LST011

TRANSMISS
I ON &
D IS T R IB U T I
ON

P ro te ct i o n &
C o n t ro l

Course
PC3,
Dubai
Applic
ation
of
Prote
ctive
Relayi
ng to
Distri
bution
and
Sub-
Trans
missi
on
Syste
ms

25th - 29th
March 2000
 Direct
ional
Overc
urrent
and
Earth-
Fault
Prote
ction

(Additional
Notes)

ALSTOM T&D
Protection 8,
Control Ltd
ALSTOM T&D
Protection &
Control Ltd

St Leonards
Works
Registered Office:
Stafford
St Leonards
Works
 ST17 4LX
Stafford
England
Registered in
England No.
959256 Tel:
+44 (0)1785
223251
pfle002 Fax: +44
(0)1785 212232
 PAGE 1.

1.0 DIRECTIONAL OMICURR_ENT RELAYS

If fault current can flow in both direction through the relay

location it is necessary to add directional properties to the

overcurrent relays in order to obtain correct discrimination.

Two terms which are always used in the application of

directional relays are :-

1.1 RELAY CONNECTIONS

This is the angle by which the current applied to the relay is

displaced from the voltage applied to the relay at unitypower

factor.

1.2 RELAY MAXIMUM TORQUE ANGLE

This is defined as the angle by which the current applied to

the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the

relay to produce maximum torque.

2.0 DIRECTIONAL RELAY OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC

In any directional relay, the quantity that produces one of the

fluxes is termed the polarising quantity. The polarising

quantity may be voltage or current but in either case it must

be a particular quantity that is suitable for the purpose. If we

consider a voltage polarised relay as this is the most common

case in protective relay applications, the vector relationship

for . Timum torque would be as Shawn in figure 1.

The voltage coil flux is substantially in phase with the voltage

coil current which lags the voltage applied to the relay by an

angle a while the current applied to the relay and associated

flux lead the voltage by an angle O. For the maximum torque i

and v must be 90 apart and hence the current supplied to the

relay must be at the position shown by the dotted line. The

equation for the electrical torque will be :

T = K VI SI (0 +9 )<

But this is more commonly expressed as :

= KVI COS (0 - 0 )
 PAGE 2.

Where is called the relay maximum torque angle, which is defined

as the angle by which the current supplied to the relay must lead

the applied voltage in order to obtain maximum torque.

3.0 DIRECTIONAL RELAY CONNECTIONS

If three phase Short circuits were the only type of fault to be

considered any of the possible connections available to produce

maximum torque at a given angle would be acceptable. However to

ensure correct directional discrimination under all fault

conditions it is necessary to give thought to the correct

connections for any given application. There are three standard

connections which in general will cover all applications. These

are the 300, the 600 and the 900 connection. The names of these

relay connections give the relay relationship between the current

and polarising voltage under three phase unity power factor

conditions. Of all these connections the most popular is the 900

connection, which is the one manufactured by GEC Measurements.

3.1 900 RELAY CONNECTION

This connection is applied only where the fault current lags by a

very large angle. The voltage coil is given a voltage displaced

from the relay current by 900 at unity power factor. With the 90

connection the directional element would have no torque at unity

power factor since the relay current and voltage are then 900 out

of phase as Shown in figure 2.

3.2 90 450 RELAY CONNECTION

The tal phase relay is supplied with Ia current and Vbc volts

displaced 450 in an anti clockwise direction. In this case, the

flux produced by the voltage coil lags the applied voltage Vbc by

450 and the relay maximum torque is produced when the current lags

the system phase to neutral voltage by 45. This connection gives

a correct directional tripping zone over the range of current 450

leading to 135 lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor

 PAGE 3.

is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the same at zero power factor

(900 lag). See figure 3.

3.3 90 - 30 0 RELAY CONNECTION
The 'at phase relay is supplied with Ia current and Vbc volts

displaced by 30 0 in an anti clockwise direction. In this case

the flux produced by the voltage coil lags the applied voltage

Vbc by 60o and the relay maximum torque is produced when the

current lags the system Phase to neutral voltage by 60. This

connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the

range of current 30 leading to 150 lagging. The relay torque

at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at

zero power factor (90 lag) is 0.866 for maximum torque. See

figure 4.
3.4 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY PERFORMANCE
A relay designed for quadrature connection and having a

maximum torque angle of 300 is recommended when the relay is

being used for the protection of plain feeders with zero

sequence source behind the relaying point.

