CHAPTER THIRTEEN: ISLAM

Chapter Outline and Unit Summaries

I. Introduction

A. The Youngest Major World Religion

B. One of the Largest World Religions

1. Over One Billion Adherents

2. Growing Religion in the Developing World

C. Religious / Theological Roots in Judaism and Christianity

D. Muslim Literally Translated: One Who Submits to God

II. Pre-Islamic Arab Religion

A. Byzantine Christianity

B. Judaism

C. Zoroastrianism

D. Native Religion of the Arab People

1. Difficult to Specify Exact Beliefs because Only Source is the

Qur’an’s Biased Description

2. Polytheists with Supreme High God, Allah (“the God”)

a. Local and Tribal Deities Received Most of the

Daily Worship
b. Images of Gods and Sacrifices to Them Common
c. Numerous Spirits, Angels, Fairies, Demons

3. Animism

a. Mecca Known in Ancient World for its Animistic

Religions
b. A Meteor Fell on Mecca, Become Object of
Religious Veneration in Shrine Called Ka’ba

154
III. The Life of Muhammad

A. Early Life of Muhammad (570-632 C.E.)

1. Born into Clan that Controlled Ka’ba Shrine in Mecca

2. Father Died before Birth, Mother Died when Six;

Muhammad Raised by Tribal Chief Uncle, abu-Talib

3. Muslims Strongly Claim Muhammad was Illiterate

4. Muhammad Likely Traveled in Trading Caravans,

Encountered Numerous Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians

a. Religions Muhammad Encounters Share Same

Basic Traits: One God, One Set of Revealed
Scriptures, Eschatology Centered on a Day of
Judgment and Assigning People to Eternal Destiny
Based on Ethical Behavior in This Life
b. Muhammad Feared for His Polytheistic People

5. Met and Married Wealthy Widow, Khadija

a. Married for Twenty Five Years

b. One Child Survived: Daughter Named Fatima

B. Muhammad’s Religious Experience and Mission

1. During Retreat in Mountains to Meditate, Angel (Gabriel)

Appears to Muhammad

2. Gabriel Appears at Intervals Throughout Muhammad’s Life,

Gives Him Revelations from God

a. Muhammad Orally Reported Revelations to

Companions
b. Later Revelations Written Down as the Qur’an

3. Muhammad Decides there is Only One God, Allah

4. Muhammad Decides He is the Last in a Series of Prophets of

Allah; Jewish and Christian Prophets Preceded Him

a. All Earlier Prophetic Preaching Incomplete

b. Muhammad Brings Final, Complete Revelation

155
 5. Muhammad Preaches in Mecca, Meets Hostility Because
Economy of Mecca Based on Idol Worship and Ka’ba

a. First Convert: Wife Khadija

b. Second Convert: Disputed in Islamic Tradition:
Either Cousin Ali or Slave Boy Zayd
c. Young and Poor Flock to Join New Religion
d. Opposition Grows from Wealthy Established Clan
Leadership
e. Muhammad Urges Some Followers to Flee Mecca
for Abyssinia, Ethiopia
f. Dominant Clans Boycott Muhammad’s Clan

6. 619 C.E. Uncle and First Wife Die

a. Muhammad Marries Second Wife, the First of

Number of Future Wives
b. Muhammad Tries to Flee Mecca but Unable to Find
Secure Location, Moves Back to Mecca

C. The Formation of Early Islam

1. The Invitation from Yathrib (Medina)

a. 620 C.E. Six Men from Yathrib (later Medina)

Come to Mecca to Confer with Muhammad
b. Yathrib Torn by Clan War and Internal Strife
c. Some Jews in Yathrib Wondered if Muhammad was
the Messiah
d. Muhammad Invited to be Judge and Ruler of
Yathrib
e. Muhammad Delays Leaving Mecca for Fear of
Assassins, but Flees Mecca for Yathrib, Arrive
September 24th, 622 C.E.
f. The Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca to Medina
Becomes the New Reference Point for Islamic
Calendar; Years Dated by A.H. (anno hegirae)

