African Origin of the word Nike

By Asar Imhotep (October 23, 2013 revised October 29, 2013)

The MOCHA-Versity Institute of Philosophy and Research

luntu/lumtu/muntu

This paper is an examination of the Greek word nike (). which has become famous, in modern times,
as a result of the sports apparel company by the same name (created by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight).
Practically all of the dictionaries that have examined this word suggest that the word nike is Greek.
However, beyond Greek, these same dictionaries are unsure of its ultimate etymology.1 In this brief essay,
we suggest that the term is not of Greek derivation, but is indeed African and that this term is a borrowing
into the Greek language from Egypt.
Before we can get into the heart of our discussion, we must first properly define this term in
Greek. The Online Etymological Dictionary (OED) has the following examination:

Nike: Greek goddess of victory (identified by the Romans with their Victoria), literally "victory,"
probably connected with neikos "quarrel, strife," neikein "to quarrel with." As a type of U.S.
defensive surface-to-air missiles, attested from 1952.

Wikipedia has the following:

In Greek mythology, Nike (Greek: , "Victory", pronounced [nk]) was a goddess who
personified victory, also known as the Winged Goddess of Victory. The Roman equivalent was

1
See for instance The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Nike: Victory, Greek noun of
unknown origin. [Eunice, Nicholas, (Nickel), Nike.]

Page 1 of 23
 Victoria. Depending upon the time of various myths, she was described as the daughter of Pallas
(Titan) and Styx (Water),[1][2] and the sister of Kratos (Strength), Bia (Force), and Zelus (Zeal). [1]

Nike and her siblings were close companions of Zeus, the dominant deity of the Greek pantheon.
According to classical (later) myth, Styx brought them to Zeus when the god was assembling
allies for the Titan War against the older deities. Nike assumed the role of the divine charioteer, a
role in which she often is portrayed in Classical Greek art. Nike flew around battlefields rewarding
the victors with glory and fame. Nike is seen with wings in most statues and paintings. Most other
winged deities in the Greek pantheon had shed their wings by Classical times. Nike is the goddess
of strength, speed, and victory. Nike was a very close acquaintance of Athena, and is thought to
have stood in Athena's outstretched hand in the statue of Athena located in the Parthenon. [3] Nike
is one of the most commonly portrayed figures on Greek coins. [4] Names stemming from Nike
include among others: Nikolaos, Nicholas, Nicola, Nick, Nicolai, Nikolai, Nicolae, Nils, Klaas,
Nicole, Ike, Niki, Nikita, Nika, Niketas, and Nico.

Statuette of goddess Nike found in Vani, Georgia.2

Some of Nikes attributes can be summarized as follows:

Symbol: wings; often depicted with a wreath of victory or a staff; the chariot

Strengths: very fast runner, swift flyer, able charioteer

Weaknesses: can be capricious (inconsistent) in dolling out victory

Parents: daughter of Styx, called a nymph but actually the presiding spirit over the major river of
the Underworld, and Pallas, a Titan. He has three brothers: Zelos rivalry, Kratos strength, and
Bia force.

Other: Some sources give her father as Ares, the God of War. The most famous statue of Nike is
the Nike of Samothrace, a Greek island in the northern Aegean. This statue is now in the Louvre
Museum in Paris.3

2
Retrieved from Wikipedia October 22, 2013.
3
See Fast Facts: Nike by deTraci Regula. http://gogreece.about.com/od/greekmythology/a/mythnike.htm
(retrieved October 23, 2013)

Page 2 of 23
In other words, the word nike is a Greek term that means victory and it has been personified as a
winged goddess with the same name. Research has uncovered that many of the Greek gods, in fact, derive
from ancient Egypt (Obenga 1992, Bernal 1987, Diop 1991). This is definitely the opinion of Herodotus
who took great advantage of the opportunity, in his Book II, to hammer down this belief of the adoption
of Egyptian gods by the Greeks. As Herodotus suggests:

The names of nearly all the gods came to Greece from Egypt. I know from the inquiries I have
made that they came from abroad, and it seems most likely that it was from Egypt, for the names
of all the gods have been known in Egypt from the beginning of time, with the exception (as I
have already said) of Poseidon and Dioscuriand also of Hera, Hestia, Themis, the Graces, and
the Nereids. I have the authority of the Egyptians themselves for this. (Herodotus, Book II 50.2)

We suggest here that the goddess Nike, meaning victory, derives her name from an Egyptian word, and
that Herodotus is correct in his assessmentat least with this goddessas it regards the origin of the
name of Greek gods.

An African Examination
Other sources accessible to the author for the word nike victory, in Indo-European, do not posit a
derivation of the term beyond the Greek language. Therefore, it is assumed that this word is a Greek
innovation. Pierre Chantraine (1968-75), the prominent linguist and etymologist of Greek, argues that the
origin of nike (and its derivative neikos dispute, battle) is unknown. It is my contention that the word
nike is a loan from Egyptian and is rendered nxt strong, victory, victorious, mighty, stiff, hard,
stiffen, become hard, successful; Coptic nchot "victory, become hard and strong."
Martin Bernal, in his Black Athena Vol. III: The Linguistic Evidence (2006: 384-385), suggests
that nike is also a loan into Greek, and he too suggests nxt.t and nxtw victory as its origin. Bernal,
however, connects neikos with reflexes in Semitic: Arabic naky to be defeated, nakya inflicting of
injury; Hebrew nakah to smite (the passive or niphal perfect form: nikkah). My analysis in the original
incarnation of this article was independent of Bernal (2006), and this essay can now be seen as a
supportive text with a more expansive analysis on the subject.
The Egyptian form provides us with a wider range of meanings and a central theme can be
ascertained from an examination of variant forms provided in the following table.

