mass-produced texts and im-
ages about crime, violence, and war have been con-
solidated into genres. Film makers typically choose
from a predictable range of narrative conventions and
5
use stereotyped characters, and clichd symbols and
metaphors. Over time, certain styles and conventions of
shooting and editing are standardised within a medium or
a genre. Some conventions tend to naturalise the content
and make it seem more real. Other methods deliberately
breach convention to create an eect, such as the canted
angles, rapid edits, and slow motion shots used in lms
with aestheticized violence.
The Accused: In this 1988 lm, lmmaker Jonathan
Kaplan stages a graphic rape scene to consider the
moral and legal quality of the ctional spectators
who, while not engaging in the rape, nevertheless
shouted encouragement to those that were.
Strange Days: Matthew Crowder analyzes the aes-
theticization of violence in Strange Days, a lm by
director Kathryn Bigelow (1995). A scene graph-
ically depicts the rape of a woman; it is "...lmed
in real-time using a rst-person subjective camera.
Strange Days tells the story of Lenny Nero, who sells
an illegal, futuristic technology that allows people to
record their sensory experiences onto a minidisc, so
that other people can play back these sensory ex-
periences and have them wired directly into their
brain.
In the lm, Max records his rape of Iris, and
gives the recording to the unsuspecting Lenny.
When the perpetrator of violence [Max] is
given control of the cinematic apparatus, this
is referencing lms such as Peeping Tom
(Michael Powell, 1959) and Halloween (Car-
penter, 1978)". Like "Peeping Toms psycho-
pathic killer, Max does seem to see himself
as some kind of artist, recording the rape and
sending it to Lenny.
The "...rst person perspective the lming of
the rape scene is unrelenting, the camera never
turns away from the fear and panic of Iris
whose body is not only slung about by the un-
known killer but also subjected to an uninch-
ing gaze that the audience is punished with
too, made complicit in the rape by their pas-
sivity. Crowder argues that "[t]he entire no-
tion of the subjective cameraan aesthetic el-
ement of the lmits scopophilic, voyeuristic
and sadistic nature, is revealed in all its deprav-
ity. As such, "[t]he aesthetic experience of
the [rape] scene is one of shock, horror, dis-
location and passivity at the way the camera
represents the helpless body of Iris as no more
than an object.
The lms use of playback clips, as in the
rape scene, causes a "...stylistic disruption of
6 6
Hollywood codes and an even more impor-
tant aesthetic eect: the disruption of the nor-
mal codes of identication with character and
narrative.[18]
Bigelow was criticized for the rape scene by
Carla Peterson, in her article Director joins
boys club -- and it only costs her compas-
sion (1995). Crowder claims that Peterson
attacked Strange Days "... as misogynist and
oensive because she [Peterson] feels that it
tries to create an unproblematic, if slightly
uncomfortable, spectacle out of rape. As
such, Crowder argues that Peterson "... fails
to see that the lm concerns more than a logi-
cal narrative (which if anything grows increas-
ingly incoherent)" and claims that Peterson has
"...misread the scene out of context and dis-
missed "...textual elements that clearly signal
criticism of both Hollywood and the cinematic
apparatus as a tool of masculinist domination.
Crowder challenge[s] whether Petersons re-
sponse is actually aesthetic, as she makes lit-
tle reference to communication between work
and audience. In contrast, Crowder interprets
Strange Days in a feminist context, which he
argues is "...perhaps its most persuasive aes-
thetic eect. Crowder holds that "...Strange
Days can be seen as a self-conscious discourse
on cinema and that part of this discourse con-
cerns the act of aesthetic judgement. Further-
more, he states that the lms narrative can be
seen to allegorise the problem of aesthetics and
value.[18]
A Clockwork Orange: A Clockwork Orange is a
1971 lm written, directed, and produced by Stanley
Kubrick and based on the novel of the same name by
Anthony Burgess. Set in a futuristic England (circa
1995, as imagined in 1965), it follows the life of
a teenage gang leader named Alex. In Alexander
Cohens analysis of Kubricks lm, he argues that
the ultra-violence of the young protagonist, Alex,
"...represents the breakdown of culture itself. In
the lm, gang members are "...[s]eeking idle de-
contextualized violence as entertainment as an es-
cape from the emptiness of their dystopian society.
Cohen claims that in the lm, "...the violence
of modern technology sees its reection in Ul-
traviolence, beyond violence. When the pro-
tagonist murders a woman in her home, Co-
hen states that Kubrick presents a "[s]cene of
aestheticized death by setting the murder in
a room lled with "...modern art which de-
pict scenes of sexual intensity and bondage"; as
such, the scene depicts a "...struggle between
high-culture which has aestheticized violence
and sex into a form of autonomous art, and the
very image of post-modern mastery.[19]
REFERENCES
4 See also
Abjection
Anti-hero
Art of murder
Gladiator
Graphic violence
5 Further reading
Berkowitz, L. (ed) (1977; 1986): Advances in Ex-
perimental Social Psychology, Vols 10 & 19. New
York: Academic Press
Bersani, Leo and Ulysse Dutoit, The Forms of Vi-
olence: Narrative in Assyrian Art and Modern Cul-
ture (NY: Schocken Books, 1985)
Black, Joel (1991) The Aesthetics of Murder. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Feshbach, S. (1955): The Drive-Reducing Function
of Fantasy Behaviour, Journal of Abnormal and So-
cial Psychology 50: 3-11
Feshbach, S & Singer, R. D. (1971): Television and
Aggression: An Experimental Field Study. San Fran-
cisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kelly, George. (1955) The Psychology of Personal
Constructs. Vol. I, II. Norton, New York. (2nd
printing: 1991, Routledge, London, New York)
Peirce, Charles Sanders (193158): Collected Writ-
ings. (Edited by Charles Hartshorne, Paul Weiss, &
Arthur W Burks). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
6 References
[1] Bruder, Margaret Ervin (1998). Aestheticizing Violence,
or How To Do Things with Style. Film Studies, Indiana
University, Bloomington IN. Archived from the original
on 2004-09-08. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
[2] de Quincey, Thomas (1827). On Murder Considered as
One of the Fine Arts (Zipped PDF download). ISBN 1-
84749-133-2. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
[3] Additional Reviews and/or Endorsements for Tatar,
M.: Lustmord: Sexual Murder in Weimar Germany.
Princeton University Press. 2007-04-30. Retrieved 2007-
06-08.
 7

