EMT Electromagnetic Theory MODULE III

MODULE III
Magnetostatics
Syllabus
Magnostatics and Maxwell’s equations:
Magnostatic fields - Biot Savart law - Ampere’s circuital law -
Applications of Ampere’s circuital law - Magnetic flux density -
Magnetic scalar and vector potentials. Magnetic forces, materials
and devices - Forces due to magnetic fields - Magnetic torque and
moment - Magnetic dipole - Magnetization in materials -
Classification of magnetic materials - Magnetic boundary conditions
- Inductors and inductances - Magnetic energy - Magnetic circuits -
Faraday’s law - displacement current. Time harmonic fields -
Maxwell’s equations for static fields and time varying fields - word
statement.
Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

References
Text Books:
1. Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University
Press
2. Jordan and Balmain, Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems,
Pearson Education PHI Ltd.
References:
1. Kraus Fleisch, Electromagnetics with applications, McGraw Hill
2. William.H.Hayt, Engineering Electromagnetics, Tata McGraw Hill
3. N.Narayana Rao, Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Pearson
Education PHI Ltd.
4. D.Ganesh Rao, Engineering Electromagnetics, Sanguine Technical
Publishers.
5. Joseph.A.Edminister, Electromagnetics, Schaum series-McGraw Hill
6. K.D. Prasad, Electromagnetic fields and waves, Sathya Prakashan
Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 - July 2008

Concept of Current element
Direct currents flows only in closed loops.
We can find out the contributions to the magnetic field due to
differential lengths of such current carrying conductors.
A currentG element is the current I flowing through a differential vector
length dL of a filamentary conductor.
A filamentary conductor is the limiting case of a cylindrical conductor
of circular cross section as the radius approaches zero.
G
IdL
Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 - July 2008

Biot-Savart’s Law
Biot-Savart’s law states that the magnetic field intensity dH
produced at a point P by a differential current element Idl is
proportional to the product Idl and the sine of the angle α
between the element and the line joining P to the element
and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R
between P and the element and its direction can be
obtained by right handed screw rule.
Idl sin α Idl sin α

dH ∝ dH = k
R2 R2
k is a proportionality constant whose value is 1 / 4π
Idl sin α
dH =
4π R 2
Biot-Savart’s Law
Idl sin α
dH =
4π R 2
This equation can be modified by incorporating the direction
of the magnetic field intensity
JJG JJG G G
JJJG I dl × aˆ I dl × R G R
dH = R
= R = R and aˆ R =
4π R 2
4π R 3 R
dH ⇒ Magnetic field intensity at P

Idl ⇒ Current element
aˆ R ⇒ Unit vector directed from current element to P
R ⇒ Distance from current element to point P

Biot-Savart’s Law
⊗
• P
JJJG
dH
R
α
JJG
JJJG Idl sin α
dl aˆ R dH =
4π R 2
JJG
JJJG I dl × aˆ
dH = R
I 4π R 2
JJJG Idl sin α
dH = aˆn
4π R 2

Current elements
G
K
I
G
JdV
JJG G
KdS
I dl
G
J
Line current Surface current Volume current

Concept of surface current density
When current flows through a sheetG of vanishingly small thickness
we cannot measure current density J in amperes per square meter
as it becomes infinite.
In this case surface current density
G is measured in amperes per
meter width and is designated as K
G
b K
N
I
If the surface current density is uniform, the total current in any width
b is I=Kb where the width b is measured perpendicular to the
direction of current flow.

Concept of surface current density
For a non-uniform surface current density, we have to integrate K
over the path of interest.
I = ∫ KdN
Where dN is a differential element of the path across which the
current is flowing.
Let ΔS be the cross sectional area of the wire. Then
G G G
IdL = J ΔSdL = Jdv
Let dv=dSdh, where dh is the thickness of the surface current. Then
G G G G
(
Jdv = JdSdh = Jdh dS = KdS)
G G G
IdL ⇒ Jdv ⇒ KdS
Biot-Savart’s Law
In terms of distributed current sources, the Biot-Savart’s law may be
expressed in the following ways:
JJG
JJG I dl × aˆ R
H =∫ for line current
L 4π R 2
G
JJG KdS × aˆ R
H =∫ for surface current
S 4π R 2
G
JJG Jdv × aˆ R
H =∫ for volume current
V 4π R 2

Magnetic field of a linear conductor
B z
R= ρ +z 2 2
α2 G
R = ρ aˆ ρ − zaˆ z
0,0,z JJG x y
dl
α
R
I
z
z = ρ cot α
A
α1
zaˆ z
ρ P
0
ρ âρ
Let
dl ⇒ Small current element in the conductor AB
P ⇒ Point where the magnetic field is required.
ρ ⇒ Perpendicular distance between the conductor and the point P
α1,α2 ⇒ Angles subtended by the lower and upper ends of AB.
By Biot - Savart's law the contribution dH at P due to an element
G
dl at (0,0,z) is
JJG G
G I dl × R
dH =
4π R 3
G G
But dl = dzaˆ z and R = ρ aˆ ρ − zaˆ z

G G
dl × R = dzaˆ z × ( ρ aˆ ρ − zaˆ z ) = ρ dzaˆφ
G I ρ dz
dH = 3 φ
aˆ
4π R
G I ρ dz I ρ dz
H =∫ aˆ = ∫ aˆ
2 3/2 φ
4π R 3 φ
4π ( ρ + z )
2
But z = ρ cot α dz = − ρ cosec 2α dα
G I α2 ρ 2cosec 2α dα I α2 ρ 2cosec 2α dα
H =− ∫α aˆφ =− ∫α aˆφ
4π (ρ + ρ cot α ) ⎡ ρ 2 (1+ cot 2α )⎤
3/2
1 2 2 2 4π 1
3/2
⎣ ⎦

G I α2 ρ 2cosec 2α dα α 2 ρ cosec α d α
2 2
I
H =−
4π ∫α ⎡ ρ 2 cos ec 2α ⎤3/2 aˆφ = − ∫α aˆφ
⎣
1
⎦ 4π 1 ρ cosec α
3 3
I α2 I
aˆφ [ cos α ]α
α2
=− aˆφ ∫ sin α dα =
4πρ α1 4πρ 1
I
= ( cos α 2 − cos α1 ) aˆφ
4πρ
G I
H= ( cos α 2 − cos α1 ) aˆφ aˆφ = al × aˆ ρ
4πρ

When the conductor is semi-infinite, so that point a is now at O(0,0,0)
while B is at (0,0, ∞) and α1 = 90D , α 2 = 0D
G I I
H= ( cos0 − cos90) aˆφ = aˆφ
4πρ 4πρ
G I
H= aˆφ aˆφ = al × aˆ ρ
4πρ
When the conductor is of infinite length, point A is at (0,0, −∞)
while B is at (0,0, ∞) and α1 = 180D , α 2 = 0D
G I I
H= ( cos0 − cos180 ) aˆφ 2πρ aˆφ G I
=
4πρ H= aˆφ aˆφ = al × aˆ ρ
2πρ

Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current loop
Y
G Idl sin α
dH = aˆn
4π R 2
JJG
I dl
I α = 90 •
P
a
aˆ R
O X

G G
The magnetic
G field intensity at O is given by H = v∫ dH G
where dH is the fieldG intensity at O due to any current element Idl
The direction of Idl at any point P on the circular wire is given by
the tangent at P in the direction of current flow.
The unit vector at P directed towards O is along the radius PO so
that α = 90o.
JJG
JJJG I dl × aˆ
dH = R
4π R 2
G Idl sin α Idl sin 90 Idl
dH = aˆn = ˆ
a = aˆ
4π R 2
4π a 2 n
4π a 2 z
Total field intensity at the centre of the circular wire is obtained by

integrating dH around the circular path.
G I
H =v∫ 4π a 2 dlaˆ z
G I
∫
H =v
4π a 2
dlaˆ z
G I I I
H=
4π a ∫
2 v
dlaˆ z =
4π a 2
2π a aˆ z =
2a
aˆ z
G I
H= aˆ z
2a

Magnetic field at a line through the centre of a circular
current loop JJJG
dH
JJJJG ' JJJJG
JJJG '
dH z dH z
JJJG
dH dH
P
φ φ
JJJJG ' • JJJJG
dH y dH y
φ
R R
h Z R = a2 + h2
a
sin φ =
I aˆ R a2 + h2
JJG ' • • JJG
dl O a
dl Y
X
current loop
Let P be a point at a distance h from the centre of a circular current
loop.
Consider two diametrically opposite elements of the loop dl and dl’.
The field intensity at P distant R from the current element is given by
JJG
JJJG I dl × aˆ Idl sin α
dH = R
= aˆn
4π R 2
4π R 2
JJG
Since dl and aˆ R are perpendicular
G Idl
dH = aˆ
4π R 2 n
JJG
aˆn ⇒ A unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing dl and aˆ R
Idl
dH =
4π R 2
current loop
Idl
dH =
4π R 2
The field is oriented at an angle Ф to the plane of the loop.
The diametrically opposite element dl’ will also produce a field of
magnitude equal to dH.
Its component parallel to the plane of the loop gets cancelled.
The components along the z axis gets added up.
Idl
dH z = sin φ
4π R 2
a
But sin φ = and R 2 = a 2 + h 2
a2 + h2
Idl a Ia
dH z = = dl
4π ( a + h ) a + h
2 2 2 2
4π ( a + h )
2 2 3/2

current loop
Ia
dH z = dl
4π ( a + h 2
)
2 3/2
The resultant field intensity at the point P is given by integrating the