In the case of transformer feeders or feeders which have a zero

sequence source in front of the relay, a quadrature connected

relay is recommended but it is preferable when protecting this

type of feeder that the directional relay is designed to have a

maximum torque angle of 450.

The 900 - 450 connection is necessary in transformers and

transformer feeders, to ensure correct relay operation for faults

beyond the star/delta transformer. This connection Should be used

wherever single phase directional relays are applied to a circuit

in which the current distribution is 2:1:1.

 PAGE 4.

The vector diagrams shown on figures 5a, 5b and 5c indicate the

operating and non-operating regions of a quadrature connected
relay and the maximum angular displacement of the current applied
to the relay from the applied voltage, for all types of fault
conditions. They also dhow the advantage of using a relay having a
300 MTA for the protection of plain feeders and a relay having a
450 MTA for the protection of transformer feeders.

Three fault conditions may theoretically cause mal-operation of

the directional relay. They are phase to phase to ground on a
plain feeder ; phase to ground fault on a transformer feeder with
the zero sequence source in front of the relay, and Phase to phase
fault on a transformer with the relay looking into the delta
winding of the transformer.
It Should be remembered, however, that these diagrams are drawn
to illustrate theoretical, maximum positive and negative angular
displacement of the applied current from the applied voltage and
that in actual fact it can be Shown that the possibility of ml-
operation in practice is very remote.

4.0 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL

With inverse time relays it is essential that the directional unit
does not allow the overcurrent unit to start until the fault

current flaws in the operation direction. Connecting the overcurrent

and directional relay contacts in series is not satisfactory as,
although this would prevent tripping, the overcurrent relay could start
to operate before the current flow was in the correct direction
resulting in possible contact race and loss of discrimination. The
copper shading ring used on the normal induction disc overcurrent relay
is replaced by a wound shading coil, the circuit of which is completed
by the closing of the directional relay contacts.
 PAGE 5.

5.0 PARALLEL YEEDERS

If non-directional overcurrent relays are applied to parallel

feeders any faults occurring on any one line will inevitably,

irrespective of the relay setting chosen, isolate both lines and

completely disrupt the supply. To ensure discriminative

operation of the relays during line faults, it is usual with

this type of system to design and connect relays Ri and R2 such

that they will only operate faults occurring on the protected

line in the direction indicated by the arrows. See figure 6.

With parallel feeders to ensure correct discrimination during

line faults, it is important that the correct directional relay

Ri or R2 operates before the non-directional relays R1 and R2.

For this reason relays R1 and R2 are given lower time settings

than relays R1 and R2 and also lower current settings. The usual

practice is to set relays /11 and R2 to 5096 of the normal full

load of the circuit but care must be taken to ensure that the

relays are capable of carrying without damage, twice their

setting current continuously.

6.0 RING MAINS

The more usual application of directional relays is to ring mains.

In the case of a ring system, fed at one point only the relays at

the generation end and at the mid-point substation, where the

setting of both overcurrent relays are identical, the relays can be

made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays

are located on the same feeder, one at each substation.

In this respect it is interesting to note that when the numbers of

feeders in the ring is an even number, the two relays with the same

operating time are at the same substation and will have to be

directional whereas when the number of feeders is odd, the two

relays with the same operating time are at different substations and

therefore, do not need to be directional. Also at intermediate

 PAGE 6.

substations it will be noted that whenever the times of the

two relays at a substation are different, the difference in

operating time is never less than the grading interval of 0.4

seconds and consequently it is permissible for the relay with

the larger operating time to be non-directional.