2. Muhammad in Yathrib (Medina) 622 - 630 C.E.

a. Muslims Become Established Clan, but Religion

Not Widely Accepted
(1) Three Tribes Jewish, One Christian
Community

156
 (2) Muhammad Meets Resistance from Jews,
Develops Hostility towards Jews
b. The “Medina Charter:” Muhammad Receives
Political Authority Over City, Guarantees Religious
Freedom for Non-Muslims
c. Muhammad Marries Aishah, 623 C.E.
d. Full Scale Military Conflict Breaks Out Between
Medina under Muhammad and Mecca
(1) Muhammad’s Muslim Supporters Attack
Caravans from Mecca
(2) Battle of Badr, 624 C.E.: Muhammad’s
Supporters—With Muhammad Present
Praying for his Troops—Attack Caravan,
Kill 70 Men, Take Prisoners and Loot
(3) Next Battle with Meccans in 635 C.E.,
Muhammad Wounded, Medina Forces Take
More Losses than Meccans; Considered
Victory because not Total Rout
e. Full Scale Military Conflict Breaks Out Between
Muslims and Regional Jewish Tribes
(1) Jews Ridiculed Muhammad, Supported
Meccans against Him
(2) Muhammad Gives Jews in Medina
Ultimatum: Convert to Islam or Exile
(3) Jewish Matron, Zainab, Feeds Poisoned
Lamb to Muhammad, He Survives
f. 627 C.E. 10,000 Meccans Attack Medina, Fail to
Take the City; Muslims Increase Support in Medina
g. Truce with Mecca Allows Muslims to Visit on
Pilgrimage
h. Number of Muslims Grows So Large the People of
Mecca to Overwhelmed to Resist Any Longer
i. 630 C.E. Muhammad Invades Mecca with a Force
of 10,000 Men
j. Muhammad Destroys Idols and Images (but not the
black meteor stone or the Ka’ba itself), Earns
Respect as Religious-Political Leader of Arabs
k. Muslim Community Grows in Numbers
l. Muhammad Continues to Marry More Wives to
Builds Political Ties
m. Muhammad Sends Missionaries to Convert Bedouin
Tribes in Desert

157
 3. The Last Years of Muhammad

a. After Final Pilgrimage to Mecca in 632 C.E.

Muhammad Delivers Farewell Address in Medina
b. Muhammad Dies without Making Any
Arrangements for a Successor, Confusion in the
Community
c. Abu-Bakr, Muhammad’s Friend and Brother of
Wife Aishah, Anointed by Community as the
Representative (caliph) of Muhammad
(1) Shi’ites Doubt this Version of History
(2) Shi’ites Believe Muhammad Designated
Cousin and Son-in-Law Ali as Successor

IV. The Qur’an

A. Muslim Beliefs about Qur’an (Literally: Reading, Recitation)

1. Muslims Believe Qur’an Eternal Scripture, Written in

Heaven and Revealed Chapter by Chapter to Muhammad

a. Muslims, Unlike Jews and Christians, Believe

There was no Human Authorship Involved in
Qur’an At All
b. The Qur’an is the Pure Word God Delivered by
Angel to Muhammad
c. Muhammad Illiterate; He Memorized Exact
(Arabic) Words of God and Conveyed Them to
Slave Boy Zayd
d. Zayd Wrote Exact, Verbatim Words of Muhammad
on Leaves, Bones, Stone, Parchment
e. After Muhammad’s Death Zayd’s Writings
Collected
f. Third Caliph, Uthman, Worked with Zayd to
Develop Authorized Version of the Qur’an
(1) The Qur’an Organized into 114 surahs
(2) Each surah Contains Approximately 6,000
Verses, or ayas
(3) Overall Qur’an Slightly Smaller than New
Testament
(4) Text Arranged According to Length of
surahs in Descending Order With no
Topological or Chronological Pattern

2. The Qur’an is God’s Last Word to Humanity, Fulfilling but

Surpassing the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures

158
 3. Recitation of Qur’an a Ritual Act for Muslims

a. The Qur’an Central to Muslim Faith, Read and

Memorized as Primary Religious Duties
(1) Supreme Act of Religious Devotion to
Memorize Entire Qur’an
(2) Those Who Memorize Qur’an Given
Honorary Title of hafiz
b. First Surah (chapter) Begins with “Recite: In the
Name of they Lord who created …”
c. Reciting Qur’an Believed a Source of Allah’s
Blessing because it Reproduces Allah’s Divine
Speech

