Unit 11: Nanotechnology

.
111 Properties at the
nanoscale dimension
The birth of nanotechnology can be traced back over half a century, to the
revolutionary thoughts of scientists such as Richard Feynman and, later, Eric
Drexler. They envisaged a future in which structures are designed at the scale
of molecules and atoms to solve problems in electronics, engineering and
medicine. The development of techniques to image and characterise such
structures set in train the rapid development of the field in the current century.
This topic guide introduces the history and development of nanotechnology
and looks at the current applications. Nanostructures that can be created from
carbon, such as nanotubes, nanospheres and graphene, are examined, along
with a consideration of how the control of dimensions in these nanoparticles in
turn control the properties and applications of the materials.
On successful completion of this topic you will:
know how structure controls properties at the nanoscale dimension (LO1).
To achieve a Pass in this unit you need to show that you can:
describe the benefits of reducing a problem to the nanoscale (1.1)
outline the definitions, history and current commercial applications of
nanoscience (1.2)
describe the control of properties by structure in the carbon allotropes (1.3)
define the lengthscale controls of electronic properties (1.4).

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 Unit 11: Nanotechnology

1 Nanoscale and nanoscience

Before you start
Resources available to support the topic guides in this unit fall into two categories broad
introductory material with few technical details or advanced material, with detailed technical
content, often considerably above level 5. At present, material that bridges this gap is hard to
find. In this topic guide a number of suitable introductory resources are highlighted in the Take it
further features.

The birth of nanoscience

Theres plenty of room at the bottom
Key terms
Paradigm: A term coined by
In 1959 Richard Feynman, the American theoretical physicist, delivered a lecture
Thomas Kuhn in his book The with the engaging title Theres plenty of room at the bottom.
Structure of Scientific Revolutions
In this visionary talk he described how, in theory, structures as small as single
(1962) to describe a framework of
atoms could be manipulated and assembled. He imagined how such techniques
ideas, theories and rules within
which scientists work. In a scientific could be used to store data, to produce miniature computers and to develop new
revolution a paradigm shift may methods of chemical synthesis.
occur in which one framework is
Feynmans lecture is often credited with giving birth to the nanoscale paradigm
replaced by a completely new one.
the realisation that manipulating matter to create nanoscale structures was
Nanoscale: This term is used to
describe structures or devices with
possible, and that by doing so it would give rise to a completely new set of
dimensions of a few nanometres properties. Feynmans vision would now be described as a bottom-up approach
(or, more strictly, where at least one to creating nanoscale structures; nanotechnology today also uses a top-down
key dimension has a size less than approach, as will be discussed later on. Nevertheless, it is on this paradigm that
about 100nm). Some sources quote the science of nanotechnology is based. In fact it was not until the 1980s, when
dimensions in angstroms () where
serious research began into some of these ideas, that it was realised that they had
1=1010m, so 1nm=10.
already been anticipated by Feynman some 30 or so years previously.

Benefits of nanoscale solutions

Feynman had begun in his talk to describe the benefits of reducing a problem
to the nanoscale, a scale in which structures are made up of a small number of
individual atoms.
These included:
the way in which quantum effects become important at the nanoscale,
meaning that the individual atoms in nanoscale structures behave differently
from atoms in larger, bulk structures
the fact that structures can be copied at the nanoscale to be absolutely
identical copies of each other
the potential to be able to synthesise any chemical structure by manipulating
the atoms individually.
In later sections of this topic guide other specific advantages will be discussed
such as:
novel optical properties, enabling them to absorb or emit precise frequencies
of light
ability to act as semiconductors