The usual practice for grading relays in an interconnected system

is to open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays

first clockwise and then anti clockwise. Thus, the relays looking

in a clockwise direction around the ring are arranged to trip in

the sequence 1 - 2 - 3-4-5-6 and the relays looking in

the anti clockwise direction are arranged to trip in the sequence

1 6
- 2 - 3-. 4' - 5 - 6. The arrows indicate the direction in

which the power must flow in order that the directional units will

close their contacts and prepare the overcurrent elements for

operation. The double headed arrows on each of the two feeders at

the generating station indicate non-directional relays,

directional features being unnecessary at these points, because

power can flow in one direction only, that is out of the

generating station. At all other points single headed arrows are

Shown. These indicate directional relays connected so as to

operate with power flow in the direction of the arrow which is in

every case from the substation bus bars and into the protected

line. See figure 7.

This rule is invariable and applies to all forms of directional

relays. Selection of the faulty section is by time and fault power

direction. Fault power has two paths x and y. It divides between

the two paths in the inverse ratio of their impedances and passes

through all the substations in the ring. Thus, at every substation

one set of relays will be inoperative because the power flow is

against the arrow and the other set operative because the flow is

with the arrow. In every case it will be found that the time
 PAGE 7.

settings of the relays that are inoperative are shorter than

those of the operative relays, except in the case of substation C

where the settings happen to coincide. In this way all relays

with Short time on sections between the faulty one and the

generating station are prevented from operation. The others,

which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and

the last to be traveresed by the fault current, namely that on

the faulty feeder section, has the Shortest time and operates

first. This applies to both paths to the fault. Consequently the

faulty section is the only one to be isolated and supply is

maintained to all substations.

When grading ring systems with more than one infeed (say two

sources of supply) the best method of approach is to either

(i) open the ring at one of the supply points by means of a

suitable high set instantaneous overcurreut relay and then

proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed.

(ii) treat the inter-connector between the two sources of supply

as a continuous bus, separate from the ring and protect it

by means of a unit system of protection such as pilot wire

relays. Then proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a

single infeed.

7.0 DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAYS

These relays are similar in construction to the overcurrent relays

but are polarised by residual voltage or current. The polarising

voltage is obtained from the secondary of a three phase voltage

transformer connected in broken delta. It is essential to ensure that

the correct voltage is fed to the relay that the voltage transformer

primary neutral is earthed and that it be a three phase, five limb

type or consist of three single phase units. Current polarisation is

normally obtained by connecting a current transformer in a local

transformer neutral.. If voltage polarisation

 PAGE 6.

is used a 450 MTA is normally used for solidly earthed systems and

00 or 140 for resistance earthed systems. If the relay is current

polarised, the polarising current is phase shifted before being

fed into the relay as obviously in this case the operating and

polarising currents being fed into the relay are in phase.

7.1 VOLTAGE POLARISED EARTH FAULT RELAYS.

Some care is necessary when using voltage polarised relays on

solidly earthed systems, as the residual voltage under single

phase to earth fault conditions will be equal to the phase to

neutral voltage at the fault location for a solid earth fault

only. Any line impedance between the fault point and the relay,

or resistance in the fault itself will tend to reduce the value

of the voltage and it can be very small if the line impedance

between the fault point and the relaying point is large compared

with the source impedance behind the relay. With modern

directional relays,however, which will operate down to 196 of

normal voltage no trouble Should be experienced. See figure 8.

7.2 CURRENT POLARISED EARTH FAULT RELAYS

As already mentioned, current polarised relays may be polarised

by a current transformer connected in the power transformer

neutral. Only certain types of power transformers, however, are

suitable as sources of polarising current, as in some the

direction of the current in the neutral can reverse depending
upon the fault position and the ratio of system zero sequence
impedances.

The convention usually adopted is based on the assumption that the

directional relay will operate and close its contacts when both

the current in the operating coil and the polarising coil flow in

the same direction. If the current in either coil reverses then

the relay will restrain.

 PAGE 9.

A star/star power transformer is not suitable for polarising

relays even if both star points are earthed. A current transformer
in one neutral would not be suitable as the current would reverse
depending upon which side of the transformer the fault is on.
Paralleling two current transformers, one in each neutral
cohnection,will not be satisfactory as the resultant current would
zero.