Table 1: nxt
Hieroglyphs Lexeme Meaning
nxt victory, strong, victorious, stiff, hard, obdurate [ adjective ]

nxt hack up, cut up [ verb ]

nxt powerful [ adjective ]

nxt strong, victorious, mighty, stiff, hard, stiffen, become hard, successful [
adjective + verb ]
nxt / strength, force, power, victory [ noun ]
nxtw

Page 3 of 23
 nxt strong man, champion, bully [ noun ]

nxt a strong of arm, adult, a champion [ adjective + noun ]

nxt to be stiff

nxt a heroic [ adjective ]

nxtw ib courage, valour, bravery [ noun ]

nxtw strength, victory, hostages [ noun ]

nxtw stronghold, fortress [ noun - arch. ]

nxtt power, strength, triumph, stiffness, rigidity (of organs etc) [ noun - bod. ]

nxt to protect [ verb ]

As we can see here, the variety of associations ranges from courage, bravery, strength, power to
protection. The concept of victory, as seen here, is associated with having the necessary strength
and courage to overcome a seemingly insurmountable obstacle.
Although the Indo-European (IE) languages have another word for victory, the range of
meaning for such terms mirrors that which we find in the Egyptian variations of nxt. For example,
Mallory & Adams, in their book The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-
European World (2006: 281), provides the following commentary on a conceptually relatable word to nxt.

To conquer ones enemy is indicated by *seh- and its derivatives which mean conquer,
victory (e.g. OIr seg strong, NHG Sieg victory, Grk ekhurs Wrm, strong, Hit sakkuriya-
overcome, Skt shas- victory, shuri- victorious), and hold fast (it supplies the basic Greek
verb kh hold). The word was also a popular element in personal names among the Celts (e.g.
Gaulish Sego-marus) and Germans (ON Sigurr). Probably originally a nominal root, *gwyeha-
which means physical force in both Greek and Indic can also mean overcome (e.g. ON kveita
make an end to, kill, Grk b physical force, violence, Skt jy force, violence, jinti
overpowers, suppresses).4

We see here that victory is connected to strong, conquer, physical force and violence. As
demonstrated above, fundamentally, these meanings for *seh- are inherent in the word nxt. The cognate
term for Egyptian nxt or Greek nike in ciLuba-Bantu is nke "solid, hard, fixed" (syn. ndendende "tenacity,
toughness, persistence").
The Strongs Greek Dictionary (1890) provides some added clarity and support for our
connection. Strong records the following entries:

4
If we are to assume that the s- in *seh- conquer is a causative prefix, then * seh- and nxt might share the
same historical root: i.e., -g- and -x- respectively. Compare the PIE -gh- segment to Egyptian kh-A strong blow
(storm), kh-b name of Set; encounter (the bull), damage, kh-sw malevolence, kh-s haughty, rough. More
investigation is needed here. The root of nxt will be discussed further below.

Page 4 of 23
 SG3529 nike (nee'-kay) "apparently a primary word; conquest (abstractly), i.e. (figuratively) the
means of success:--victory."

SG3528 nikao (nik-ah'-o) "from 3529; to subdue (literally or figuratively):--conquer, overcome,

prevail, get the victory."

SG3534 nikos (nee'-kos) "from 3529; a conquest (concretely), i.e. (by implication) triumph:--
victory."

We observe here that nike primarily means conquest, and it is from this notion of a successful conquest
that victory becomes its secondary meaning. We see this same type of connection in another unrelated
Greek word from Strongs Dictionary.

SG2358 thriambeuo (three-am-byoo'-o) "from a prolonged compound of the base of 2360; and a
derivative of 680 (meaning a noisy iambus, sung in honor of Bacchus); to make an acclamatory
procession, i.e. (figuratively) to conquer or (by Hebraism) to give victory:--(cause) to triumph
(over)."

Therefore, we can see a pattern in associations between the concept of conquering and victory. I posit
here, given the Egyptian connection, that nike ultimately comes from the concept of strong, and that
strong arming was the original thought associated with conquering. The underlying meaning of
victory here is to (successfully) overpower something.
The -t in the C3 position of nxt is a suffix. This is often mistaken as a feminine affix, but this is
not the case. This suffix brings about a secondary meaning (gerund) on a noun or adjective that does not
have the suffix originally.5 It also serves as a nominalizing affix on verbs (i.e., turns verbs into nouns).
Moreover, the suffix can also act as a definite or indefinite article like in the Kalenjiin (Nilo-Saharan)
language: e.g., chii man, chiito a man; ko house, koot a/the house. A few examples are in order:

Egyptian: sr sheep; sr(j).t a particular sheep

Kalenjiin: kechiir sheep; kechiiryet a sheep

Egyptian: aw large; aw.t largeness

Kalenjiin: oo/woo large; oo-into/oo-indo largeness (t>d)