Z components of the field contributions of all the current elements.
Ia
∫ dH z = v∫
H =v
4π ( a + h
dl
2
)
2 3/2
Ia Ia Ia 2
=
4π ( a + h
v∫ dl = 2π a =
2 (a + h )
2
)
2 3/2
4π ( a + h
2
)
2 3/2 2 2 3/2
G Ia 2 G Ia 2
H= aˆ z H= aˆ z
2 (a + h )
2 3/2
2 (a2 + h )
2
2 3/2

Example 1
Find the magnetic field at (0,0,5) due to side OA and BO of the
triangular loop carrying a current of 10A and lying in the xy plane.
Z
1
1 Y
O
10A
2 B
X A

Example 1 G I
G H= ( cos α 2 − cos α1 ) aˆφ
To find H due to OA 4πρ
Z
5 aˆφ = aˆl × aˆ ρ
ρ =5 cos α1 = cos90D
=0
ρ 2
âρ cos α 2 = I = 10
29
α1 α2 A G 10 ⎛ 2 ⎞
X O 2 X H= ⎜ ⎟ aˆφ = 0.059.1aˆφ
4π ⋅ 5 ⎝ 29 ⎠
aˆl = aˆ x
aˆφ = a x × aˆ ρ = − aˆ y
G
H = −0.059.1aˆ y

Example 1 G
G I
To find H due to BO H= ( cos α 2 − cos α1 ) aˆφ
4πρ
Z aˆφ = aˆl × aˆ ρ
5
ρ = 5 I = 10 α1 = 105.7 , α 2 = 90
ρ =5 cos α1 = cos105.7 = −0.272
27 cos α 2 = cos90 = 0
O α 2 = 90 1
Y
10A
2 B ⎡ ⎤
2 α1 ⎢ 5 ⎥
α1 = 180 − sin −1 ⎢ 2 ⎥
A ⎢ 52 + 2
⎣ ( ) ⎥
⎦

Example 1
G I
H= ( cos α 2 − cos α1 ) aˆφ
4πρ
G 10
H= ( 0 + 0.272 ) aˆφ = 0.272 aˆφ = 0.0433aˆφ
4π ⋅ 5 2π
aˆφ = aˆl × aˆ ρ = aˆl × aˆ z
aˆl = − aˆ x cos 45 − aˆ y cos 45 = −0.707aˆ x − 0.707aˆ y

aˆφ = ( −0.707aˆ x − 0.707aˆ y ) × aˆ z = 0.707aˆ y − 0.707aˆ x
G
H = 0.0433 ( 0.707aˆ y − 0.707aˆ x )
G
H = −0.0306aˆ x + 0.0306aˆ y

Example 2
A circular loop located on x2+y2= 9 carries a direct current of 10 A
along âφ . Determine magnetic field at (0,0,4) and (0,0,-4)
G Ia 2 Z
H= aˆ z
2 (a + h 2
)
2 3/2
G
H⇑
a=3 h=4 I = 10 at (0,0,4) • (0,0,4)
I = 10 4
G 10 × 32
H= aˆ z 90
= aˆ z = 0.36aˆ z
2 ( 32 + 4 )
2 3/2 a=3
250
a = 3 h = −4 I = 10 at (0,0, −4)
G G • (0,0, −4)
10 × 3 2
H⇑
H= aˆ z 90 = 0.36aˆ z
(
2 3 + ( −4 )
2
)
2 3/2 =
250
aˆ z

Ampere’s Current law
Ampere’s circuital
G law states that the line integral of the tangential
component of H around a closed path is the same as the net current
enclosed by the path.
G JJG
v∫ l
H ⋅ dl = I enc
G
Line integral of the magnetic field H around a closed path is called
magneto motive force.
So ampere’s law can be stated as : The magneto motive force around a
closed path is equal to the current enclosed by that path.
G JJG
But I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dS G JJG G JJG
v∫
G JJG G JJG
H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS
S
v∫ l
H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS
S
l S

G JJG
v∫ l
H ⋅ dl = I enc

Applying Stokes theorem to the LHS of the above equation
G G JJG G JJG
∫(
S
)
∇ × H ⋅ dS = ∫ J ⋅ dS
S G G G
G G G ∇× H = J
∇× H = J
This is the Ampere’s law in differential form or point form and is the
third of the Maxwell’s equations.

Magnetic field of an infinite line current
Z
I
Amperian Path
O
ρ
JJG
dl
⋅P
Y

Magnetic field of an infinite line current
Let an infinitely long filamentary current element be placed along the
z axis.
To determine H at a point P we select a closed amperian path that
passes through P.
Since this path encloses the whole current,
G JJG
∫
I enc = v
l
H ⋅ dl
∫ Hφ aˆφ dlaˆφ
I =v
l
∫ dl
= Hφ v
l
= H φ 2πρ
Hφ =
I G I
2πρ H= aˆφ
G I
2πρ
H= aˆφ
2πρ
Magnetic field of a coaxial cable
L4
Amperian paths
L3 Z
L2 ρ
L1
⊗ : a
−I +I

Consider an infinitely long transmission line consisting of two
concentric cylinders having their axes along the Z axis.
The inner conductor has radius a and carries current I while the
outer conductor has inner radius b and thickness t and carries
return current –I.
The magnetic field is to be evaluated for the four regions
separately.
0≤ρ ≤a
a≤ρ ≤b
b≤ ρ ≤b+t
ρ ≥b+t

For the region 0 ≤ ρ ≤ a apply Ampere ' s law to path L1
G JJG G JJG
v∫ L1
H ⋅ dl =I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dS
Current is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
cross sec tion .
G I JJG
J = 2 aˆ z and dS = ρ dφ d ρ aˆ z
πa
G JJG I I
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dS = 2 ∫∫ ρ dφ d ρ = 2 ∫ dφ ∫ ρ d ρ
πa πa

I ρ2 Iρ2
I enc = 2 × 2π × = 2
πa 2 a
G JJG I ρ 2 Iρ2
v∫ L1 H ⋅ dl = a 2 Hφ = 2
a 2πρ
Iρ2
v∫ L1 Hφ aˆφ ⋅ dlaˆφ = a 2 Iρ
Hφ =
2π a 2
Iρ2
∫ L1 dl = a 2
Hφ v
Iρ
Hφ = 0≤ρ ≤a
Iρ2 2π a 2
H φ 2πρ = 2
a

For the region a ≤ ρ ≤ b apply Ampere ' s law to path L2
G JJG G JJG
v∫
L2
H ⋅ dl =I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dS
Since whole current is enclosed by the path L2
v∫
L2
H φ aˆφ ⋅ dlaˆφ = I
I a≤ρ ≤b
Hφ =
∫ dl = I
Hφ v
L1 2πρ
H φ 2πρ = I
I
Hφ =
2πρ
For the region b ≤ ρ ≤ b + t apply Ampere ' s law to path L3
G JJG G JJG
v∫L3
H ⋅ dl =I + ∫ J ⋅ dS
G JJG
v∫ L3
H φ aˆφ ⋅ dlaˆφ = I + ∫ J ⋅ dS
G JJG
∫
Hφ v
L3
dl = I + ∫ J ⋅ dS
G JJG
H φ 2πρ = I + ∫ J ⋅ dS
G
The J in this case is the current density of the outer
conductor

G I
J =− aˆ z
π ⎡( b + t ) − b ⎤
2 2
⎣ ⎦
G JJG
H φ 2πρ = I + ∫ J ⋅ dS
I
H φ 2πρ = I − ∫ aˆ z ⋅ ρ dφ d ρ aˆ z
π ⎡( b + t ) − b ⎤
S 2 2
⎣ ⎦
I
=I−
π ⎡( b + t ) − b ⎤
∫ 2 2 S
ρ dφ d ρ
⎣ ⎦
2π ρ
I
=I−
π ⎡( b + t ) − b ⎤
∫ dφ ∫
2
ρ
2
ρd ρ
⎣ ⎦ 0 =b

2 ρ
I ⎡⎣ ρ ⎤⎦
H φ 2πρ = I − × 2π × b
π ( b + t ) − b2 ⎤
⎡ 2
2
⎣ ⎦
I ( ρ 2 − b2 ) I ( ρ 2 − b2 )
=I− =I−
⎡⎣b + 2bt + t − b ⎤⎦
2 2 2
⎡⎣ 2bt + t 2 ⎤⎦
⎧⎪ ( ρ 2 − b 2 ) ⎫⎪
= I ⎨1 − 2 ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎡ t + 2 bt ⎤
⎦ ⎪⎭ Hφ =
I ⎧
⎪ ( ρ 2
− b 2
) ⎫⎪
⎨1 − 2 ⎬
2πρ ⎪ ⎡⎣ t + 2 bt ⎤⎦ ⎭⎪
⎩
b≤ ρ ≤b+t
For the region ρ ≥ b + t apply Ampere ' s law to path L4
G JJG
v∫
L4
H ⋅ dl =I − I = 0
Iρ
H φ 2πρ = 0 Hφ = 0≤ρ ≤a
2π a 2
Hφ = 0 I
Hφ = a≤ρ ≤b
2πρ
Hφ = 0 I ⎪ (
⎧ ρ 2
− b 2
) ⎫⎪
Hφ = ⎨1 − 2 ⎬ b≤ ρ ≤b+t
2πρ ⎪ ⎣⎡t + 2bt ⎦⎤ ⎪
ρ ≥b+t ⎩ ⎭
Hφ = 0 ρ ≥ b + t

H φ Vs ρ
IMPORTANT:
Hφ
Outside the co-axial cable
magnetic field is zero. This is
1 the basic principle behind
2π a electro magnetic shielding
1
2π b
a b
ρ
0 b+t

Magnetic field by a toroid
A toroid can be considered as a solenoid “bent” into a circle as
shown. We can apply Ampere’s law along the circular path inside
the toroid. G JJG
v∫ H ⋅ dl =I
L
encl
NI
v∫ Hdl =I
L
encl H=
2πρ
Hv ∫ dl =I
L
encl
G NI
ρ H 2πρ = I encl H= aˆφ
2πρ
I encl = NI
G μ NI
2πρ H = NI B= aˆφ
2πρ
N is the number of loops in the toroid,
and I is the current in each loop

Magnetic field by a solenoid
When the coils of the solenoid are closely spaced, each turn
can be regarded as a circular loop, and the net magnetic field
is the vector sum of the magnetic field for each loop.
This produces a magnetic field that is approximately constant
inside the solenoid, and nearly zero outside the solenoid.