Three winding or two winding power transformers with one winding

delta connected are suitable for relay polarisation. Provided the

star point is earthed, then a current transformer in this neutral

can be used to supply the relay. In the case of three winding

transformers, if two star connected windings have the star point

earthed, then current transformers in each neutral connected in

parallel must be used having ratios inversely proportional to the

power transformers voltage ratio. An alternative to this is to

use one current transformer within the delta winding provided

that no load is taken from the delta. If load is taken from the

delta winding it is necessary to use a current transformer in

each leg of the delta to prevent unbalanced load or fault current

producing incorrect polarising current.

7.3 DUAL POLARISED EARTH FAULT RELAYS

As the polarising current for current polarised earth fault relays is

taken from a current transformer in a local power transformer

neutral, this may be lost if the particular transformer is switched

out of service and for this reason voltage polarisation is in general

more reliable. However, as pointed out, in solidly earthed systems

where the zero sequence source impedance is small the value of the

residual voltage can be very low and dual polarised relays, with both

current and voltage are used. It should be noted, however, that with

modern relays the possibility of voltage polarised relays failing to

operate is very remote and that for all practical

 PAGE 10.

conditions this possibility can in general be ignored.

8.0 INSULATED AND PETERSEN COIL EARtheD SYSTEMS

The operation of earth fault indication relays on systems earthed

through a Petersen Coil or totally insulated system is dependent on

the capacitive current flowing in the healthy feeders and When a

Petersen Coil is used on the current due to the suppression coil

flowing in the faulty phase.

In the case of overhead lines the majority of earth faults are of a

transient nature and it is preferred that these faults shall not

lead to automatic isolation of the faulty line. It is desirable,

however, that an indication Should be given of sustained system

faults in order that the system may be supervised continuously and

so that the faulty section of the network is indicated.

For detection of a system earth fault, a supersensitive directional

relay type NSS is used with one coil polarised from either a voltage

transformer open delta, or an auxiliary voltage winding on the

Petersen Coil, and a second coil, the operating coil, energised from

residually connected current transformers in the line one current

transformer in each phase.

8.1 PETERSEN COIL EARTHED SYSTEM

The diagram in figure 9 dhows a system of radial feeders, with a

phase to ground fault on the 'CI phase of one of the feeders. No

current will flow in the 'CI phase of the healthy feeders as they

will be at earth potential. Capacitive current will flow in the

healthy phases of all feeders to earth and back to the source via

the fault. The vector sum of the currents in the current coil of

the relay on the faulty feeder Is is proportional to :

'ca + Icb 31 c + I L = 2I c + IL
where Ica lob = Ic
 PAGE 11.

The vector diagram of the currents in the sOtand phases dhows that

the total wattage component of the currents is in the restraining

quadrant, hence the relays on the healthy feeders will not operate.

However, the current in the faulty feeder, dhow that the wattage

component of the currents is in the operating quadrant, and hence

the relay in the faulty feeder will operate.

The current transformers are of a special design, class 0.2, having

anecceptionally low phase angle error and because of this cannot

be balanced accurately for currents greatly in excess of rated

current. To overcome the slight phase angle inaccuracies of the current

transformer a compensating resistance is fitted in series with the relay

voltage coil, which has the effect of effectively moving the zone

of operation of the relay, so that definite operation of the relay

is assured on the faulty feeder, and that the relays connected to the
healthy feeders will be restrained. The relay is provided with
0oMTA.
8.2 INSULATED SYSTEM

The diagram in figure 10 dhows a system of radial feeders, with a

phase to ground fault on the 'CI phase of one of the feeders. The

residual current flowing in the current coil of the relay on the

faulty feeder, neglecting the effect of magnetising current, is

proportional to the 2 lc where IC is the, vector sum of the currents in the

healthy phases Ica and Icb. Since the system is an insulated one,
the fault has the effect of raising the neutral point of the system

by a voltage equivalent to the phase voltage and the voltages of the

healthy feeders by1/3.

As in the case of the Petersen Coil earthed system, the effect of

the magnetising currents must be counteracted by means of a

compensating resistance connected in series with the voltage coil

of the relay. It is not necessary, however, to take such precautions

 PAGE 114

as in the case of the Petersen Coil earthed system, in estimating

the value of resistance necessary to shift the operating quadrant

of the relay,in order that the relays on the healthy feeders

restrain. The relay is provided with a 900 leading MTA.