Egyptian: bjn bad, evil (adjective); bjn.t evil (noun)

Kalenjiin: bunyoon enemy (adjective); bunyoot an/the enemy (noun)
Kalenjiin: boon witching; bondit an/the evil or the witchcraft

Egyptian: am eat; am.t food

Kalenjiin: am eat (verb); amiit food or amdit the food (noun)

Egyptian: msyt evening meal

Kalenjiin: amisyeet any meal (both terms deriving from the verb root am eat)

Egyptian: mn be ill; mn.t sickness, disease, wound

Kalenjiin: mian be ill; mian-eet the state of being sick, mion-to/mion-do sickness, disease, illness

Egyptian: mtw to speak, talk; mt.t speech, decree, word

5
Dr. Taaita araap-Toweett, in his Kalenjin Nouns and Their Classifications masters thesis (1975) introduced the
terms inclusive singular nouns (i.s.n) to refer to all Kalenjiin singular nouns that are in their primary form and do
not, therefore, have the grammatical /-t/ suffix. The Kalenjiin are modern descendents of the ancient Egyptians who
speak a Nilo-Saharan language (see Sambu 2007, 2011).

Page 5 of 23
 Kalenjiin: mwa speak; mwaeet speech or mwaitaaet announcement. (see also, amda (amta) preach,
inform, which becomes amdaaet (amtaaet) sermons, lessons and information) (Sambu, 2011: 145-146)

With this being said, we suggest that the form nxt is a secondary derivation on a primary form; one by
way of the suffixal /-t/. Forms without the -t suffix can be seen below:

Hieroglyphs Lexeme Meaning

nx succor, protect, protection [ verb + noun ]

nxw protector, defender [ noun ]

nxw helper [ noun - title ]

The /x/ and /S/ sounds in Egyptian often interchange (see Imhotep 2013, Bilolo 2011). With that said, the
following terms may be relevant: nS expel (from), disown (a woman); nS to
drive out. The n- in nxt is another morpheme. This leaves -x- as the root and can be seen in the word xw
protection; xwj protect, exclude, exempt, set aside, avoid, prevent, equip with.
The -x- root ultimately derives from a word for arm, and the arm can even be seen as a
determinative in the hieroglyphic renderings of nxt . Campbell-Dunn (2009b) provides the
following entries:

ARM Sumerian arm, strength

KA arm, strength

PWS ka, bua (ba) arm [BU = ] Sumerian kalag strong

C-loss [k > h or b > v] Sumerian a5, aka make
PWN BUAK, GWAL, KA (KYA), KWN arm Sumerian -KAL strength
Bantu gado arm, bko arm Sumerian h, ahi arm strength
Holoholo bok arm, kal to cut
Mande bolo, bolo-kala, kmba-kala arm, wa arm, strength
ES Didinga kalkic armpit, kom be strong

*K = # *A = a *B = # *A = a

MIGHTY, TO BE Sumerian kalag (kala) be mighty

KA hand
LA hand -g

PWS ka hand
PWS gn big
PWN KA, (KYA) hand
PWN G hundred
Bantu kod be strong
Indiki ne-kara hand
Ngala nkasu strong
Mande bar ka-le strong
Mangbetu kwakwara strong
PCS *kpa, *gba hard

Page 6 of 23
 *K = k *A = a *L = l *A = a

STRENGTH Sumerian a, kal strength

KA hand -l

PWS ka hand (May God make my right hand strong )

PWN KA, (KYA), KWAN, GWAL hand
Mande (Delafosse 1929) gbere, B gere, M gete strong; gbesi, M gese force
Mangbetu kwakwara strength
Khoisan : Sandawe //ga stand ?

[ Sumerian a has lost the initial k]

*K = # *A = a *L = l *K = k

TALENT (weight) Sumerian gu2 talent

KU big

PWS ku big
See PWS gu much

[PNC ku grow, big]

PWN KWUL be big

Bantu kd become strong
Bangi nguya strong, Soko ngulu strong
Mande gy big
Mangbetu kwokwo big

*K = g *U = u

The primal noun is Proto-Western-Sudanic (PWS) *ka arm, hand and the actions of the arm/hand. Its
subsequent adjectives share the same linguistic root (see discussion in Imhotep 2013 Appendix A). The
root -k- (Egyptian -x-) can be seen in the following reflexes in Egyptian.

anx captive

sqr anx Prisoner of War, Captive, Living Prisoner [ noun ]

nxtw stronghold, fortress [ noun - arch. ]

nxtw hostages, securities [ noun ]

nxtw strength, victory, hostages [ noun ]

Page 7 of 23
 nxrw (something that is harmful ?) [ noun ]

nxnx to attack [ verb ]

nD save, protect [ verb ]

The underlying theme of these terms is the actions of the arms. To make someone a prisoner is to
strong arm them or hold them captive (Greek nikao subdue). One attacks (nxnx) with ones
arms. Even today in English we call weapons arms, as they are extensions of our physical arms. To
save and protect (nD) also requires ones arms. I included this term because the /D/ sound originally
derived from /g/ [g>D], which itself is just a voiced /k/.
A dialectical variant of /x/ is /q/ in Egyptian and we can see the root -x- > -q- in the following
reflexes:

HqA captive [ noun ]

HqA to capture, to plunder, to take captive [ verb ]

HAqw captives [ noun ]

HAqw spoils (of war) [ noun ]

HAqt booty, loot, spoils (of war) [ noun ]

This secondary notion of strength (from arm) is then transferred to other concepts. For instance, strength
and power is often connected to bigness and this can be reflected in Egyptian with nxti the
giant.
Because this root extends to mean valor, strength, victory, courageous, protection, etc., these
characteristics are often associated with battle and war. The -x- root can be seen in such related terms
as r a xt war, combat, battle6; xrw battle, war. The /x/ sound also corresponds to
/H/ in Egyptian (dialectical?). Therefore, we have reflexes of aHA war, combat, battle, fight;
aHAwty warrior, male, man (x>H). Notice how the -ty suffix provides a secondary
meaning on the primary root in the later example.
The x-r variations of the root in Egyptian are given as k-l in Bantu. The following is from the
Bantu Lexical Reconstruction 3 (BLR3) online database. Note that Proto-Bantu (PB) /l/ is realized as /d/.

6
The word xt can mean stick, staff, cane; wood, timber, tree, woodland, mast, stick, pole, rod and is used in
battles or fights. We also have the word xt a a weapon. So r a xt, basically, means to use a weapon (go to war).

Page 8 of 23
 MAIN be strong; be hard; be difficult
H (V)
1874 tre fort; tre dur; tre difficile
Total Distribution: Regions: 5: NW SW Ce NE SE Zones: 12: B D F G H K L M N P R S
MAIN 1874 H V be strong; be hard; be DGHLMNRS
difficult
DER 1877 H V intoxicate GHLMP
DER 1878 H V become intoxicated BDFGHKLMNR
DER 7002 H_ N strength R
DER 7026 N7 drunkard HLM

See also:

MAIN 1872 HL N 9/10 lion BCHLR

MAIN 1875 H V work DFJ
MAIN 1876 H V choke EN
MAIN 1883 HL N (5/6), bird of prey spp., hawk ABCDGJKLMNRS
(7/8), spp.
9/10,
11/10,
(12/13),
(19/13)
MAIN 6999 H V take; touch CGJMN
MAIN 7008 HL N9 crocodile C

We should take some time to note how this root in Bantu is applied to and becomes the word for certain
animals that are known to be ferocious and skilled hunters: i.e., *kci lion, *kd crocodile, *kd
bird of prey (hawk). As stated earlier, the /x/ and /H/ interchange or are variants of each other. We
should also note that the /A/ sound was historically a /r/ or /l/ (Imhotep, 2013).
With that said, Proto-Bantu *kd bird of prey (hawk) is a dialectical variant of the Egyptian
word Hr or Hrw The god Horus, which is personified as a hawk/falcon. He is known for revenging
the death of his father and engaging in a long drawn-out battle with his uncle Set. The linguistic
phenomenon of paronymy is at play in this story. Paronymy involves a perceived relationship between
words that sound alike or are similarly pronounced. Egyptologists call this punning. Thus, Hr hawk,
Horus (< PB *kd be strong) is associated with aHA war, combat, battle, fight and xrw
battle, war. A reflex exists in ciLuba as kol() hard, drive, tough (> mwoyo mukol courage,
boldness; Egyptian nxt jb courage, valor, bravery).
In Egyptian, the /r/, /A/ and /n/ sounds interchange (Lorpieno, 1995: 33). Often these interchanges
in sound provide slight shades of meaning on the root. It is also my contention that the Egyptian sounds
/q/, /x/, /k/, /H/ and /h/, are in reality variants of each other. With that said, I argue that Egyptian nxt
victory is just a variant of the word qnt victory by way of metathesis on the velar and nasal
consonants in the C1 and C2 positions, respectively. The following table provides the following reflexes of
qnt.

Page 9 of 23
 Hieroglyphs Lexeme Meaning
qnt victory, might [ noun ]

qn Brave man, Elite Soldier, Hero [ noun - title ]

qni powerful (of speech), stout (of heart), active [ adjective + verb ]

qni be strong, valiant, mighty, capable, active [ verb ]

qn to weaken [ verb ]

qni eager, strong [ adjective ]

qnw feats [ noun ]

qnw brave deeds [ noun ]

qn offence, audacity [ noun ]

qn complete, accomplish, cease, bring to an end, to finish off [ verb ]

qnt brutality, violence [ noun ]

qnqn castigation, beating, blows [ noun ]

qnqn to assault [ verb ]

qnqn to bruise [ verb ]

qnqn flatten (metal), deal wrongly (with), to be beaten [ verb ]

qnqn crush, beat (people), kill, pound up (medicines), beat out, to assault [ verb ]

qni conquer, amount (to), be profuse [ adjective + verb ]

As we can see here, qn(t), and its variations, have the same meanings as nxt mentioned earlier.

Nike = Goddess Hathor/Isis

Some readers may dismiss this connection between the goddess Nike and the Egyptian term nxt; not
because there is any linguistic difficulties, but because they cannot recall a goddess in the Egyptian
pantheon that goes by the same name. However, there is a goddess by the name nxt and she is a variant of
the goddess Hwt Hrw Hathor.7 The very term itself is deified in many significant ways.