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 2

 Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Key terms
Nanoparticles: Particles with at least
one dimension smaller than 100nm.
Nanoscience: The study of nanoscale
structures.
Nanotechnology: The construction
and deliberate manipulation of
nanoscale structures to exploit novel
or improved properties.
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
high surface area to mass ratio, enhancing the ability of the structures to take
part in chemical reactions
high tensile strength due to the absence of dislocations between separate crystals
the ability of such nanoscale systems to self-assemble
the small physical size of the nanoparticle, allowing it to penetrate biological
structures such as plasma membranes
the ability to manipulate the dimensions of a structure, allowing the tuning of
optical properties, for example.
Activity
A typical carbon nanotube may have a diameter of 10nm and a density of 2100kgm3. Imagine a
single carbon nanotube with a length of 1mm.
Calculate:
a the volume of the nanotube
b the mass of the nanotube
c the external surface area of the nanotube and hence a value for the mass/surface area ratio.
Assume the nanotube has a cylindrical shape.
Compare this with the mass/surface area ratio of a macroscopic crystal of diamond (assume this to
be a cube with side length = 1mm). The density of diamond is 3520kgm3.
Nanotechnology in history
Remarkably, nanoparticles have been in use since ancient times; the coloured
glasses used in Roman pottery have been shown to contain gold and silver
nanoparticles, as do some of the pigments used in medieval stained glass
windows. The deep black printers ink, used for centuries, contains carbon black,
consisting of nanosized carbon granules; carbon black is also used on a large scale
as a reinforcing agent in vehicle tyres.
Modern nanotechnology began when it became possible to image these
nanoparticles and to fabricate them in a controllable way.
The development of modern nanoscience
As noted above, Feynmans ideas remained undeveloped for several decades until
several lines of research combined to create the fields of study that we now call
nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Some key events in the development of modern nanoscience:
1974: Norio Taniguchi coins the term nanotechnology.
1981: The scanning tunnelling microscope was developed by Gerd Binnig
and Heinrich Rohre, enabling surfaces to be imaged at the atomic level. This
was the precursor to the more powerful atomic force microscope (1986).
The imaging of individual atoms was a crucial step towards the eventual
manipulation of atoms in nanotechnological applications.
1985: Fullerenes, nanoparticles consisting entirely of carbon atoms, were
discovered by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley and Robert Curl. Their work on
fullerenes eventually led to the discovery and synthesis of carbon nanotubes.
1986: K. Eric Drexler explored the possibilities of creating self-assembling
nanoscale structures in his book The Engines of Creation.
The following decade was marked by much research but commercial applications of
nanotechnology did not begin to appear until the early years of the 21st century.
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 Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Link
Several of these commercial
applications are discussed in greater
detail in Topic guide 11.4. This topic
guide includes more details about the
way in which nanotechnology allows
specific commercial needs to be met.
Key terms
Photonics: The field of science
relating to the emission, detection
and processing of electromagnetic
radiation, especially visible light.
Optoelectronics: A field within
photonics related to the study and
application of electronic devices that
emit, detect and control light.
Nanocomposite: A material made of
two or more constituent materials, in
which one or more dimensions is less
than 100nm.
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
The National Nanotechnology Institute (NNI) in the United States was set up in
2000 to help to fund and coordinate nanotechnology research and development.
Take it further
Introductory level: The website of the NNI has a detailed and informative timeline of
nanotechnology, tracing the origins back even before Feynmans seminal lecture, and providing
some excellent illustrated examples of the research and development of commercial products that
has been carried out in the past two decades (http://www.nano.gov/timeline).
Current commercial applications
The range of commercial applications of nanotechnology is vast and ever-
growing, but the following areas could be regarded as particularly important.
Electronics and computing
Computer chips can be made smaller (and hence faster) by using nanoscale
components or by creating smaller nanoscale features.
Photonics and optoelectronics
Incorporating nanoparticles into LEDs increases their efficiency and allows the
LEDs to be designed to emit specific wavelengths of light. The efficiency and
tunability of the interaction between nanoparticles and radiation is also made use
of in solar cells and light sensors.
Nanomedicine
Nanoparticles are used as drug delivery systems, by attaching drug molecules to
nanoparticles or encapsulating them within nanoparticles. They are also being
used as biosensors to detect specific biological molecules and as contrast media in
imaging techniques such as MRI. Nanotechnology is used in regenerative medicine
to produce scaffolds for the growth of new tissue and to create implant devices.
Cosmetics, skin creams and sunscreens
Manufacturing these products in the form of nanoparticles allows them to spread
more evenly, penetrate skin more deeply or appear invisible against the skin.
Textiles and sports equipment
Nanomaterials can be incorporated into textiles to impart or improve properties
such as abrasion resistance, water resistance or antibacterial properties.
Carbon nanotubes and nanocomposites are used to increase strength in sports
equipment, such as tennis racquets, or to improve other properties such as
water resistance.
Construction and engineering
Inspired by the observed strength of biological materials such as bone or
mollusc shells that contain nanocrystals, high-strength concrete is now being
manufactured by incorporating nanocrystals of silica or calcium compounds.
Incorporating nanoparticles into paints can improve their hardness, scratch
resistance and anti-corrosion properties.
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Unit 11: Nanotechnology

Nanoparticle additives in machine lubricants, made from zinc, titanium dioxide or

even silver, have improved performance and reduced wear and friction between
moving parts.