 ZERO TORQUE LINE
iook

Ov

SIN (0+0c)= COS 18-01

FIGURE 1. DIRECTIONAL RELAY OPERATING

CHARACTERISTIC
IQ

Vbc

Vbc
___________________________________________
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 Vbc

so Vbc

Vb
0 LINE
UNITY P. F.
Ia
bc
135
90 LINE
ZERO PF.IAGGING

ZERO TORQUE LINE

LINE P F. IGLEADSA; c1.01.15 la LAGS Vcvous

1.0 45
0.5 15
0 45
FIGURE 3. 90-45 RELAY
CONNECTION
 to

Va Vb i c

wVbc
Vb

0 LINE
UNITY RI.
Ia
'\1*.
%clic
90 LINE
Vab ZERO P.F. LAGGING

Vca
Vb

ZERO TORQUE LINE

LINE P F. Ia LEADS VbC10115 la LAGS VbcVOLTS

1.0 60
0-5 0 0
0 30

FIGURE 4. 90- 30 RELAY

CONNECTION
 TYPE OF
FAULT 'ciPHASE RELAY 'b' PHASE RELAY C'PHASE RELAY

1 v
TYPE OF FEEDER B - C ZERO TORQUE Vz
ci
..... ____________1
i

A-G \ci v ZERO TORQUE ZERO TORQUE

B-C-G ZERO TORQUE

1
\ky
90_ 30 CONNECTION
II -'1v

741o...4... A-B-C

FIGURE 50
OPERATING AND NON-OPERATING ZONES OF
QUADRATURE CONNECTED
RELAYS FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEM FAULT
CONDITIONS
 TYPE
OF. 'ciP144SE RELAY ge PHASE RELAY 'c' PRASE RELAY
FAULT

7.
v I

TYPE OF FEEDER BC ZERO TORQUE I

I V ......
I
...
I I\ 1.. ....
AG
I
I V I V
I

B- C - G

900 45 CONNECTION

A - B- C

....._______ .

FIGURE 5b
OPERATING AND NON-OPERATING ZONE OF
QUADRATURE CONNECTED
RELAYS FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEM FAULT
CONDITIONS
 TYPE OF L
FAULT iviPHASE RELAY 4
liPHASE RELAY Ic'PHASE RELAY '

TYPE OF FEEDER B-C

I
, .

A-G N
10..411, ZERO TORQUE
\
\;41
. 4
_________I

B-C-G
I 1
90- 45 CONNECTION
....
\ 'I I
A-B-C

....
7,..
1 -.I

FIGURE 5 c
OPERATING AND NONOPERATING ZONES OF
QUADRATURE CONNECTED
RELAYS FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEM FAULT
CONDITIONS
 X LOAD

FIGURE 6. PARALLEL FEEDERS OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

 as.

Adak'

X
FAULT

3
X-1-x
0-9 0-9

FIGURE 7 RING MAIN CNERCURRENT

eh- PROTECTION
SOLIDLY EARTHED SYSTEM RESISTANCE EARTHED SYSTEM

Va

Vca

Vc Vb Vc
41MINImis
aims
Om

VRES
Vc
Vc
AATT TTHHEE RFEALUALYTI N G
POINT

VREs
FIGURE 8.
VOLTAGE
POLARISED EARN
FAULT RELAYS.
 a b c

-.-410

IC

SOURCE --.1cb

I I

=.111 "C 41

--.11113C

11 ___,
_____________________
4
i
I

1 II ki 3Ic
I ir 1 1 T 21c
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OWN. =. 41111 dila= IMIIMI1

RESTR A hi RESTRA I N

Icb IC
31c /

Ib
OPERATE OPERATE

VpoL V pot_

FAULTY FEEDER HEALTHY FEEDERS

PETERSEN COIL EARNED SYSTEM

, il .... #

% .. I
1

LOCATION OF CT i 11

46.

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 abc
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----o
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_____..Ica ,\
SOURCE

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_______________
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,
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LOCATION CT

FAULTY
FEEDER
YREs
r
c
AN111111.,

HEALTHY FEEDERS
2Ic
RCA
V RES
REsTRAiNi OPERATE

VPoL
INSULATED SYSTEM