7
Thanks to brother Sonjedi Ankh Ra for helping me find this specific correlation.

Page 10 of 23
 For instance, we have in Egyptian: nxt a a god (Budge 389a). It in-of-itself is a
variant of nxt Divine power (Budge 389a). We note also that our term under examination is
used in relation to the god Ra, as an aspect of the sun: nxx a form of Ra, the autumn sun (Budge
387a). We also have the following variation (Budge 387a):

Notice the wings on this representation. This is important because the goddess Nike is also depicted
with wings. As wings deal with flight and movement, we know this form hints to the movement of
the sun and/or light. With that said, we also have the feminine counterpart given with the word:

nxt(t)
a goddess (Budge 389a)

This form and association can be found in the raw nw prt m Hrw (Words for coming forth into day),
Lepsius Papyrus, Chapter 140, Line 7. This section of the chapter reads:

His Majesty shines as on the First Occasion and the Sacred Eye is in his head; Re, Atum, the
Sacred Eye, Shu, Geb, Osiris, Seth and Horus, Mont, Bah, Re the Everlasting, Thoth who travels
eternity, Nut, Isis, Nephthys, Hathor the victorious, the two Songtress-goddesses, Maat, Anubis
of the land, born of eternity, and the Soul of Mendes: when the Sacred Eye has been reckoned up
in the presence of the Lord of this land, and it stands complete and content, these gods are joyful
on this day; their hands support it and the festival of all the gods is celebrated. (Wasserman, 2008:
120)

The word nxt(t) is an epithet for the goddess @wt @rw (Hathor). We see a variant of this root, in
association with Hathor, with the word: Axt Hathor cow (Budge 389a). As noted in the above
citation, these references are in association with light as emitted from the sun (His Majesty shines as
on the First Occasion and the Sacred Eye is in his head). Thus we have: iAxt (epithet of Hathor);
iAxw radiance (as a god); Axt uraeus serpent (Budge 389a).8 We have to keep in
mind that Hathor is another form of Hrw , and thus the association with wings. As @rw and @wt
@rw deal with the sun, an alternate form is more specific to distant suns: i.e., stars. This can be seen
with the word AxAxw stars; nxx a star. This aspect of Hathor doesnt readily
appear to be borrowed by the Greeks.
Above we noted nxx a form of Ra and nxx the sun as an old man, the winter sun.
This is a play on words (paronymy). In Egyptian we have nxx the aged, old; nxx be
old, old age, to last, the old, the aged. Unlike in the West, in Africa, the older you are, the more powerful
you become. This is because ones age is associated with wisdom, but not only that, it correlates to
knowledge of certain spiritual technologies that are not generally learned by young people. One also
accumulates more wealth (ideally) the older one gets, and wealth brings you power.

8
We note that the /A/ and /n/ sounds interchange: Axt <> nxt.

Page 11 of 23
 This could also explain the paronymic association between nxt a a god and nxx the aged, the
old. We find a correlation between nxx the aged, the old and the Bantu term nganga, which are the
elder arbitrators and medicine-men in African societies. A god, in the African sense, is just an elder or
priest (Imhotep 2013). The elders are in charge of the collective healing of the community (Som 1994,
Fu-Kiau 2001, 2006).
This underlying connotation of power and strength may also have transferred to certain types of
plants. This may be reflected in nxtyw (a plant); xt a drug form (medicinal). To make
medicine, one often has to pound and pulverize the plants into a powder. There may be a correlation
there, but there may also be a connection based on the plants ability to fight and attack disease.
In connecting the Egyptian word qni brave, strong (noun), to conquer (verb) with possible
forms in Greek, Bernal provides the following instructive commentary.

According to the ancients, Akoniton, a poisonous plant, gained its name from being without
dust, or the sand of an arena koni" and, therefore, invincible. Modern scholars disregard this as a
folk etymology. I believe that, in the sense of without antidote, it makes good sense. Qn
provides a reasonable etymology for kainumai (H) to surpass, overcome and for kaino (5) to
kill. Chantraine provides an explanation for neither of these. (Bernal, 2006: 386)

In other words, this notion of strength, given by qni (Yorb akoni brave person, hero; Greek -koni-),
became associated with a poisonous plant with an underlying meaning of invincible. The Egyptian
word nxtyw (a plant) may be related. Compare with Egyptian an anx sustenance, anx garland
(a plant), anx.t corn. Plants are used for medicine, to cure disease, and we can see a reflex in ciLuba
BwAnga medicine, means of protection, support of health. This root, when reduplicated (NgaNga),
means doctor. As we noted earlier, nxt can also mean protect. This root is present in ciLuba as -
sungila to deliver, protect from; to save; sungidila to separate, deliver, defend against, to help;
sngaja/sngalaja to cure, return health. A word for medicine in the Yorb language is gn; Igbo
ogwu.
This -x- root meaning arm, power, strength is also present in another word s-xm meaning
power, authority (Kalenjiin kiim or giim strength, power, might; ciLuba nkama power, force, might,
strength; Egyptian gm power, strength, might). The reflexes of this term can be seen in the following
table:

sxm power, grimness [ noun ]

sxm gain control, have control [ verb ]

sxm to be stout, undertake (works) [ verb ]

sxm with powerful arm [ noun - title ]

sxm to be powerful, to be terrible of, possessed of [ verb ]

sxm mighty one, power [ noun ]