The ideal solenoid is approached when the coils are very close
together and the length of the solenoid is much greater than its
radius. Then we can approximate the magnetic field as constant
inside and zero outside the solenoid.
G aˆ x
H
N turns in a
length of L
Apply Ampere’s law for the closed path 1234

G JJG
v∫ L H ⋅ d l = I encl
G JJG G JJG G JJG G JJG G JJG
v∫ L H ⋅ dl = ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl
12 23 34 41
= HL + 0 + 0 = HL
C u rre n t e n c lo se d b y th e p a th is = N I
HL = NI G NI G μ NI
H = aˆ x B = aˆ x
L L
NI
H =
L
μ NI N
B = B = μI = μ I times number of turns per unit length
L L

Magnetic field by a long cylindrical conductor
Find the magnetic
field inside and
outside an infinitely
long cylindrical
conductor having
ρ radius R and
carrying a current I
ρ
aˆ z

A long straight wire of radius R carries a steady current I that is
uniformly distributed through the cross-section of the wire.
In region where ρ> R choose a circle of radius ρ centered on the
wire as a path of integration. Along this path, H is again constant in
magnitude and is always parallel to the path.
G JJG
∫ L
H ⋅ dl = I encl
I G I
H = aˆ φ H = aˆ φ
H v∫ L
dl = I encl 2 πρ 2 πρ
H ( 2 πρ ) = I encl μI
B = aˆ φ G
2 πρ μI
2 πρ H = I B = aˆ φ
I 2 πρ
H =
2 πρ
In region where ρ < R choose a circle of radius ρ centered on the
wire as a path of integration. Along this path, H is again constant in
magnitude and is always parallel to the path.
G JJG
∫ L
H ⋅ dl = I encl
I encl =∫
I
aˆ z ⋅ dSaˆ z
S π R2
H v∫ L
dl = I encl
I
H ( 2 πρ ) = I encl = 2 ∫S
dS
πR
I encl
H= =
I
πρ 2
2πρ π R2
G JJG
I encl = ∫ J ⋅ dS Iρ2
S
= 2
G I JJG R
J= aˆ dS = dSaˆ z
πR 2 z

G Iρ
Iρ 2
H= aˆ
H= 2π R 2 φ
2πρ R 2
Iρ
H= G μI ρ
2π R 2 B= aˆ
2 φ
2π R
μI ρ
B=
2π R 2
G Iρ
H= 2 φ
aˆ
2π R
G μI ρ
B= 2 φ
aˆ
2π R

μI ρ
ρ B= aˆ for ρ < R
2 φ
2π R
ρ
μI
B= aˆφ for ρ ≥ R
2πρ
Iρ H
H= aˆ for ρ < R
2 φ
2π R
I
H= aˆφ for ρ ≥ R R ρ
2πρ

Magnetic flux density
G G
Electric flux density and field intensity is relates as D = ε 0 E
Similarly we can define magnetic flux density by the relation
G G
B = μ0 H
μG0 ⇒ Permiability of free space =4π × 10−7 H / m
B ⇒ Magneic flux density
G
H ⇒ Magnetic field intensity
Magnetic flux through a surface is obtained by integrating flux

density throughout the surface
G JJG
ψ =∫ B ⋅ dS
S

B
B B
I


G
Magnetic flux lines is a path to which B is tangential at every point.
The magnetic flux lines due to a long straight conductor is shown in
figure 1.
Each flux line is closed and has no beginning or end.
In an electrostatic field the flux crossing a closed surface is the
same as the charge enclosed.
G JJG
ψ = v∫ D ⋅ dS = Q
So it is possible to have an isolated electric charge and the flux lines
produced by it need not be closed.
It is not possible to have an isolated magnetic pole.
As a result, magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves in
contrast to electric flux lines.

ψ = Q over the closed surface
Electric flux lines need

not be closed. So it is
possible to have an
+Q • isolated electric charge.
G JJG
ψ = v∫ D ⋅ dS = Q

N S
Magnetic flux lines are always closed. It is not possible

to have an isolated magnetic pole.
N N N N
S It is not possible to
N isolate the north
S S and south poles of
N N a magnet. An
S
isolated magnetic
N
S S S pole cannot exist
N
N N
S
N
S S
N N
S
S S S
N
S

Gauss’s Law for magnetostatic fields
The total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field is zero.
G JJG
v∫ B ⋅ dS = 0
By applying divergence theorem,
G JJG G G
v∫ B ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅B dv = 0
V
G G
∇⋅ B = 0
This is the Maxwell’s fourth equation. It states that magnetostatic
fields have no sources or sinks.

Maxwell’s Equations for static EM fields
Differential form Integral form Derived from

G G G JJG
∇ ⋅ D = ρV v∫ S D ⋅dS = ∫V ρV dV Gauss ' s Law
G G G JJG Nonexistance of magnetic
∇⋅ B = 0 v∫ S B ⋅dS =0 Monopole
G G G JJG Conservativeness of
∇× E = 0 v∫ L E ⋅ dl = 0 Electrostatic field
G G G G JJG G JJG
∇× H = J v∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS
L S
Ampere ' s Law

Magnetic scalar and vector potentials
In electrostatics electric field intensity and potential are related as
G G
E = −∇V
Similar to this we can relate magnetic field intensity with two
magnetic potentials:
1. Magnetic scalar potential
2. Magnetic vector potential
G
Magnetic scalar potential Vm is related to H by the relation
G G G
H = −∇Vm if J = 0 − − − −(1)
G G G
According to Maxwell’s equation ∇ × H = J − − − −(2)
G G

( )
For any scalar ∇ × ∇φ = 0 − − − −(3)
G G G G G G G
(
∇ × H = ∇ × −∇Vm ) G =0 − − − −( 4) H =−∇Vm if J =0
Eq (4) is true only if J = 0
The definition of Magnetic scalar potential according to equation (1)
must satisfy equations (2) and (4).
G
For this, the condition J = 0 must be satisfied.
Vm satisfies Laplace’s equation also.
G
∇ Vm = 0 if J = 0
2
G
∇ Vm = 0 if J = 0
2

For a magnetostatic field
G G
∇ ⋅ B = 0 − − − −(5)
For any vector
G G G
( )
∇ ⋅ ∇ × A = 0 − − − −(6)
We can define another potential called magnetic vector potential that
satisfies equations (5) and (6) simultaneously
G G G
Let B = ∇ × A
G
A is called magnetic vector potential
G
In many
G EM problems it is more convenient to first find A and then
find B from it.

Derivation of Magnetic vector potentials from Biot-Savart’s law
JJG G
G μ I dl × R
4π ∫L R 3
From Biot-Savart’s law, B = 0
JJG
( x ', y ', z ') dl '
G G G
R =r −r'
r'
( x, y , z )
r
O

Let the source dl’ be located at (x’,y’z’) and let (x,y,z) be the point
where we want to find the magnetic potential.
G ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
G G 2 1/2
R = r − r ' = ⎡⎣( x − x ') + ( y − y ') + ( z − z ') ⎤⎦
2 2
⎛1⎞ ( x − x ')aˆ x + ( y − y ')aˆ y + ( z − z ')aˆ z G

∇⎜ ⎟ = − 3/2 = −
R
⎝R⎠ ⎡⎣( x − x ') 2 + ( y − y ') 2 + ( z − z ') 2 ⎤⎦ R3
G
R G⎛1⎞ G
= −∇ ⎜ ⎟ G⎛1⎞ R
R 3
⎝R⎠ ∇⎜ ⎟ = − 3
⎝R⎠ R
G μ0 JJG G ⎛ 1 ⎞
B=−
4π ∫L
I dl '× ∇ ⎜ ⎟ − − − (1)
⎝R⎠

G G G G G G
Using the vector identity
G
( )
∇ × φ F = φ∇ × F + ∇φ × F
G G G G G
( )
JJG ⎛ G 1 ⎞ 1 G JJG G ⎛ 1 JJG ⎞
( )
∇φ × F = ∇ × (φ F ) − φ∇ × F
G G G G G G
dl '× ⎜ ∇ ⎟ = ∇ × dl '− ∇ × ⎜ dl ' ⎟
⎝ R⎠ R ⎝R ⎠
( )
F × ∇φ = φ∇ × F − ∇ × φ F ( )
R is a function of ( x, y, z ) and ( x ', y ', z ')