B. The Nature of God

1. Strict Monotheism of the One Sovereign God

a. The Qur’an Requires All Muslims to Say Once a

Day “There is no God but Allah” and Muhammad is
“the messenger of Allah.”
b. Judaism is Closest to Islam in Terms of Insistence
on Pure, Absolute Monotheism

2. Allah: Omnipresent, Omniscient, Omnipotent Creator

3. Allah Has Ninety-Nine Names

4. Allah is Sovereign and Majestic, but Also Just, Merciful, and

Compassionate

5. Allah Surrounded and Aided by Numerous Heavenly Figures

a. Angels Deliver Messages for Allah

b. Warriors Angels Fight with Muslims against
Infidels
c. The Jinn: Creatures between Humans and Angels
(1) Made of Fire
(2) Some Jinn Good, Some Evil (Unbelievers)
(3) Leader of Evil Jinn Called Iblis (Arabic for
“devil,” “diabolos”
(4) Iblis Functions like Satan in Hebrew Book of
Job: More a Tempter and Prosecuting
Attorney against Human than a God of Evil
(5) Iblis Responsible for Fall of Adam

159
 C. Predestination

1. Pushed to Extreme, the Qur’an’s Teachings about Allah’s

Omnipotent Sovereignty Could Seem Fatalistic,
Deterministic

a. Some Islamic Groups Read Qur’an This Way

b. Christian Calvinists Read New Testament This Way

2. Islam Stresses Freedom and Responsibility

a. Allah Gives Freedom and Reason, Judges People

Based on their Decisions
b. Allah Allows Humans to Make Evil Decisions, but
Allah Does not Cause People to be Evil or Good

D. Eschatology

1. Allah’s Judgment of Humanity at End of Time Core Belief

2. Body Dies, Soul Sleeps Until End of Time

3. Bodies Raised at the End of Time, Reunited with Souls

4. Eternal Destiny Based on Faith and Virtue / Infidelity and

Vice Before Death

a. Good and Evil of Each Person Recorded

b. Heaven / Hell Similar to Zoroastrian, Judaic,
Christian Versions, Accent on the Material Joys of
Heaven and Torments of Hell that Desert Dwellers
would Understand / Appreciate

V. Religious Institutions

A. The Mosque

1. No Central Temple or Single Holy Shrine

2. Muslims Began as Nomadic People who Needed to be Able

to Worship Allah Anywhere

3. Only Formal-Communal Religious Requirement:

Muhammad Decrees Friday—a Workday—to be a Day of
Prayer in Mosques with Fellow Muslims

160
 4. Prayer Led by an Imam, a Non-Clerical Figure Chosen by
Community to Lead Prayers Due to Reputation for Piety and
Knowledge of Islam

5. Sermon in Friday Mosque Meeting in Arabic or Vernacular

6. Mosques Function as Schools and Libraries

a. Islamic Schools (madrashas) Arise Along Major

Urban Mosques
b. Teach Qur’an Recitation and Hadith Scholarship
c. Al Azhar in Cairo, One World’s Oldest
Universities, Began as madrasha; Counted Today
as Most Important Theological School for Sunnis
d. The madrashas of Qom, Iran are Centers for Shi’ite
Theology

B. The Five Pillars

1. Repetition of the Creed (shahadah)

2. Daily Prayer (salaht)

a. Five Times a Day Muslims Pray Facing East to

Mecca
b. Muslims Must Wash Before Prayers
c. Men and Women Cannot Pray Together

3. Almsgiving (zakaht)

a. Muslims Expected to Give 2.5-10 % of Income

b. Begging is Acceptable Practice in Islam

4. Fasting (sawm)

a. Ramadan Fast: Abstain from Food, Drinking,

Smoking, Sex During Daylight Hours for One
Month
b. Ramadan Commemorates Time Muhammad
Received First Revelation
c. Travelers, Nursing Mothers, Sick, Small Children
Exempt from Ramadan Fast