Page 12 of 23
 sxm mighty one [ noun ]

sxm a Power (personified as a diety) [ noun ]

These hieroglyphs reaffirm this association between the arm and power; as we can see a good number
of the examples above contain the arm glyph. We can also see that sxm was also deified as a god. This
masculine god has a female counterpart known as %xm.t . This goddess is most frequently depicted
in semi-anthropomorphic form as a lioness-headed woman. She often wears a long wig and usually has a
solar disk balanced atop her head in this aspect. She is associated with the sun in her aspect as the "Eye of
Ra" (or Ptah) and in this aspect is the personification of Hathor as well (Wilkinson, 2003: 181).
Sekhmet (%xm.t) is known for her dual nature: as a destructive force and as a protective force.
The destructive force is linguistically built off the root xm "demolish (buildings), harm (someone), dig up
(earth), debar (from), exclude, attack (enemy), to force (open)." These are all actions of the harnds/arms.
The goddess also had the power to ward off pestilence and she could function as a healing deity, even
being called 'Sekhmet, mistress of life' (Wilkinson, 2003: 181). The goddess %xm.t corresponds to the
deity Sakpat / kp n among the vodun practitioners in the Bight of Benin (Ee, Fon, Aja, Pla, Pea,
Gun, Maxi, etc.).9 In the Ancient Nile Valley, as well as in the Aja-Tado area, Sakpat and %xm.t, were
considered as the most feared deities of their respective pantheons. Sakpat is associated with smallpox
as a controller of the disease, but (like %xm.t) is also invoked to cure from and prevent epidemics. Another
correspondence between the two is that %xm.t is often depicted as a lioness that emerged from the uraeus
snake. Sakpat is often symbolized by a furious leopard and is said, in some legends, to change into a
snake.
We will now explore parallels of the linguistic term nxt and of the goddess Nike with the Yorb
god of iron gn (<qn.t) of Nigeria.

Nike and gn
In this section, we posit that the goddess Nike (n-k) of the Greeks is a distant variation of the Yorb god
gn (g-n). Although the genders are different, the names and function of each are practically the same:
the consonants are just switched in their names respectively (metathesis). We suggested earlier that Heru
(Horus) is a variation of Nike (they share the same root). Here the /r/ in Heru and /n/ in Nike interchange.
With that said, it would stand to reason that, fundamentally, Nike = gn = @rw. To understand the
connections between these deities, we must first examine the attributes of gn among the Yorb of
Nigeria. The following summary and linguistic examples will come, primarily, from two sources. The
first is Modupe Oduyoyes Words & Meaning in Yorb Religion: Linguistic Connections in Yorb,
Ancient Egypt & Semitic (1996: 79-94). The second is Africas Ogun: Old World and New (1997), edited
by Sandra T. Barnes. Other insights are included using myself, as a practitioner of the tradition, as a
resource.

Origins of the gn Myth

gn is typically associated with the creation of iron that has been forged through the smithy. He is also
the personification of war and technology in general. However, his roots are more ancient and the myth

9
See Sandro Capochichis article Un essai comparatif sur quelques divinits traditionnelles du golfe de Bnin et de
la valle du Nil ancienne, ANKH n 16 - Anne 2007, Gif-sur-Yvette: Khepera.

Page 13 of 23
associated with him is the way our most ancient human ancestors came to terms with the natural
phenomenon of a volcano.
gn, in Yorb liturgical conceptualizations, is the r of creative transformative energy.
He is popularly known as the deity/spirit of hunting, iron, and warfare. His characteristics have expanded
over the years, which range from modern technology to highway safety: anything that includes danger,
metal or transportation. We come to discover through the many myths associated with gn that he is
also a farmer, an artist, an inventor, protector of orphans, a roof over the homeless, a terrible guardian of
the sacred oath, and the lord of the road to sacred wisdom.10
He is a spirit that embodies two images. On the one hand he is a terrifying specter: a violent
warrior, fully armed and laden with frightening charms and medicines to kill his foes. On the other hand,
gn is societys ideal male: a leader known for his sexual prowess, who nurtures, protects and
relentlessly pursues truth, equity and justice.
The early Yorb postulated that an agent on top of the volcanic mountain existed to explain the
phenomenon of fire. This agent is gn. This is proven by examining the story in which gn, on one
day, was coming down from the hill-top wearing clothes of fire and covered in blood (Oduyoye, 1996:
146 n.2, Barnes, 1997: 106). On top of the mountain, the Yorb posited a town of firesymbolically
named r (Cf. Yorb r fire pot, Arabic araa to burn, Hebrew ir heat, Afar ur and Bari yur
set on fire.). Other myths affirm directly this fact; stating that he came to the world from a volcano as it
was erupting and brought with him the ability to forge weapons and tools (Turner and Coulter, 2001:
360). In the Ijebu dialect of Yorb, red hot charcoal from the fire is called ogunn.11
gn (g-n) is not only known among the Yorb, but also among the Sanskrit speakers of India
as Agni (g-n): The Indian god of fire. Sanskrit has a host of terms with this root that relates to fire:
agni/agniH fire, agniparvataH volcano, volcanic cone, agnishalaakaa matchstick, agnishhu in the
fires, agnau in the fire consummation. Also the Slavic god of fire is named Ogoni (Patricia and
Coulter, 2001: 360). There is also Agnar (Norse; Teutonic) hero who is the God of Light.
Turner and Coulter, in their book Dictionary of Ancient Deities (2001: 25), also note that Agni is
spread across many countries with attributes and associations that will become familiar to us throughout
this text, which we can cross compare with gn amongst the Yorb of Nigeria.