G JJG
∇ operates w.r.t ( x, y , z ) while dl ' is a function of ( x ', y ', z ')
G JJG
So ∇ × dl ' = 0
JJG ⎛ G 1 ⎞ G ⎛ 1 JJG ⎞
dl '× ⎜ ∇ ⎟ = −∇ × ⎜ dl ' ⎟ − − − (2)
⎝ R⎠ ⎝R ⎠
Substituting in (1)

JJG JJG
G μ0 I G ⎛ dl ' ⎞ G μ I dl '
B=
4π ∫L ∇ × ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ = ∇×∫ 0
L 4π R
JJG
G G G G μ I dl
Comparing with B = ∇ × A A= ∫ 0
JJG L 4π R
G μ0 I dl '
A= ∫ G
L 4π R G μ0 KdS
A= ∫
Similarly S 4π R
G JJG '
G μ K dS G
A= ∫ 0 for surface current G μ Jdv
S 4π R A= ∫ 0
G ' V 4π R
G μ Jdv
A= ∫ 0 for volume current
V 4π R

Magnetic flux from vector potential
G JJG G G JJG
ψ =∫ B.dS = ∫S ( ∇ × A) .dS
S
G G JJG G JJG
By Stoke ' s Theorem ∫(
S
)
∇ × A .dS = ∫ A ⋅ dl
L
G JJG G JJG
ψ = ∫ B.dS = ∫ A ⋅ dl G JJG
ψ =∫
S L
G JJG A ⋅ dl
ψ = ∫ A ⋅ dl L
L

Magnetic force on a charged particle
A magnetic field can exert a force only on a moving charge.
The magnetic
G force Fm experienced
G by a charge Q moving with a
velocity u in a magnetic field B is given by
G G
Fm = Qu × B
An electric field can exert a force on a stationary charge and the

force is given by
G
Fe = QE
For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric and
magnetic fields the total force on the charge is given by
G G G
(
F = Fe + Fm = Q E + u × B )
This is called Lorentz force equation

When the mass of the charged G particle moving in an
electromagnetic field with velocity u is m,
G G G G
du
F =m
dt
(
=Q E +u×B )
The above equation relates mechanical force to electrical force.
Electric force Fe is
Independent of velocity
It can perform work on the charge
It can change the kinetic energy of the charge

Magnetic force Fm is
Dependent of velocity
Force is normal to velocity and magnetic field
It cannot perform work on the charge since the motion of
the particle is at right angles to the force
It cannot change the kinetic energy of the charge

Magnetic force on a current element
The differential magnetic Gforce that a differential element charge, dQ
moving with
G a velocity u experiences in a magnetic field of flux
density B is G
G
dF = dQu × B -----(1)
The current in a conductor, or in a beam of electrons or ions can be
expressed as charge per unit time.
Q
I=
t
Where t is the time taken for the charge to move a distance l.
Q l = Qu
I . l = . l =Q .
t t
Rewriting the equation for incremental charges and distances and
using vector notation
JJG G
I dl = dQu ----(2)
Equation(2)
G shows that an elemental charge dQ moving
G with velocity
.u thereby producing convection current
JJG element dQ u is equivalent
to a conduction current element I dl
Substituting equation(2) in (1)
JJG G
dF = I dl × B
If the current I is through a closed path L, the force on the whole
loop is JJG G
∫
F=v
L
JJG G
I dl × B ∫ I dl × B
F=v
L
We have the following relations between current elements.

JJG G G
I dl = KdS = Jdv

Using these relations
G G G G
dF = KdS × B =K × BdS
G G G G
dF = Jdv × B =J × Bdv
The total force in these cases is given by
G G
F = ∫ K × BdS
S
G G
F = ∫ J × Bdv
V

Magnetic force between two current elements
C2
C1 G
dl2
G
dl1 R21
I2
I1

Consider two current loops C1 and C2 with currents I1 and I2. G
The loops are divided in to very small vector line segments dl
G
The current elements in the loops are denoted by GIdl G
Consider two current elements in the two loops Idl1and Idl2
According to Biot-Savart’s law, current elements produce magnetic
fields. G G
The magnetic field produced by Idl2 at Idl1 is
JJG
JJG μ0 I 2 dl 2 × aˆ R
dB 2 = 21
4π R212 G JJG
Hence the force on current G element Idl1 due to the field dB 2 produced
by the current element Idl2 is
JJG JJG
JJG JJG JJG μ0 I1 dl 1 × ⎡⎣ I 2 dl 2 × aˆ R ⎤⎦
dF 1 = I1 dl 1 × dB 2 =
21
4π R212

JJG JJG
JJG μ0 I1 dl 1 × ⎡⎣ I 2 dl 2 × aˆ R ⎤⎦
dF 1 =
21
4π R212
G
The total force F1 on current loop 1 due to current loop 2 is
JJG JJG
G μ0 I 1 I 2 dl 1 × ⎡⎣ dl 2 × aˆ R ⎤⎦
F1 =
4π v ∫l1 v∫ l2
21
R212
G G
Similarly the total force F2 on loop 2 due to magnetic field B1
produced by loop 1 is obtained by interchanging the subscripts
JJG JJG
G μ0 I 1 I 2 dl 2 × ⎡⎣ dl 1 × aˆ R ⎤⎦
F2 =
4π v ∫ l1 v∫l2
12
R12 2

Example 1
A charged particle of mass 2Kg and charge 3C starts at point(1,-2,0)
with velocity 4aˆ x + 3aˆ z m / s in an electric field 12aˆ x + 10aˆ y V / m
At time t=1s determine its acceleration, velocity, kinetic energy and
position.
Solution G
G G G G QE
F = ma = QE a=
m
G 3
a = ⎡⎣12aˆ x + 10aˆ y ⎤⎦ = 18aˆ x + 15aˆ y m/s2
2G
G du d
a= = ( u x , u y , uz ) == 18aˆ x + 15aˆ y
dt dt
du x
= 18 u x = 18t + C1
dt

Example 1
du y
= 15 u y = 15t + C2
dt
duz uz = C3
=0
dt
G
At t = 0 u = 4aˆ x + 3aˆ z
u x = 18t + C1 u y = 15t + C2 uz = C3
u x (t = 0) = 4 ⇒ 4 = 0 + C1 ⇒ C1 = 4
u y (t = 0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 + C2 ⇒ C2 = 0
uz (t = 0) = 3 ⇒ 3 ⇒ C3 = 3

Example 1
G
u = (u x ,u y ,uz ) = (18t + 4,15t , 3)
G
u (t = 1s ) = 22aˆ x + 15aˆ y + 3aˆ z m/s
1 G2
Kinetic energy = m u
2
1
= ( 2 ) ( 222 + 152 + 32 ) = 718J
2
JJG
G dl d
u = = ( x, y , z ) = (18t + 4,15t , 3)
dt dt
dx
= u x = 18t + 4 ⇒ x = 9t 2 + 4t + C1
dt

Example 1
dy
= u y = 15t ⇒ y = 7.5t 2 + C2
dt
dz
= uz = 3 ⇒ z = 3t + C3
dt
At t=0, (x,y,z)=(1,-2,0)
x (t = 0) = 1 ⇒ 1 = 0 + C1 ⇒ C1 = 1
y (t = 0) = −2 ⇒ −2 = 0 + C2 ⇒ C2 = −2
z (t = 0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 + C3 ⇒ C3 = 0
( x, y , z ) = ( 9t 2 + 4t + 1, 7.5t 2 − 2, 3t )

Magnetic torque and moment
When a current loop is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force tending to rotate it.
The rotating tendency of the loop is expressed in terms of torque.
The torque on the loop is the vector product of the moment arm and
the force.
G G G
T = r ×F
F
α
• α
r
F

z
3 4
F0 '
l I G
F0 B
2 1
w
F0
⊗ :
w
F0

T
3 z
l 4
F0 F0 ' I G
B
2
w
1
F0 ⊗ α F0
α
α
:

Let a rectangular G loop of length l and width w is placed in a uniform
magnetic field B
G G
is
Idl G Gparallel to B along sides 1-2 and 3-4 of the loop.
So Idl × B = 0 and so the force acting on these sides is zero.
The force acting on lengths 2-3 and 3-4 are
G
F = F0 + F0 '
3 G G 3 G
F0 = I ∫ dl × B = I ∫ dzaˆ z × B = IBl
2 2
1 G G 1 G
F0 ' = I ∫ dl × B = I ∫ dz ( − aˆ z ) × B = − IBl
4 4
G
F = F0 + F0 ' = IBl − IBl = 0
No force is exerted on the loop as a whole.

When the axis of the loop is pivoted at the centre axis, the forces are
acting at different points with reference to the axis, and this creates
a couple.
G
If the normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle α with B
(force makes an angle α with moment arm) the magnitude of the
torque on the loop is
G G
T = F0 sinα w = BIl w sinα
= BIS sinα lw = S , Area of the loop
= IS Bsinα
G
Defining m = ISaˆn as the dipole moment of the loop,
aˆn ⇒ Unit vector normal to the plane of the loop
G G G G G G
T = IS an × B
ˆ T = m×B m = ISaˆn
The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of
the loop and its direction is normal to the loop.
Torque direction is the direction of the axis of rotation. In this case it
is along the z direction.
G G G
T = m×B

Magnetic dipole
A bar magnet or a small filamentary current loop is a magnetic
dipole.
While isolated electric charges exists, it is not possible to have an
isolated magnetic pole.
But we can obtain an equivalent effect by considering a long bar
magnet such that the poles have little interaction.
Each pole can, then be treated as isolated poles.
Using this concept the Coulomb’s law of force between magnetic
poles can be written as
G μ0 Qm1Qm 2
F= aˆ12
4π R12 2
Qm is the pole strength expressed as force per unit flux density.