161
 5. Pilgrimage (hajj)

a. The Qur’an Requires Pilgrimage to Mecca as

Religious Duty
b. Pilgrimage Occurs in Month Called Dhu al-Hijah
c. Poor Often Use Life Savings to Make Trip
d. Before Air Travel the Old and Sick Made Journey
without Hope of Coming Home
e. Muslims Dress in Common Clothing so No Way to
Distinguish Rich or Poor
f. After Pilgrimage Pilgrims May Attach Haji to Their
Names as a Title of Honor Indicating Piety

C. Islam and Women

1. Muhammad Raised Status of Women Significantly Higher

than Under Pre-Muslim Arab Religion

2. Muhammad Forbid Female Infanticide

3. Muhammad Allowed Polygamy but Limited Number of

Wives to Four, Provided Husband Could Afford them and
Treated them Equally

4. Muhammad Allowed Divorce if Husband Repeated “I

divorce you” Three Times

a. Woman is Allowed to Keep Her Dowry

b. Modern Muslim Societies Allow Wives to Divorce
Cruel or Unjust Husbands

5. Women Subordinate to Fathers, Brothers, Husbands

6. Actual Lives of Women Varies Among Different Cultures

D. Islamic Taboos

1. Foods Allowed (halal)

2. Foods / Things Prohibited (haram)

a. Pork
b. Dogs
c. Birds, Beasts of Prey, Donkeys, Mules
d. Alcohol
e. Gambling

162
 E. Jihad

1. Most Controversial Issue within and about Islam

2. “Holy War” is Not Maximally Accurate Translation

3. “Struggle in the path of God” is More Accurate Translation

a. Struggle can Mean Physical Labor

b. Struggle can Mean Interior Battle with One’s Own
Vices and Temptations

4. Muslim Scholars Teach that Only Defensive Wars Justified

a. Muslims Historically Have used “jihad” as Term

for All Kinds of Wars, Self-Defensive or Otherwise
b. Most Muslims Consider bin Laden’s Use of “jihad”
Simplistic, Inaccurate, Self-Serving

VI. The Spread of Islam

A. Reasons for Islam’s Rapid Spread

1. Islam is a Universal Religion

2. Islam is a Simple Religion to Practice with Wide Appeal to

the Common Person

3. The World that Surrounded the Early Muslims was Confused

and Corrupt

a. Arab People Weary of Strife Open to a Religion

Capable of Reconciling Them
b. Byzantine Christianity Tainted by Corruption and
Misrule of the Empire

B. Islam Spreads to Palestine, Syria, Persia, Egypt, North Africa through

Combination of Military Conquest and Political Savvy

C. Islam in Spain

1. Enter Spain in 711 C.E. from Berber North Africa

2. Charles Martel Stops Muslims at Battle of Tours, 732 C.E.

163
 D. Islam in India and China

1. The Eleventh Century Caliphs of Baghdad Send Armies and

Missionaries East

2. Today Pakistan and Bangladesh Remain Muslim

3. India and China Have Large Muslim Populations

VII. The Caliphate

A. Lack of Formal Structure to Islam

1. Most Religious Duties Can be Done Privately

2. Muhammad Left no Clear Successor, Assumed (perhaps) the

Qur’an Would be the Sole Religious Authority

B. The Caliphate as Central Unifying Force in History of Islam

1. A Caliph, from khalifa, “deputy”, “representative”

2. Originally Caliph Elected but Later Hereditary

3. First Caliphs Friends and Relatives of Muhammad

a. abu-Bakr (632-634 C.E.)

b. Umar (634-644 C.E.)
c. Uthman (644-656 C.E.), Murdered
d. Ali (656-661 C.E.)
(1) Husband of Muhammad’s Daughter Fatima
(2) Caliphate Taken from Him in Power Struggle
with Umayyads
(3) Murdered 661 C.E.
(4) Martyr in Shi’ite Islam
(5) Son Husayn Challenged Umayyads
(6) Husayn Defeated at Battle of Karbala in Iraq,
680 C.E.
(7) Husayn and Family Murdered, Considered
Shi’ite Martyrs