Agni/Ogni (Agne, Agnis [Brahamanic, Hindu, tantric, Vedic; India) is also known as Ag, Agni
Yavishta, Agoni (Slavic), Anala, Asani (Lightining), Bhava (Existence), Brhaspati (Lord of
Devotion), Dhumakety, Grahapati, Grhapati (Lord of the House), Hotar (the Invoker), Isana
(Ruler), Jatavedas (All-Knowing), Mahadeva (Great god), Moloch, Narasamsa (Praise of Men),
Ogoni (Slavic), Pasupati (Lord of Cattle), Pav, Pavaka (The Purifier), Pramati, Tudra (Roarer),
Sarva (All), Skambha (Support), Slayer of Rokshasas (Slayer of Evil Spirits), Surya tanunapat
(Son of Self), Trita, Tryambaka, (Three-Mothered or Three-Eyed), Ugra (dead), Vaishwanara
(Universal Man), Yavishta.

The myth of gn is a record of the varied philosophizing of the Yorb on the natural phenomenon of
wild fire put to use by manfor heating, lighting, cooking, hunting, war, metallurgical work and metal
crafts (Oduyoye, 1996: 80-81). The above renderings in Indo-European helps to further demonstrate that
gns origin is in fire and not in hunting (specifically) as proposed by Robert G. Armstrong in his essay
The Etymology of the Word gn in Barnes (1997: 29-38). The association of hunting with gn is
probably the result of an old African method of hunting, which scorched the forests in an effort to drive
out the wild-life. This made the animals easy targets for hunting as they would get caught running out of

10
See Clyde W. Ford, A Hero With An African Face: Mythic Wisdom of Traditional Africa (1999:166). Bantam
Books. New York, NY.
11
Westermann (1927) reconstructs many monosyllabic stem words (after his Proto-Western-Sudanic (PWS) roots),
many with optional consonantal Auslaut, or even alternate Auslaut forms, with a following nasal or resonant: ka, kal
crab, ka, kan side, k, kn, kl charcoal. Therefore, Yorb ogunn charcoal is just a variant of PWS *kn
charcoal.

Page 14 of 23
the forest from the fires. It may also be a rendering of the word for kill, from the Niger-Congo root k,
k kill (Sumerian hul destroy) (Campbell-Dunn 2009a: 168). The concept of paronymy is not only
characteristic of ancient Egyptian, but is characteristic of African languages and myth-making in general
(see Imhotep 2011, 2013). Thus, they may have seen a commonality in the pronunciation of words for
fire, volcano and killing.
It should be noted that the ancient Irish goddess by the name of Morrigan is associated with
volcanoes, death, creation, violence, sex and war. The popular consensus argues that the word Morrigan is
comprised of the words Mor (great) + rgan queen. I think this is folk etymology. We have a similar
issue with the origins of the word gun (pistol, cannon, rifle, etc.) in English. The current literature
speculates that the word gun derives from Gunnhildr, which consists of gunnr + hildr, both meaning
war, battle. Are we seeing a pattern here? Both Morrigan and Gunnhidr are associated with war and
battles, and the word Morrigan is associated with practically all of the known attributes of gn:
volcanoes, death, creation, violence, sex and war. It is my contention that both the -gan in Morrigan and
the word gun derive from the g-n root for charcoal/fire, which later became associated with iron weapons.
Because fire and the creation of weaponry became associated with violence, power and war, this
later was associated with army generals of war and can be seen in the Japanese word Shogun. The word
Shogun is a contraction of seii taishogun (), which literally means a commander of a force.
It is a military rank and historical title for a hereditary military dictator of Japan. Seii could mean correct
location, correct position, sincere, true heart, correct meaning, good faith. The word taisyo means
general, admiral, boss, or leader. The word gun means army, force, troops (Egyptian qnyt
the Braves (a military corps d'elite); qn 'Brave man, Elite Soldier, Hero"). Remember that gn is a
warrior and the Japanese word Shogun sounds a lot like Yorb Agun conqueror, vanquisher, victor.
Compare Yorb Agun with PIE *seh- conquer, victory.
There are many terms attached to the Yorb term gn that bring about shades of meaning
associated with warfare: ounogun (weapons), ologun (brave warrior), olori ogun (general of the army),
egbe omo ogun (army), ohun elo ogun (arms), opa ogun (war staff), ija ogun (fight or battle), agun (a
rebel, a revolter) and balogun (war chief). It is apparent that gn is a very ancient deity; traceable
possibly to when man first left the continent of Africa to populate the rest of the earth.
It will be later demonstrated (Imhotep forthcoming) that the Egyptian title km wr, an epithet for
Wsir, is equated with Ologun (wr km) a warrior chief of the Yorb. The word km is an epithet of the
god of Athribis. Athribis (in lower Egypt) was one of the military nomes assigned to the Calasirian
militia under the Pharaohs. The Egyptian word km is a dialectical variant of Yorb gn, where n>m.
We also have in Kalenjiin (Nilo-Saharan) kiim strong, hard; kiimnoteet strength, power; kimkim
strong, stiff, firm, fundamental; ciLuba nkama force, might, power, strength; Egyptian gm
strength, power, might. We note also in Egyptian jkm shield (protective device) [Wb 139 I]. We
suggest that km wr Great Black is not the proper translation, but something more along the lines of
Powerful lord or Great warrior. We are supported with a variant, with slight change in meaning, gn
wr the great ruler. Compare also to kmA wr God [Wb V 37].