F
Qm =
B

Magnetic dipole
Pole strength is unity if the pole experiences a force of 1N when
situated in a field of magnetic flux density 1 Tesla.
An iron bar may be regarded as composed of a large number of very
tiny magnets produced by atomic spin and orbital motion.
A small bar magnet with pole strength Qm and length l may be
treated as a magnetic dipole with magnetic moment Qml .
Such a dipole may be compared to a current loop with area S and
carrying a current I.
This loop has a magnetic moment m=IS.
Qm .l = IS

Magnetic dipole
Qm .l ⇔ IS
N s
S
Magnet Current Loop

Magnetic dipole
A bar magnet is composed of a large number of magnetic dipoles.
If A is the area of cross section of the bar magnet and l its length,
the volume of the magnet is Al.
If Qm is the pole strength, the dipole moment is Qm l.
Net dipole moment per unit volume is Qm l Qm
=
Al A
Dipole moment per unit volume is called magnetisation and it is
represented as a vector
G Qm
M= aˆn
A
aˆn ⇒ Unit vector directed from south to north pole.
Magnetization at any point in the magnetized bar is obtained by
G G
m
M = lim ampere/meter
Δ v → 0 Δv

Magnetic dipole
G
The magnetization M is the net magnetic dipole moment per unit
volume
If there are N atomsG in a given volume Δv and the kth atom has a
magnetic moment mk
N
G
G ∑ mk
M = lim k =1
Δv → 0 Δv
G
A medium for which M is not zero everywhere is said to be
magnetized.

Magnetization in materials
Any material is composed of atoms.
Each atom is composed of electrons orbiting about a central positive
nucleus.
The electrons spin about their own axes.
So an internal magnetic field is produced by electrons orbiting
around the nucleus and electrons spinning about their axes.
Both of the electron motion produces internal magnetic field similar
to the one produced by a current loop.
-
+ -

Bi
Ib
G
The equivalent loop has a magnetic moment of m = I b Saˆn
Without an external field applied to the material the sum of the
magnetic moments is zero due to the random orientation of the
moments.

G
B
Δv
Δv
When an external magnetic field is applied

G
the magnetic moments of
the electrons align themselves with B so that the net magnetic
moment is not zero.

Magnetic vector potential of a volume distribution of
dipoles
V G JJG
m = M dv '
( x ', y ', z ')
dv '
G G G
R =r −r'
r'
( x, y , z )
r G
G μ0 M × aˆ R
dA = dv '
O 4π R 2
G G
μ0 M × R
= dv '
4π R 3

dipoles
G G
For a differential volume dv’, the magnetic moment is dm = Mdv '
G
The vector magnetic potential due to dm is
G G G
G μ0 M × aˆ R μ0 M × R
dA = dv ' = dv '
4π R 2
4π R 3

dipoles
Let the source dv’ be located at (x’,y’z’) and let (x,y,z) be the point
where we want to find the magnetic potential.
G ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
G G 2 1/2
R = r − r ' = ⎡⎣( x − x ') + ( y − y ') + ( z − z ') ⎤⎦
2 2
⎛1⎞ ( x − x ')aˆ x + ( y − y ')aˆ y + ( z − z ')aˆ z G

∇⎜ ⎟ = − 3/2 = −
R
⎝R⎠ ⎡⎣( x − x ') 2 + ( y − y ') 2 + ( z − z ') 2 ⎤⎦ R3
G G
R G⎛1⎞ G⎛1⎞
= −∇ ⎜ ⎟ R
R 3 ∇⎜ ⎟ = − 3
⎝R⎠ ⎝R⎠ R

dipoles
G ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇ 'φ = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
∂x ' ∂y ' ∂z '
G G 2 1/2
R = r − r ' = ⎡⎣( x − x ') + ( y − y ') + ( z − z ') ⎤⎦
2 2
( x − x ') ˆ
a + ( y − y ') ˆ
a + ( z − z ') ˆ
a G
⎛1⎞ R
∇'⎜ ⎟ = x y z
3/2 =
⎝ R ⎠ ⎡( x − x ') 2 + ( y − y ') 2 + ( z − z ') 2 ⎤ R3
⎣ ⎦
G G
G ⎛1⎞ R G ⎛1⎞ R
∇'⎜ ⎟ = 3 ∇'⎜ ⎟ = 3
⎝R⎠ R ⎝R⎠ R

dipoles G
R G 1 G G G G G G
We know that
R 3
= ∇'
R (
∇ × φ F = φ∇ × F + ∇φ × F ) ( )
G G G G G G
G μ0 ⎡ G G 1 ⎤
dA = M × ∇ ' ⎥ dv '
(
∇φ × F = ∇ ×φ F − ) ( φ∇ × F )
⎢ G G G G G G
4π ⎣ R⎦ (
F ×∇φ = φ∇ × F − ) ( ∇ ×φ F )
G μ0 G G 1
A=
4π ∫ M × ∇ ' dv '
R
G G 1 1 G G G 1 G
But M × ∇ ' = ∇ '× M − ∇ '× M
R R R
G G G
G μ0 ∇ '× M μ0 G M
Substituting , A =
4π ∫ R
dv '−
4π ∫ ∇ '× dv '
R

dipoles
Applying the following vector identity to the second term we get
G G G JJG
( )
∫V ∇ '× F dv ' = − v∫ S F ×dS
G G G
G μ0 ∇ '× M μ0 ( M × aˆn )
A=
4π ∫V ' R
dv ' +
4π ∫
v S ' R
ds '
G G
G μ0 Jb μ0 Kb
A=
4π ∫V ' R
dv ' +
4π ∫
v S ' R
ds '
G
G μ0 KdS ' ⎫ G G
K b = M × aˆn
4π ∫S R ⎪
Comparing with A= ⎪
G ⎬
G μ0 JdV ' ⎪ G G G
A=
4π ∫ S R ⎭ ⎪
Jb = ∇ × M

Bound surface and volume current densities
G G G
K b = M × aˆn K b ⇒ Bound surface current density
G G G G
Jb = ∇ × M J b ⇒ Bound volume current density
MagneticG potential of a magnetic body is due to a volume current

G
density J b throughout the body and a surface current density K b on
the surface of the body

Bound surface and volume current densities
We have seen that the magnetic properties may be derived by
regarding the material as being made up of many small current
loops.
In the interior of the material, incomplete cancellation of currents in
adjacent loops results in a net volume current density.
At the surface of the material, the currents are not cancelled, giving
a net equivalent surface current density.
G
Kb
G
Jb

From Maxwell’s equation G
G G G G ⎛B⎞ G
∇×H = J ∇×⎜ ⎟ = J
⎝ μ0 ⎠
G G G
In a material medium J = J f + J b
G G
G ⎛ B⎞ G G J f ⇒ Free volume current density
∇ × ⎜ ⎟ = J f + Jb G
⎝ μ0 ⎠ J b ⇒ Bound volume current density
G G G G G G G
= ∇×H +∇×M = ∇× H + M ( )
G G G G G
(
∇ × B = μ0∇ × H + M ) G G G
G G G B = μ0 H + M ( )
( )
B = μ0 H + M − − − (1)

G G
M depends linearly on H for linear materials. So we can write
G G
M = χm H
χ m ⇒ Magnetic Susceptibility of the medium
Substituting in equation (1)
G G G G G G
(
B = μ0 H + χ m H ) = μ0 (1 + χ m ) H = μ H = μ0 μ r H
μ0 μr = μ0 (1 + χ m ) μr = 1 + χ m
μr = 1 + χ m
μ r ⇒ Relative Permeability of the medium

Classification of magnetic materials
Magnetic materials may be classified in to three:
¾ 1.Diamagnetic Magnetic Materials
¾ 2. Paramagnetic
¾ 3.Ferromagnetic
Linear Non Linear
Diamagnetics Paragnetics Feromagnetics

χ m < 0, μr < 1 χ m > 0, μr > 1 χ m 0, μr 1
μr = 1 + χ m
μ r ⇒ Relative Permeability of the medium

Properties of diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic fields due to
orbital and spin motion of electrons completely cancel.
When placed inside a magnetic field, it gets feebly magnetized in
direction opposite to that of the magnetic field and reduces the net
field.
The magnetic susceptibility is small.
A diamagnetic material is feebly repelled by a magnet.
A rod of the material suspended in a magnetic field gets slowly set
at right angles to the direction of the field.
G
M has a small negative value.
μr is just less than 1
Behaviour is not affected by temperature.
Does not obey Curies law, χ m ∝ 1 / T

Properties of paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic fields
produced by orbital and spin motion of electrons do not completely
cancel.
On application of external magnetic field it gets magnetised along
the direction of the applied field and increases the net field.
When subjected to non uniform magnetic field it moves from weaker
part of the magnetic field to stronger part.
A rod of paramagnetic material suspended in a magnetic field slowly
gets along the direction of external magnetic field.
A paramagnetic material is feebly attracted by a magnet.
G
M has a small positive value.
μr is just less than 1
Susceptibility has a small positive value.
It tends to lose its magnetism if subjected to temperature.
Obeys Curies law, χ m ∝ 1 / T

Properties of ferromagnetic materials
Feromagnetism occurs in materials whose atoms have relatively
large permanent magnetic moment.
On application of external magnetic field it gets strongly magnetised
along the direction of the applied field and retains its magnetism
when removed from the field
They are strongly attracted by a magnet.
On being subjected to non uniform magnetic field it moves from
weaker part of the magnetic field to stronger part.
G
M has a large positive value.
μr is very large.
Value of flux density inside the material is very much greater than in
vacuum.
Susceptibility has a large positive value.
Ferromagnetism decreases with temperature. At a critical
temperature called Curie temperature, ferromagnetic properties
disappears and the material becomes paramagnetic.