Energy generation and storage

Batteries using nanoscale lattices of silicon or carbon nanotubes have been
shown to increase the rate at which energy can be supplied from a battery, reduce
charging time and increase the shelf life of the battery.

Pollution control
Nanoporous fibres or nanocatalysts can be used to remove pollutants from car
exhausts or from industrial emissions.
Nanoscale features in ion exchange resins or semi-permeable membranes are increasing
the efficiency and selectivity of water softening or water purification devices.

Security
Nanoscale lattices are being incorporated into banknotes in the new generation of
anti-counterfeiting strategies; the lattice acts as a diffraction grating and produces
a visible coloured pattern on the note that is extremely difficult to reproduce.

Activity
Choose one of these applications and find two websites that describe your chosen application in more
detail. Summarise the most significant extra information that you find on these websites in a short report.

Take it further
Introductory level: A comprehensive inventory of the current commercial applications of
nanotechnology-based products is available through the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies:
http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/.
The ANEC/BEUC inventory of products containing nanotechnology www.anec.org/attachments/
ANEC-PT-2009-Nano-015.xls may be a useful additional source.

Activity
Using the NNI website (http://www.nano.gov/timeline) as a starting point, choose some
examples of nanotechnology products that have current commercial applications.
Write a description of the product and the application for which it is used.
Explain how using nanoscale technology allows it to be used in this way.

Nanotechnology principles
Take it further
Introductory material: An excellent visual introduction to the principles and applications of
nanotechnology is the 30-minute video Nano the next dimension produced by the European
Commission in 2008. Researchers from all over Europe explain some of the key historical
moments in the story of nanotechnology, including the introduction of the scanning tunnelling
microscope, the formation of C60 and nanotubes, as well as describing some of the applications of
nanotechnology they are developing. It is available at http://www.youtube.com.
A similar (but shorter) presentation of some of the applications of nanoscience is available at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sITy14zCvI8.

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 5

 Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Key terms
Top-down: Using conventional
large-scale (bulk) techniques such
as lithography (printing a thin film)
or crystallisation, and scaling them
down to nanoscale dimensions.
Bottom-up: Assembling atoms or
molecules in a controlled manner.
Link
Fabrication methods are discussed in
detail in Topic guide 11.2.
2 Control of properties: dimensions
Figure 11.1.1: (a) A gold nanoparticle
(zero dimensional), (b) a carbon
nanotube (one-dimensional) and (c) a
graphene film (two-dimensional) are
examples of nanostructures with different
numbers of macroscopic dimensions.
(a) (b) (c)
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
To create nanoscale materials in a way that enables them to be used in a
commercial context, two key problems must be overcome:
There must be a technique for fabricating the nanostructure. This can be a
top-down or bottom-up technique, or it may involve self-assembly, which is
at the interface of these two techniques.
The dimensions of the nanostructure must be able to be controlled, as it is
these dimensions, which determine the key properties, on which commercial
applications rely.
Portfolio activity (1.1 and 1.2)
Write a report outlining the importance of nanotechnology. In your answer you should:
explain what is meant by nanotechnology
describe the important stages in the development of modern day nanotechnology
discuss how the use of nanoscale structures allows problems to be solved in a range of
applications. Describe a range of examples to illustrate your answer.
As described earlier, control of properties at the nanoscale is frequently achieved
by the control of dimensions.
This can be in terms of dimensionality the number of macroscopic dimensions
possessed by the nanostructure or the actual size of the dimensions (both
nanoscale and macroscopic).
Nanostructures can be regarded as zero, one- or two-dimensional, as shown in
Figure 11.1.1, although nanoparticles, such as the gold nanoclusters shown, are
also sometimes described as three-dimensional.
An excellent example of this is provided by a study of the allotropes of
carbon. These include several different types of nanostructure with different
dimensionality, including the fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, which were
amongst the first nanoparticles to be discovered and characterised.
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 Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Figure 11.1.2: In diamond, carbon atoms
are arranged in a three-dimensional
network; in graphite the atoms are
arranged in two-dimensional layers
that are packed on top of one another.
Key terms
Allotropes: Two different physical
forms of the same element; they may
differ in the structural arrangement
of the atoms in a solid crystal or in
the number of atoms in each discrete
molecule.
Macroscale: The scale at which
objects are observable and
measurable by the unaided eye.
Link
Hybridisation of atomic orbitals was
introduced in Unit 5, Topic guide 5.4.
Figure 11.1.3: Electron micrographs
of (a) nanocrystalline diamond,
showing smooth rounded crystals
forming a thin film, and (b) graphene.
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
Diamond and graphite
Carbon is able to exist as several different allotropes. The most familiar naturally
occurring allotropes are diamond and graphite.
Both of these allotropes exist as macroscale or nanoscale forms. The
threedimensional structures of diamond and graphite are shown in Figure 11.1.2.
Diamond can be regarded as a single molecule of carbon with macroscopic
dimensions. The strong threedimensional network structure of this crystal
explains the hardness and high melting point of the bulk structure.
Both the bonding and the arrangement of the atoms in graphite differ from that
of diamond. The carbon atoms in graphite display sp2 hybridisation whereas
those in diamond display sp3 hybridisation. Hence in graphite, although it has
a threedimensional structure, the carbon atoms form two-dimensional sheets,
with the unhybridised p electrons delocalised over the sheet. Only weak Van der
Waals forces exist between the sheets. The high electrical conductivity of graphite
is related to the presence of delocalised electrons and the softness of the solid is
related to the presence of only weak forces between the sheets.
Graphene and nanocrystalline diamond
Both diamond and graphite can be reduced to the nanoscale as shown in the
electron micrographs in Figure 11.1.3.
(a) (b)
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Unit 11: Nanotechnology