C. Umayyad Caliphs (661-750 C.E.)

1. Based in Damascus, Syria

2. Worldly Political Rulers

164
 D. Abbasid Caliphs (750-1258 C.E.)

1. Ruled from Baghdad

2. Ruled with Pomp and Splendor

3. Encouraged Cooperation with Jews and Christians on

Scholarly Projects that Laid Groundwork for Renaissance

E. Mamelukan Turks Rule from Egypt

F. Ottoman Turks Make Caliphate Synonymous with Sultan of Turkey

G. Attempts to Renew the Caliphate

1. After WWI Caliphate Ceases to Exist

2. Hizbul Tahrir Seeks to Restore Caliphate by Peaceful

Persuasion

3. bin Laden Seeks Violent Restoration of Caliphate

VIII. Variations within Islam

A. The Sunnis

1. Eighty-five Percent of Muslims are Sunnis (traditionalist)

2. Base Belief and Practice on Qur’an and hadith

(commentaries on the Qur’an by Muhammad and his early
followers)

3. Analogy and Consensus Used to Arrive at Conclusions to

Religious Questions not Explicitly Treated in Qur’an

4. The Four Schools of Sunni Islam

a. Hanifites: Follow Teachings of Hanifah (d. 767

C.E.), Found in Western Asia, India, Lower Egypt
b. Malikites: Follow Teachings of Malik ibn-Ana (d.
795 C.E.), Found in North and West Africa, Egypt
c. Shafi’ites: Follow al-Shafi’I (d 820 C.E.), Found in
Egypt, Syria, India, Malaysia, Indonesia; Most
Liberal and Willing to Balance Qur’an and Culture
d. Hanbalites, Follow Ahmad ibn-Hanbal (d 855 C.E.),
Found in Saudi Arabia; Most Conservative

165
B. The Shi’ites

1. Movement Begins in Political Dispute Over Succession to

Muhammad, Develops into Theological Dispute

a. Followers of Ali and Son Husayn

b. Known as Shia Ali, the Party of Ali
c. Comprise 10-15 Percent of all Muslims

2. Shi’ites Believe Imams Divinely Inspired Leaders who Speak

on Behalf of Allah

3. Shi’ites Believe in a Series of Imams after 680 (either seven

or twelve)

a. Some Imams Did Not Die, but are in Hiding

b. Hidden Imams will Return to Earth

4. Shi’ites Believe in Existence of a Mahdi, a Messiah-like

Figure who Will Appear One Day to Establish Era of Justice

5. Shi’ites Prize Martyrdom

6. Shi’ites Believe Sunnis Misinterpret the Qur’an

a. Failure to Mention Ali as Muhammad’s Designated

Caliph Suggests Sunnis Tampered with Text
b. The Qur’an Has Hidden Meaning that Can Only be
Understood through Allegorical Interpretations

7. Based in Persia / Iran

a. Established Religion of Persia in 1502 C.E.

b. Majority of Iraq is Shi’ite
c. Significant Minorities in Saudi Arabia, India,
Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa

C. The Mystical Element and the Sufis

1. Asceticism a Marginal Element in Mainstream Islam, but

Important to Some Sects

166
 2. The Sufis

a. Name Sufi from sufi, “woolen:” Coarse Wool Garment

Worn by Early Muslim Mystics as Symbol of Poverty
and Rejection of Worldly Pleasures
b. Reformers who Teach that as Tradition Developed it
Became More Worldly and Less Spiritual
c. Probably Origins in Ninth Century C.E. Protest Against
Ostentatious Abbasid Rulers
d. Mansur al-Hallaj: Early Mystic Experiences Oneness
with God, Proclaims “I am the Truth,” Executed as
Heretic in 922 C.E.
e. Spiritual Reform Movement Moves Underground,
Develops the Emotional-Mystical Aspects of Islam
f. Appealed to the Common People
g. Abu-Hamid al-Ghazzali Seeks to Unite Legalistic and
Mystical Schools of Islam
(1) Eventually Gives Up on Orthodoxy, Abandons
Family and Lives as a Wandering Beggar
(2) Writes Sufi Classics The Revivification of the
Religious Sciences, The Folly of the
Philosophers, Niche of the Lights
(3) Maintained Importance of Ritual and Held that
Even Advanced Sufis Bound by Ritual Duties
h. Sufis Begin to Organize in Twelfth Century into
Fraternities Centered on Sufi Saints