Magnetisation curve
G G
For all materials the relationship between B and H can be
expressed as
G G G
(
B = μ0 H + M ) G G
For a ferromagnetic material, relationship between B and H depends
on previous magnetization.
So it can only be represented by a magnetization curve.

Magnetisation curve
G
B
P
Initial magnetization Bmax
curve
Br
− H max −Hc
O Hc H max G
H
− Br
Hysteresis loop
Q − Bmax
Typical B - H curve

Magnetization curve
Assume that initially the ferromagnetic material is unmagnetized.
If H is increased by increasing current, from 0 to Hmax, curve OP is
produced.
This curve is the initial magnetization curve.
After reaching saturation at P, if H is decreased, B does not follow
the initial curve but lags behind H.
This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
If H is reduced to zero, B is not reduced to zero but to Br, which is
called remnant flux density.
The existence of Br is the reason for the formation of permanent
magnets.
If H increases negatively, B becomes zero when H becomes Hc,
which is known as coercive field intensity.

Magnetization curve
Further increase of H in the negative direction to reach Q and then
to P gives a closed curve called hysteresis loop.
The shape of hysteresis loops varies from one material to another.
Some ferrites have an almost rectangular hysteresis loop and are
used in digital computers as magnetic memories.
The area of the hysteresis loop gives the energy loss called
hysteresis loss per unit volume per cycle of magnetization.
This energy loss is in the form of heat.
So materials used in magnetic devices must have tall but narrow
hysteresis loops, so that hysteresis losses are minimum.

Magnetic boundary conditions
Bn1 Bn1 Medium 1 (μ1 )
B1
aˆ N
ΔS
Bt1
⎫ Δh
⎬
⎭ 2
⎫ Δh
⎬
⎭ 2
Bn 2 B2
Bn 2
Bt 2 Medium 2 (μ2 )

Consider the boundary between two isotropic homogeneous linear
materials with permeabilities μ1 and μ2.
G
At the boundary, the magnetic flux density B may be decomposed in
to a normal component Bn and a tangential component Bt.
Applying Gauss’s law for magnetic field on a small pill box shaped
volume,
G JJG
v∫S
B ⋅ dS = 0 Bn1 = Bn 2
Bn1ΔS − Bn 2 ΔS = 0 G G
Bn1 = Bn 2 i.e., (G
G G
)
B2 − B1 ⋅ aˆ N = 0 ( )
B2 − B1 ⋅ aˆ N = 0
Normal component of B is continuous accross the boundary

between the two adjacent media.

aˆ N G G
B2 − B1
α
G G
( )
B2 − B1 ⋅ aˆ N = ( B2 − B1 ) .1. cos α
= Bn1 − Bn 2 = 0

Bn1 = Bn 2
μ1H n1 = μ2 H n 2 μ1
Hn2 = H n1
H n1 μ 2 μ1 μ2
= i.e., H n 2 = H n1
H n 2 μ1 μ2
G
The normal components of H are not continuous across the
boundary
The normal components becomes continuous only when μ1 = μ2.
In that case there is no boundary between the two materials.

H n1 Medium 1 (μ1 )
H1
H t1
H t1 G
aˆ N K C
:::: :::: ⎫ Δh
⎬
aû ⎭ 2
⎫ Δh
⎬
⎭ 2
Δl
Hn2 H2
Ht2
Ht2 Medium 2 (μ2 )

Now construct a closed contour C across the boundary and apply
Ampere’s circuital law for this closed path.
G JJG
v∫
C
H ⋅ dl = I encl
⎛ Δh ⎞ ⎛ Δh ⎞ ⎛ Δh ⎞ ⎛ Δh ⎞
Ht 2Δl + Hn 2 ⎜ ⎟ + Hn1 ⎜ ⎟ − Ht1Δl − Hn1 ⎜ ⎟ − Hn 2 ⎜ ⎟ = Ku Δl
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
G
H t 2 Δ l − H t 1 Δl = K u Δ l K u ⇒ Component of K normal to the
plane of the closed path.
H t 2 − H t1 = K u
G
Tangential component of H is discontinuous across the boundary
between the two adjacent media.
H t 2 − H t1 = K u
H t 2 − H t1 = K u
The above equation may be written in vector notation as
G G G G G G
( )
H 2 − H1 × aˆ N = K ( )
H 2 − H 1 × aˆ N = K
G
If both the media across the boundary are not conductors, then K = 0
H t 2 − H t1 = 0
H t 2 = H t1
H t 2 = H t1
G
Tangential component of H is continuous accross the boundary
G
between the two adjacent media if K = 0
aˆ N G G
H 2 − H1
α
: aˆ u
G G
( )
H 2 − H1 × aˆ N = ( H 2 − H1 ) .1.sinα .aû
G
= ( H t 2 − H t1 ) aû = K u aû = K

Bt 2 Bt1
=
μ2 μ1 μ2
Bt2 = B t1
μ2 μ1
Bt 2 = Bt1
μ1
G
Tangential component of B is discontinuous accross the boundary
G
between the two adjacent media if K = 0

Medium 1 (μ1 ) Bt1 Bn1 = Bn 2 ----(1) H t 2 = H t1
Bn1 Bt1 Bt 2
= ----(2)
B1 μ1 μ2
θ1 Bt1 B
(2) / (1) ⇒ = t 2 ----(3)
μ1Bn1 μ2 Bn 2
Bt 2 Bt1 B1 sin θ1 B2 sin θ 2
=
μ1 ( B1 cosθ1 ) μ2 ( B2 cosθ 2 )
B2 θ 2
tanθ1 tanθ 2
=
Bn 2 μ1 μ2 tanθ 1 μ1
=
Medium 2 (μ2 )
tanθ1 μ1 tanθ 2 μ2
=
tanθ 2 μ2

Inductance

Inductance
A closed loop carrying a current I produces a magnetic field which
causes a flux Ψ according to
G JJG
ψ =∫ B ⋅ dS
S
If the loop has N turns the total flux linkage λ is defined as

λ = Nψ
According to Biot-Savart’s law B is proportional to the current I and
hence flux Ψ is proportional to I.
Flux linkage λ is thus proportional to current I.
λ∝I λ = LI
Here L is a proportionality constant called the inductance of the

circuit.

Inductance
λ
λ = LI L=
I
Inductance L of an inductor is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux
linkage λ to the current I through the inductor. Its unit is Henry.
λ Nψ
L= =
I I
The inductance defined thus is the self inductance of the coil since
the flux linkages are produced by the inductor itself.
The magnetic energy stored in an inductor is given by
1 2 2Wm
Wm = LI L= 2
2 I
So inductance may be considered as a measure of the magnetic
energy that can be stored in an inductor.

Mutual Inductance
λ12 = N1ψ 12 λ21 = N 2ψ 21
λ12 N1ψ 12 λ21 N2ψ 21
M 12 = = M 21 = =
I2 I2 I1 I1
I1 ψ 12
I
ψ 11 N1
N N2 ψ 22
ψ 21 I2
I
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
λ11 N1 (ψ 11 + ψ 12 ) λ22 N 2 (ψ 21 + ψ 22 )
L1 = = L2 = =
I1 I1 CompiledIby I 2batch August 2008
2 MKP for CEC S5
Mutual Inductance
If there are two circuits carrying currents I1 and I2 a magnetic
interaction exists between these circuits.
Four component fluxes are produced
ψ 11 ⇒ Flux passing through circuit 1 due to current I1

ψ 22 ⇒ Flux passing through circuit 2 due to current I 2
ψ 12 ⇒ Flux passing through circuit 1 due to current I 2
ψ 21 ⇒ Flux passing through circuit 2 due to current I1
G
If B2 is the field due to I2 and S1 is the area of the circuit 1, then
G JJG
ψ 12 = ∫ B2 ⋅ dS
S1

Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance M12 is defined as the ratio of the flux linkage
λ12 = N1ψ 12
on circuit 1 due to current I2.
λ12 N1ψ 12 N1ψ 12
M 12 = = M 12 =
I2 I2 I2
G JJG
Similarly ψ 21 = ∫ B1 ⋅ dS
S2 N 2ψ 21
M 21 =
λ21 N 2ψ 21 I1
M 21 = =
I1 I1
If the medium is linear M12=M21

Self Inductance of coupled coils
The self inductances of circuits 1 and 2 are given by
λ11 N1 (ψ 11 + ψ 12 ) N 1ψ 1 ψ 1 =ψ 11 + ψ 12
L1 = = L1 =
I1 I1 I1
λ22 N 2 (ψ 21 + ψ 22 ) N 2ψ
L2 = = L2 = 2
ψ 2 =ψ 21 + ψ 22
I2 I2 I2

Procedure for calculating Inductance
1. Choose an appropriate coordinate system
2. Assume that the inductor carries a current I
3. Find the magnetic flux density using Ampere’s circuital
law if symmetry exists; otherwise use Biot-Savart’s law.
G JJG
4. Find the flux linking each turn using ψ = ∫ B ⋅ dS
Nψ S
5. Find the inductance using L =
I

When the coils of the solenoid are closely spaced, each turn
can be regarded as a circular loop, and the net magnetic field
is the vector sum of the magnetic field for each loop.
This produces a magnetic field that is approximately constant
inside the solenoid, and nearly zero outside the solenoid.