Nanocrystalline diamonds can be manufactured (for example, by decomposing

methane by radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation). These nanocrystals show
some differences from bulk diamond:
they show greater chemical and biological activity
they are coloured solids.
However, they also display many of diamonds useful properties yet can be
manufactured in the form of thin films and hence ultimately can be cheaper than
using bulk diamonds.
Graphene is, essentially, a single sheet of graphite and hence is a two-dimensional
nanostructure. At this nanoscale, the presence of the delocalised electrons gives
rise to several interesting properties:
very high thermal conductivity
hardness similar to diamond, but flexible and able to be stretched like a polymer
able to adsorb a range of molecules and atoms.

Take it further
Introductory material: You can read more about the discovery and applications of graphene on
the website developed by the team from the University of Manchester, which first isolated and
studied graphene: http://www.graphene.manchester.ac.uk/index.html.

Fullerenes and nanotubes

Fullerenes
In 1985, a team led by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley and Bob Curl discovered
that carbon atoms could be made to aggregate into clusters containing 60 (or
sometimes 70) atoms. They deduced that the structure of the C60 molecule was
Figure 11.1.4: The structure a hollow sphere, as shown in Figure 11.1.4, and it was named Buckminster
of Buckminster fullerene, fullerene (or, more affectionately, Buckyball) because of the resemblance of the
consisting of 60 C atoms. structure to the architectural designs of the architect Buckminster Fuller.
The structure, consisting of interlinked hexagons and pentagons, gives great
structural stability to the molecule. In fact a range of other stable structures exists,
based on the same structural principles, and these are known collectively as
fullerenes.
As discrete molecules, these simple fullerenes are classified as zero-dimensional
nanostructures.
Properties such as strength and conductivity are obviously not relevant to zero-
dimensional nanostructures, such as these fullerenes. Instead, their unusual
chemical properties are most significant, for example:
they can form complexes to metal atoms or ions, either by encapsulating
the metal inside the structure or by the metal binding to the surface; organic
groups can also be attached to the surface
they are soluble in non-polar solvents such as methyl benzene.

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 8

 Unit 11: Nanotechnology

Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are also classified as fullerenes but form a distinct class of
nanochemical. They were first discovered in 1991 using techniques developed
from fullerene research. In a nanotube, a layer of sp2 hybridised carbon atoms,
similar to that in graphene, becomes rolled up into a cylinder, as shown in
Figure 11.1.1(b) on page 6. Figure 11.1.5 shows more complex versions.
Figure 11.1.5: The structure of some (a) (b)
carbon nanotubes (a) shows a multi-
walled carbon nanotube (MWCT)
where several cylinders are arranged
concentrically and (b) shows a very
short nanotube with closed ends.

Nanotubes are classed as one-dimensional nanoparticles. Although the diameter of

a typical nanotube may be as little as 1nm, they may be several centimetres long.