IX. Islam in the Modern World

A. Islam’s Inherently Conservative Nature Prevented it from Developing

Along Lines of the Modern, Technological Secular West

1. Emphasis on Fullness of Truth in the Qur’an Discouraged

Science and Exploration

2. Suspicion of Changes Originating Outside Islam

3. Sense of Superiority and Self-Satisfaction Relative to Europe

Bred Complacency

4. Development of Ultra-Conservative Groups that Resist Any

and All Change in Islam

a. Muhammad ibn-Abd al-Wahhab and the Wahhabi

Movement Associated with the House of Sa’ud in
Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Saudi Arabia

167
 b. Anti-Sufi, Puritanical
c. Well Funded by Petrodollars, Wahhabi Sect Has
Established Bases in Most Muslim Countries

B. The End of Islam’s Isolation

1. Napoleon’s Invasion of Egypt in Nineteenth Century

2. Ottoman Empire Fights in WWI on Side of Austria-

Germany, Suffers Conquest by Western Powers

a. Maps of Modern Arab States Drawn After WWI

b. Influence of West on Arab States

3. The Rise of the Oil Industry

C. Contemporary Resurgence of Interest in Islam

1. Reform Movements within Islam Practicing Modern

Scientific Study of the Qur’an

2. Reform Movements with Islam Seeking to Reconcile Islam

to Science and Democratic – Pluralistic Society

3. Rise of Islamic Feminism

4. Missionary Movements in Southern Africa

X. Muslim Calendar and Holy Days

A. The Muslim Calendar

1. Twelve Lunar Months of Twenty-nine or Thirty Days

a. Total 354 Days Per Year

b. 103 Muslim Years Equal 100 Solar Years

2. Calendar Dates Beginning from the Hijrah (date of

Muhammad’s death is not 632 C.E., but 10 A.H.)

B. Feast of the Fast-Breaking (‘Id al-Fitr)

1. First Day of Shawwal, the Month After Ramadan

2. Time of Feasting, Visiting Family, Exchanging Gifts Sending

Cards

168
 C. Feast of Sacrifice (‘Id al-Adha)

1. Held on Tenth of dhul-Hijah, the Month of Pilgrimage

2. Commemorates Time when Abraham Commanded by God to

Sacrifice His Son Ishmael

D. New Year

1. Month of Muharram, Believed to be Month of Hijrah

2. The Tenth Commemorates Battle of Karbala for Shi’ite

3. The Tenth a Day of Fasting for Sunnis

E. Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (Mawlid an-Nabi)

1. The Twelfth Day of the Third Month

2. Recitations of Prophet’s Biography and Prayers for Him

XI. Islam Today

A. Islam Growing Around the World

1. Western European Muslim Population Increasing Due to

Immigration

2. American Muslim Population Increasing Due to Immigration

and Conversion, Now Second Most Popular Religion in U.S.

B. The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism

1. Backlash Against Presence of Western Culture and Values in

Islamic Societies

2. Secularism Demonized as Source of Moral, Political Decay

3. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 Galvanizes Fundamentalists

Seeking to Openly Combat Western Secularism

4. The Saudi Arabian Model: Islamic Fundamentalism Publicly

Cooperating with Secular West but Quietly Undermining it

C. The Islamic Backlash Against Fundamentalism

169
Key Names, Concepts, and Terms

Muhammad surah, ayas Hidden Imams

Gabriel Jinn Husayn
Allah Iblis Sufi
Sayd Mosque Mansur al-Hallaj
Qur’an madrashas Abu-Hamid al-Ghazzali
Hadith Imam fakir and dervish
The Hijrah The Five Pillars Umayyad Caliphs
Yathrib / Medina Ramadan Abbasid Caliphs
Mecca Hajj Mamelukan Turks
Battle of Badr jihad Ottoman Turks
Ali Sunni Wahhabi
caliphate Shi’ite Fundamentalism

170