The ideal solenoid is approached when the coils are very close
together and the length of the solenoid is much greater than its
radius. Then we can approximate the magnetic field as constant
inside and zero outside the solenoid.
G aˆ x
H
N turns in a
l length of l
Apply Ampere’s law for the closed path 1234

G JJG
v∫ L H ⋅ d l = I encl
G JJG G JJG G JJG G JJG G JJG
v∫ L H ⋅ dl = ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl + ∫ H ⋅ dl
12 23 34 41
= Hl + 0 + 0 = Hl
C u rre n t e n c lo se d b y th e p a th is = N I
Hl = NI G NI G μ NI
H = aˆ x B = aˆ x
l l
NI
H =
l
μ NI N
B = B = μI = μ I times number of turns per unit length
l l

Self inductance of a solenoid
Find the self inductance per unit length of an infinitely long solenoid.
l
G NI
B = μ p e r u n it le n g th
l

Self inductance of a solenoid
The magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is
G NI
B = μ
l
If S is the cross sectional area of the solenoid, then the total flux
through this solenoid is
G JJG
ψ = ∫S B ⋅ d S = B ∫S d S = B S
ψ = μ
NI
S L = μ N 2S
l
Nψ N 2I μ N 2S
L = = μ S =
I lI l
Hence the inductance per unit length is L = μ N 2 S

Magnetic energy
ConsiderG a differential volume Δv in a magnetic field of flux
density B as shown below.
Let the top and bottom faces be covered with thin metal foils that
carry a current ΔI
z
Δy
Δx ΔI
Δz G
B
ΔI y
x
Magnetic energy
The inductance of this differential volume is
Δψ B Δx Δz μ H Δx Δz
ΔL = = = -----(1)
ΔI ΔI ΔI
The energy stored in this elemental inductance is
1
ΔWm = ΔLΔI 2 -----(2)
2
Substituting (1) in (2)
1 Δx Δz 2 1
ΔWm = μ H ΔI = μ H Δx Δz ΔI
2 ΔI 2
But ΔI = H Δl = H Δy
1
ΔWm = μ H 2 Δ x Δy Δ z
2
1
ΔWm = μ H 2 Δv
2
Magnetic energy
Magnetic energy density wm is defined as
ΔWm 1
wm = lim
Δv →∞ Δv
wm = μ H 2
2
( J / m 3
)
1 μH 2 1
wm = lim Δv = μH 2
Δv →∞ 2 Δv 2
1G G
wm =
1
μ HH 1G G wm = B ⋅ H
2
( J / m 3
)
= B⋅H
Or
2 2
1 B B2 B2
wm = B. = wm = (J / m 3 )
2 μ 2μ 2μ

Magnetic energy

∫
The total energy in a magnostatic field is Wm = wm dv
V
1
Wm = ∫ μ 1
2
H dv
2 V Wm =
2 ∫ V
μ H 2 dv
1 G G
Wm = ∫ B ⋅ Hdv
2 V 1 G G
1 B2
Wm =
2 ∫ V
B ⋅ H dv
Wm = ∫ dv
2 2μ
V
1 B2
Wm =
2 ∫V 2μ
dv

Example 1
Find the self inductance of a coaxial cable of inner radius a and
outer radius b.
a a
I
b
b
l = 1m

Example 1
μI ρ
1 2
Wm = LI 2Wm B1 =
or , L = 2π a 2
2 I2
1 G G B2 2 B2 μI
Wm = ∫ B ⋅ Hdv = ∫V dv
2 V 2μ
L= 2
I ∫V 2μ dv B2 =
2πρ
The inductance produced by the flux internal to the conductor
1 1 μ 2 I 2ρ 2
Lin = 2 ∫ B1 dv = 2 ∫
2
ρ d ρ dφ dz
I μ V
I μ V 4π a 2 4
μ
2 4 ∫V
= ρ 3
d ρ d φ dz
4π a
μ μl μl
2π l a
= 2 4 ∫ dφ ∫ dz ∫ ρ d ρ = 3 Lint =
4π a 0 0 0
8π 8π
Example 1
1 μ2I 2
1
Lext = 2 ∫ B2 dv = 2 ∫
2
ρ d ρ dφ dz
I μ V I μ 4π ρ
V 2 2
μ 1
= 2 ∫ d ρ dφ dz
4π V ρ
μ l 2π b 1 μl ⎛ b ⎞ μl ⎛ b ⎞
= 2 ∫ dz ∫ dφ ∫ d ρ = ln ⎜ ⎟ Lext = ln ⎜ ⎟
4π 0 0 a ρ 2π ⎝ a ⎠ 2π ⎝ a ⎠
μl ⎡1 ⎛ b ⎞⎤
L = Lint + Lext = ⎢ 4 + ln ⎜ a ⎟ ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
μl ⎡1 ⎛ b ⎞⎤
L= ⎢ 4 + ln ⎜ a ⎟ ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

Magnetic circuits
Magnetic devices such as toroids, transformers, motors, generators
and relays may be considered as magnetic circuits.
The analysis of such circuits is made simple if an analogy between
magnetic and electric circuits is established.
I
N turns B
F
mmf = NI ΔS

Magnetic circuits
The electrostatic potential is related to electric field intensity by
G G
E = −∇V
Magnetic potential is related to magnetic field intensity by
G G
H = −∇Vm
Ohm’s law in point form for electric circuit has the form
G G
J =σE
Magnetic flux is analogous to electric current and magnetic flux
density is analogous to current density.
Corresponding to ohm’s law in electric circuits, we have the relation
G G
B = μH G JJG
To find the total current we use I = ∫ J ⋅ dS
S
To find the total flux we use
G JJG
ψ = ∫ B ⋅ dS
S

Magnetic circuits
In electric circuits we defined resistance as the ratio of voltage and
current.
V
R=
I
Similarly, in magnetic circuits reluctance is the ratio of magneto
motive force and the total flux.
Vm
ℜ=
ψ l
The resistance R is given by R =
σA
Correspondingly reluctance
l
ℜ=
μA
The magneto motive force is F = NI

Magnetic circuits
G JJG
In electric circuits we have v∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
L
the voltage source is part of the closed path here.
G JJG G JJG
But in magnetic circuits v∫
L
H ⋅ dl = I encl or v∫ H ⋅ dl = NI
L
Here magneto motive force is linked to the magnetic circuit without
becoming part of the closed circuit.
Based on this we can write Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws for
electric and magnetic circuits:
∑V − ∑ IR = 0 ∑ NI − ∑ ℜψ = 0
∑I = 0 ∑ψ = 0
For n magnetic circuits in series ψ 1 = ψ 2 = ψ 3 = ...... = ψ n
For n magnetic circuits in parallel ψ = ψ 1 + ψ 2 + ψ 3 + ...... + ψ n

Example 1
The torroidal core of a coil has a=10cm and a circular cross section
with b=1cm . If the core is made of steel (μr=1000) and has a coil
with 200 turns,calculate the amount of current that will produce a
flux of 0.5mWb in the core.
I ψ
ψ
200 turns a ℜ
NI
2b

Example 1
In the analogous magnetic circuit
NI = ψℜ
l 2π a
NI = ψ =ψ
μA μ0 μrπ b2
2π aψ
I=
μ0 μ r N π b 2
2 × 0.2 × 0.5 × 10−3 = 7.96A
I=
4π × 10−7 × 1000 × 200 × (0.01) 2

Faraday’s law
Whenever the magnetic flux linking with a closed circuit varies with
time an emf is induced in that circuit and the induced emf is equal to
the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.
dψ
Vemf = −N
dt
N ⇒ Number of turns in the circuit
ψ ⇒ Flux through each turn
The negative sign shows that the induced emf acts in such a way as
to oppose the flux producing it. This is called Lenz’s law.
It shows that the direction of current in the circuit is such that the
induced magnetic field produced by the induced current opposes the
original magnetic field.

Faraday’s law
dψ
Vemf = −N
dt
For a single turn
dψ d G JJG G JJG
Vemf =− = − ∫ B ⋅ dS Since ψ = ∫ B ⋅ dS
dt dt S S
G JJG d G JJG
Vemf ∫ L E ⋅ dl = − dt ∫S B ⋅ dS
=v
The variation of flux with time may be produced in the following

ways:
A stationary loop area in time varying magnetic field.
A time varying loop area in a in a static magnetic field.
A time varying loop area in a in a time varying magnetic field

Stationary loop in time varying magnetic field.
G G
Increasing B(t ) Decreasing B(t )
G G
B' B'
I I

Stationary loop in time varying magnetic field.
G JJG d G JJG
Vemf ∫ L E ⋅ dl = − dt ∫S B ⋅ dS
=v
In the case of stationary loop and time varying magnetic field, we

can modify the above equation.
G
G JJG ∂B JJG
Vemf ∫ L E ⋅ dl = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS
=v
This equation is called transformer equation since the induced emf is
due to transformer action.
Applying Stoke’s theorem G
G G G G ∂B
G G JJG ∂B JJG G G ∂B ∇× E = −
∫(
S
)
∇ × E ⋅ dS = − ∫
S ∂t
⋅ dS ∇×E = −
∂t ∂t
This is one of Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields.