Key properties include:

very high tensile strength
flexible and elastic
high electrical conductivity.
Small changes in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the nanotube can introduce
twisting into the structure (see Figure 11.1.6), and properties such as electrical
conductivity depend on the degree to which the nanotube is twisted. Hence it
is possible to engineer nanotubes to display either metallic-like conductivity or
semiconductivity.
Figure 11.1.6: Nanotubes can
be engineered with various
degrees of twisting, as shown
in this molecular model.

Take it further
More information about the electrical
properties and applications of carbon
nanotubes can be found at
http://www.unidym.com/.

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 9

 Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Link
Fabrication methods used to produce
carbon nanotubes will be discussed
in Topic guide 11.3.
3 Length scale control of electronic properties
Key terms
Quantum tunnelling: The ability
of a particle, such as an electron,
to penetrate a barrier (such as an
insulating layer).
(Nano) length scale: A length
or distance of a particular order
of magnitude. In the case of
nano length scale, this will be
approximately 10 3 109.
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
Activity
Research the applications of some of the types of nanoparticle discussed in this section
graphene, nanocrystalline diamonds, fullerenes and nanotubes.
Activity
Find examples of zero-, one- and two-dimensional nanostructures in this section.
Compare the properties of these structures and suggest how the dimensionality of the structures
can explain some of these properties.
Portfolio activity (1.3)
Discuss the different properties of nanoscale carbon allotropes. In your answer you should:
list carbon allotropes which can exist at a nanoscale
describe the structure of the allotrope
comment on any significant properties
explain how these properties are controlled by the structure.
Take it further
Introductory material: A useful website that provides information about carbon-based
nanoparticles at an introductory level is http://www.understandingnano.com/
nanomaterials.html. There are details of current applications and links to websites of companies
that are developing and marketing these applications.
By reducing one or more of the dimensions of semiconductors to nanoscale
sizes, quantum effects can be observed. These quantum effects particularly the
existence of discrete energy levels and the existence of a phenomenon known
as quantum tunnelling can be made use of in electrical and photonic devices,
although quantum tunnelling in particular is also a cause of significant problems
in such devices.
Depending on the number of dimensions that are on a nano length scale, they are
known as quantum dots, quantum wires or quantum wells. In each of these cases,
the actual size of the nanoscale dimension affects key properties of the device.
In this section you will see the way in which controlling the number of nano
length scale dimensions in a device affects the properties of the device and
therefore its applications.
Quantum dots
These are nanoparticles of semiconducting material, such as cadmium, selenium,
indium or even rare earth materials. Because of the small size, electrons are
constrained in all three dimensions and therefore behave more like electrons in a
discrete atom than in a crystal. This means that transitions between well-defined
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 Unit 11: Nanotechnology

energy levels occur, as in discrete atoms. Hence if electrons are excited to higher
levels, they will emit light of a specific frequency when they drop back down to
lower levels.
The frequency of light is tuneable by adjusting the dimensions of the nanoparticle.
In the reverse process, absorption of light of specific frequencies can excite
electrons into the conduction band, increasing conductivity.
Figure 11.1.7 shows the difference in the relative sizes of the energy gap between
occupied energy levels (the valence band) and unoccupied energy levels (the
conduction band) of a quantum dot and a semiconductor.
Figure 11.1.7: The energy gap between
Unoccupied
occupied and unoccupied energy levels energy
in a quantum dot means that visible levels
e
light energy is absorbed and emitted Conduction band
e
when electron transitions occur.
EQD ESC

e e
Valence band
e
Occupied
e
energy
levels Semiconductor

Quantum dot

The smaller the quantum dot, the larger the energy gap between the energy levels
and hence the higher the frequency of light emitted. Figure 11.1.8 shows light
emitted by solutions containing different sizes of quantum dots.

Figure 11.1.8: Quantum dots of different

sizes emit different frequencies of light.

Quantum dots could be used in solar cells or computer display screens.

Quantum wires
Electrical wires made on a macroscopic scale possess an electrical resistance
which depends only on the length and area of the wire, according to the well-
known formula:
l
R=
A
where is the resistivity of the material from which the wire is made, l is the length
in m and A is the cross-sectional area of the wire in m2.