[4] Chouliaraki, Lilie (2006). The aestheticization of suer- [18] Crowder, Matthew (2006). Aesthetics and Politics:
ing on television (PDF). Visual Communication. 5 (3): Strange Days. Saving The World. Retrieved 2007-06-
261285. doi:10.1177/1470357206068455. Archived 08.
(PDF) from the original on 28 June 2007. Retrieved
2007-06-08. [19] Cohen, Alexander J. (1998). Clockwork Orange and the
Aestheticization of Violence. UC Berkeley Program in
[5] Schneider, Steven Jay (2001-06-01). Killing in Style: Film Studies. Archived from the original on 2007-05-15.
The Aestheticization of Violence in Donald Cammells Retrieved 2007-06-08.
'White of the Eye'". Scope - An Online Journal of Film
and Television Studies. ISSN 1465-9166. Archived from
the original (Archive) on 2004-06-19. Retrieved 2007-
06-08.

[6] Ebert, Roger (2004-04-23). Man on Fire Movie Re-

view. Retrieved 2016-01-23.

[7] Morales, Xavier (2003-10-16). Beauty and violence.

The Record. Harvard Law School RECORD Corporation.
Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[8] Martin, Adrian (2000). The Oended Critic: Film Re-

viewing and Social Commentary (Archive). Senses of
Cinema (8). ISSN 1443-4059. Archived from the orig-
inal on 2007-05-19. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[9] Garner, Dwight (2016-03-24). In Hindsight, an 'Ameri-

can Psycho' Looks a Lot Like Us. The New York Times.
Retrieved 2016-03-25.

[10] Griswold, Charles (2003-12-22). Plato on Rhetoric and

Poetry. In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclope-
dia of Philosophy (Spring 2004 ed.). Stanford, CA: The
Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Lan-
guage and Information, Stanford University. ISSN 1095-
5054. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[11] Philip P. Wiener (ed.), ed. (2003-05-01) [197374].

Catharsis. Dictionary of the History of Ideas (digital
ed.). Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Li-
brary. pp. 265170. Retrieved 2009-12-02.

[12] Alsford, Stephen (2004-02-29). Death - Introductory es-

say. Florilegium Urbanum. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[13] Gilbert, William (1998). Chapter 22: Renaissance Art

in Northern Europe. Renaissance and Reformation.
Lawrence, KS: Carrie. Archived from the original on 7
June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[14] Yang, H (2004). Lecture minutes for SMC 200Y: The

Christian Imagination. Archived from the original on
2007-11-25. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[15] db artmag. Deutsche Bank Art. 2005. Retrieved 2007-

06-08.

[16] Dworkin, Craig (2006-01-17). Trotskys Hammer

(PDF). Salt Lake City, UT: Department of English, Uni-
versity of Utah. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26
June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-08.

[17] Kellner, Douglas (2005-08-22). Jean Baudrillard. In

Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-
phy (Summer 2005 ed.). Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics
Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and In-
formation, Stanford University. ISSN 1095-5054. Re-
trieved 2007-06-08.
8 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1 Text
Aestheticization of violence Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestheticization_of_violence?oldid=776415274 Contributors: The
Anome, SimonP, Jahsonic, DropDeadGorgias, Error, Thomasedavis, Altenmann, Kwi, Wereon, Mingwangx, Quarl, Rich Farmbrough, Pur-
plefeltangel, Alansohn, Iothiania, Hoary, Kurieeto, Dr Fell, Woohookitty, PatGallacher, JeremyA, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Nightscream,
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7.2 Images
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7.3 Content license

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