Moving loop in a static magnetic field.
When a conducting loop is moving in a static magnetic field, an emf
is induced in the loop.
G
The force
G on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic
field B is
G G G
Fm = Qu × B G
G G Fm G G
E
Motional electric field m is Em = =u×B
Q
The emf induced in the moving loop is
G JJG G G JJG
∫
Vemf = v
L ∫ (u × B) ⋅ dl
Em ⋅ dl = v
L
This type of emf is called motional emf.

Moving loop in a static magnetic field.
G JJG G G JJG
∫
Vemf = v
L ∫ (u × B) ⋅ dl
Em ⋅ dl = v
L
Applying Stoke ' s theorem

G G JJG G G G JJG
∫ ( ∇ × Em ) ⋅ dS = ∫ ( ∇ × (u × B) ) ⋅ dS
S S
G G G G G G G G G G
∇ × Em = ∇ × ( u × B ) ∇ × Em = ∇ × ( u × B )

Moving loop in a time varying magnetic field.
In this case both the transformer and motional emf are present .
G
G JJ
G ∂B JJG G G JJG
Vemf ∫ L E ⋅ dl = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS + v∫ L (u × B) ⋅ dl
=v
Applying Stoke’s theorem,

G
G G JJG ∂B JJG G G G JJG
( ) (
∫S ∇ × E ⋅ dS = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS + ∫S ∇ × (u × B) ⋅ dS )
G
G G ∂B G G G
∇× E = − + ∇ × (u × B )
∂t
G
G G ∂B G G G
∇× E = − + ∇ × (u × B )
∂t

Displacement current
Maxwell’s equation for magnetic fields derived from Ampere’s
circuital law is given by
G G G
∇×H = J
For any vector, divergence of the curl is always zero.
G G G G G
( )
∇ ⋅ ∇ × H = ∇ ⋅ J = 0 − − − (1)
But the continuity equation states that
G G ∂ρ v
∇⋅ J = − − − − (2)
∂t
Equations 1 and 2 are incompatible for time varying conditions. So
we have to modify equation 1 to agree with equation 2.
For this we will add an additional term to equation 1 so that it
becomes
G G G G
∇ × H = J + J d − − − (3)
Applying the condition that divergence of the curl is always zero to
the equation 3,
G G G G G G
( ) (
∇ ⋅ ∇ × H = ∇ ⋅ J + J d =0 )
G G G G G G G
( )
∇ ⋅ J + J d =∇ ⋅ J + ∇ ⋅ J d =0
G
G G G G ∂ρ v ∂ G G G ∂D
∇ ⋅ J d = −∇ ⋅ J =
∂t
=
∂t
(
∇⋅D ) = ∇⋅
∂t
G
G ∂D
Jd =
∂t G
Equation 3 is now modified as G G G ∂D
G G G ∂D
G ∇× H = J +
∇×H = J + − − − (4) ∂t
∂t
Equation 4 is Maxwell’s equation derived from ampere’s law for a
time varying field.
G
The term ∂D / ∂t is known as displacement current density.
Based on displacement current density, we can define the
displacement current as
G
G JJG ∂D JJG
I d = ∫ J d ⋅ dS =∫ ⋅ dS
∂t
G G
At low frequencies J d is very small when compared with J
At high frequenciesGthe two terms are comparable.
Without the term J d electromagnetic wave propagation would be
impossible.

S1
L L
S2
I I

Displacement current is a result of time varying electric field.
An example is the current through a capacitor, when an alternating
voltage source is applied across its plates.
Consider that we are applying the unmodified form of Maxwell’s
equation to calculate the current through a capacitor considering a
closed path as shown in figure.
In the first case
G JJG G JJG
∫ L
H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS = I encl = I
S1
In the second case

G JJG G JJG
∫L
H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dS = I encl = 0
S2
since no conduction current flows through S2

This anomaly is corrected if we include the displacement current in
the above equation.
G JJG G G JJG
∫L
H ⋅ dl = ∫
S2
( )
J + J d ⋅ dS
G
G JJG ∂D JJG
= ∫ J d ⋅ dS = ∫S ⋅ dS
S2 2 ∂t
d G JJG dQ
= ∫ D ⋅ dS = =I
dt 2 S dt

Maxwell’s Equations in final forms
Differential form Integral form Derived from
G G G JJG
∇ ⋅ D = ρV v∫S
D ⋅dS = ∫ ρV dV
V
Gauss ' s Law
G G G JJG Nonexistance of magnetic
∇⋅ B = 0
G
v∫S
B ⋅dS = 0 Monopole
G G ∂B G JJG d G JJG
∇×E = −
∂t
v∫ L E ⋅ dl = − dt ∫S B ⋅ dS Faraday ' s Law
G G
G G G ∂D G JJG ⎛ G ∂D ⎞ JJG Ampere ' s Law
∇×H = J +
∂t
v∫ L H ⋅ dl = ∫S ⎜⎝ J + ∂t ⎟⎠ ⋅ dS modified by continuity eqn

Time-harmonic fields
A time harmonic field is one that varies periodically or sinusoidally
with time.
In most practical applications EM fields are time harmonic.
Also, any wave form can be expressed in terms of sinusoids using
Fourier transform techniques.
Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are more
convenient to work with.
A phasor z is a complex number that can be written as
z = x + jy ⇒ Rectangular form
z = r∠φ ⇒ Polar form
z = re jφ = r ( cos φ + j sinφ )
y
Then, r= z = x +y 2 2
and , φ = tan -1
x
Addition and subtraction of phasors are better performed in
rectangular form while multiplication and division are better done in
polar form.
Let z1 = x1 + j y1 z2 = x2 + j y2
( z1 + z2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + j ( y1 + y2 )
( z1 − z2 ) = ( x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 )
z1 z2 = r1r2∠ (φ1 + φ2 )
z1 r1
= ∠ (φ1 − φ2 )
z2 r2
z1 = r1 ∠ (φ1 / 2 )

To introduce the time element let φ = ωt + θ
jφ j (ωt +θ )
Now re = re = re jθ e jωt
Re {re jφ } = r cos (ωt + θ )
Im {re jφ } = rsin (ωt + θ )
A sinusoidal current I (t ) = I 0 cos (ωt + θ ) equals the real part of
I 0e jθ e jωt
The sinusoidal current I (t) = I0sin (ωt +θ ) equals the imaginary part of
I 0e jθ e jωt

jθ
The complex term I 0e which results from dropping the time
jωt
factor e in I(t) is called the phasor current and is denoted by Is.
I s = I 0e jθ = I 0∠θ
I (t ) = I 0 cos(ωt + θ ) can be expressed as I (t ) = Re {I S e jωt }

A phasor can G be a scalar or a vector.
If a GvectorG A( x, y , z , t ) is a time harmonic field, the phasor form
of A , is AS ( x , y , z )
G G jωt
{
A = Re AS e } G − − − (1)
As an example let A = A0 cos(ωt − β x )aˆ y
G
A = Re { A0e − jβ x aˆ y e jωt } − − − (2)
G
Comparing (1) and (2), the phasor form of A is
G
AS = A0e − jβ x aˆ y

G G
A = Re { A e } S
jωt
G
∂A ∂ G jωt G jωt
= Re AS e
∂t ∂t
{ } {
= Re jω AS e }
This shows that taking the time derivative of the instantaneous
quantity is equivalent to multiplying its phasor form by jω
G
∂A G
= jω AS
∂t
Similarly,
G
G AS
∫ A ∂ t =
jω

We can apply the concepts of phasors to time varying EM fields.
The following field quantities and their derivatives can be expressed
in phasor form.
G G G
E ( x, y , z, t ) H ( x, y , z, t ) J ( x, y , z, t )
G G
D ( x, y , z, t ) B ( x, y , z , t ) ρV ( x, y, z, t )
Based on these quantities we can rewrite the Maxwell’s equations

for time-harmonic EM fields.

Maxwell’s Equations for time harmonic
fields
Differential form Integral form
G G G JJG
∇ ⋅ DS = ρVS v∫ S
DS ⋅dS = ∫ ρVS dV
V
G G G JJG
∇ ⋅ BS = 0 v∫
S
BS ⋅dS = 0
G G G G JJG G JJG
∇ × ES = − jω BS v∫ L
ES ⋅ dl = − jω ∫ BS ⋅ dS
S
G G G G G JJG G G JJG
∇ × H S = J S + jω DS v∫
L
( )
H S ⋅ dl = ∫ J S + jω DS ⋅ dS
S

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MODULE III

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 - July 2008

Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 - July 2008

Idl sin α Idl sin α

dH ⇒ Magnetic field intensity at P

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Line current Surface current Volume current

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

But z = ρ cot α dz = − ρ cosec 2α dα

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

 Total field intensity at the centre of the circular wire is obtained by

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

 The resultant field intensity at the point P is given by integrating the

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

aˆl = − aˆ x cos 45 − aˆ y cos 45 = −0.707aˆ x − 0.707aˆ y

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Apply Ampere’s law for the closed path 1234

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

 Magnetic flux through a surface is obtained by integrating flux

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Electric flux lines need

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Magnetic flux lines are always closed. It is not possible

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Differential form Integral form Derived from

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 batch August 2008

Total field intensity at the centre of the circular wire is obtained by

The resultant field intensity at the point P is given by integrating the

Magnetic flux through a surface is obtained by integrating flux

An electric field can exert a force on a stationary charge and the

We have the following relations between current elements.

No force is exerted on the loop as a whole.

Qm is the pole strength expressed as force per unit flux density.

When an external magnetic field is applied

MagneticG potential of a magnetic body is due to a volume current

If the loop has N turns the total flux linkage λ is defined as

Here L is a proportionality constant called the inductance of the