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 11

Unit 11: Nanotechnology
Figure 11.1.9: Quantum wells have
a structure in which thin layers of
a semiconductor such as gallium
arsenide are sandwiched between
layers of a different semiconductor.
AIGaAs
GaAs
AIGaAs
11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension
However, if wires are made sufficiently thin, the electrons become constrained
in the dimensions at right angles to the length of the wire and this causes their
energies to be quantised. This quantisation is most noticeable in semiconductor
materials as the gap between energy levels is greater than in metallic conductors.
At present the applications of quantum wires are still being researched.
Quantum wells
In a quantum well, electrons are constrained in one dimension, while being able to
move freely in the other two.
A quantum well is formed by sandwiching a semiconductor material (for example,
gallium arsenide) between two layers of a different semiconductor material with
a greater band gap (for example, aluminium arsenide). Figure 11.1.9 shows the
structure of a quantum well.
The significance of gallium arsenide is that its band gap (the energy difference
between the valence band and the conduction band) is described as direct, which
means that electrons can be excited to the conduction band (and vice versa)
without needing to undergo a significant change in momentum. This makes the
process much more efficient and explains why substances like gallium arsenide
are used in optical devices such as lasers.
Conventional lasers have used thicknesses of gallium arsenide of above 100nm
(hence just outside the nanoscale); quantum well lasers have thicknesses of around
10nm. The quantum behaviour of these systems means that, as with quantum dots,
the wavelength of light emitted can be tuned by adjusting the thickness of the layer.
As a result, the use of quantum wells is widespread in high-powered diode lasers,
which have applications in materials processing (for the welding of plastic), or some
medical procedures (hair removal, surgery and dentistry). Lower-powered lasers based
on quantum wells are used in CD and DVD readers.
Portfolio activity (1.4)
Discuss the importance of controlling the number of dimensions that are nano length scale in
electronic devices properties. In your answer you should:
describe some devices which have one, two and three nanoscale dimensions.
Checklist
At the end of this topic guide you should be familiar with the following ideas:
reducing structures to the nanoscale results in significant changes in properties, due to the
increasing importance of quantum effects
these properties enable nanostructures to have applications in photonics, electronics,
medicine and many other industries
the growth of nanotechnology was dependent on the development of devices to image and
manipulate nanostructures and to fabricate them on a large scale
allotropes of carbon, such as fullerenes and nanotubes, were among the first nanostructures
to be identified and synthesised
the dimensions and dimensionality of nanostructures can be controlled to create structures
with appropriate properties
semiconductors can be fabricated as zero-, one- or two-dimensional nanoparticles to enable
them to have a range of uses in the photonics and electronics industry.
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Unit 11: Nanotechnology

Further reading
Finding suitable further reading in the area of nanotechnology can present some difficulties;
many of the scientific texts are aimed at advanced undergraduate or postgraduate students,
while websites often deal with concepts in a very general way. Additionally, the field of
nanotechnology is a very fast-moving one and any discussion of applications is likely to be out
of date within a few years.
Feynmans classic lecture can be found online or reprinted in several texts: try
http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html or in Introduction to Nanoscience
(S.M. Lindsay, OUP, 2010).
An interesting article by the science writer Philip Ball reviews Feynmans influence and is available
at http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2009/January/FeynmansFancy.asp.
Lindsays book is detailed and mathematical at times, but Chapter 1 is a very readable introduction
to the field. Up-to-date textbooks of inorganic chemistry may contain useful chapters on
nanomaterials, for example, Inorganic Chemistry (5th edition) (Shriver and Atkins, OUP, 2010). The
first few pages of Chapter 25 provide a good overview of the key principles of nanotechnology.
A really good source of material at a variety of levels is available through the Nanotechnology
Applications and Career Knowledge network, aimed at US undergraduates and high-school
students. At an introductory level, a range of PowerPoint presentations is available relevant
to this topic guide, including the history and current state of nanotechnology, as well as
descriptions of some of the applications in medicine and electronics. These are available to
registered users of the network but registration is free and available to all. Go to
http://nano4me.live.subhub.com/ to register.
Other, more specific websites giving extra information for specific aspects of this topic guide have
been indicated in the Take it further features scattered throughout the text, which also include
several sources at an introductory level.

Acknowledgements
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their
photographs:
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)
Shutterstock.com: imredesiuk; Fotolia.com: Tyler Boyes 6(c), molekuul.be 6(l), apops 7(tl);
Science Photo Library Ltd: 11, Pasieka 6(r), 9(tl), Laguna Design 9(tr, b), Kenneth Eward 7(tr);
DK Images: Andy Crawford & Tim Ridley/Dorling Kindersley 8; University of Bristol, UK: CVD
Diamond Group/School of Chemistry 7(bl); Getty Images: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
/ MCT 7(br)
All other images Pearson Education
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise in advance for any
unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any
subsequent edition of this publication.

11.1: Properties at the nanoscale dimension 13