gn: God of War

Fire and weaponry are instruments of power, and the g-n root can be seen in the following Egyptian
terms: gn powerful, respected, gm strength, power, might. It is my contention that the
Egyptian words gn and gm are variants of the word qnj be strong, valiant, mighty, capable, active.
Strength and valor are characteristics of a warrior/hunter. Iron, steel and other metals, all forged in the
smithy, are also symbols of strength given the hard texture of the metals. gn, as previously stated, is
the patron of iron and war.
Warriors saw the advantages of going to war under the sign of such a patron: gn could ensure
an inexhaustible supply of iron implements of war. Therefore, since gn is the spirit behind fire and

Page 15 of 23
weapons, he becomes the God of war among warriors. The volcanic origins of the myth are still
invoked to imbue a warrior with the violent temper of a volcano. The Egyptian name for their elite
military unite was qnyt the Braves (a military corps d'elite). The word is a reflex of the name
of the ancient Middle East clan of smith, the Kenites. The name means, belonging to the copper smith.
This word for copper is reflected in Egyptian as gn copper objects, gnw metal pots or
vases.
As noted previously, gn is the patron of both warriors and hunters. The difference between war
and hunting is that in war violence is directed at human beings, whereas in hunting the violence is
directed towards animals. In each endeavor, the same weapons are used: e.g., spear, arrow, javelin, sword,
and now-a-days, the gun (gn). In Yorbland, the hunters predominate in the worship of gn.

gn = Cain of the Bible

As noted by Oduyoye (1996), the name Qayin (Cain) of the Bible is linguistically cognate with gn of
Yorbland. Cain, for the Hebrews, is the patron of violence and was depicted as the being that executed
the first murder. While the Africans venerated gn the patron spirit of iron and war, the Hebrews
vilified him and cursed him to forever be a wanderer.
The word Cain (Qayin) is simply a word designating a craftsman, a metal worker or farmer. It is
seen in the name Tuwbal-Cain, who in Genesis 4:22 was the one who first forged various implements of
copper and iron. The connection between gn and Qayin is beyond simple parallelism, but is a matter of
themes built off of cognate terms.
Comparative linguistics demands that this type of assertion be backed by evidence that will show
a phonological correspondence between the corresponding sounds in the two words. They must both
stand on both legs: in both form and meaning. We need to show, therefore, that Yorb g-n corresponds
with Semitic q-n/q-m. This can be seen in the following table.

Qayin = Cain = gn
Hebrew Yorb Arabic
qum rise up, stand up gn/gun (k) climb (hill) qaama he rose
gn/gun (akaba) climb (a ladder)
qomah height standing gn/gun (esin) ride (a horse)
place O gn he is tall
i.e. it is long
gn it is erect
gn yn she is protruding at the breasts. Her breasts
have become erect.

ogn war maqama combat

gn l to settle aqama to settle, to stay in

a-d-gun-od stagnant waters place

qemah flour gn to pound (pulverize)

gn yn to pound iyn
gnmu medicinal herbs (pound into a powder)

gn barren (woman) aqama sterile

qaneh stalk gn to prick qamh stalk

gn thorns (sharp point)
igun edge (sharp corner)

Page 16 of 23
Qayin Cain gn god of iron Qayn smith
qanah he acquired ogn property, inheritance
miqneh acquisition
qinyah property

As we can see, the sound correspondences are regular. Further data exemplifying the correspondence
between Semitic /q/ and Yorb /g/ can be seen below.

Arabic Hebrew Yorb

foolish hamuq mg fool
wall qiyr giri
fetters qe:d gdgodo padlock
villages qura egur village, countryside
ape qird lgd monkey (metathesis)

gn/Akin God of war/bold, valiant man

While the phonological correspondence of Hebrew /q/ with Yorb /g/ seems to have no complications, it
should be noted that the voiced velar /g/ alternates with its voiceless counterpart /k/ in Yorb: in much
the same way as with the /l/ and /r/ liquids in Yorb. For example, in Hausa we have the word gama to
be complete. Yorb not only has ogn twenty and gn finished product, highest quality, but also
kn it is full (Egyptian qm total up to, amount to, complete; qn complete, accomplish, cease, bring to
an end, to finish off). Compare to ciLuba nko "fullness, completion, perfection."
In utterances, such as found in the structure of Yorb gin, the /g/ tends to be devoiced to /k/.
Hence, Agin- does not occur in Yorb; it is Akin. The gn/akin situation is reflected in Ol-gnn/ekn
cat/tiger. This alternation between /g/ and /k/ has been utilized within Yorb to achieve semantic
shading. We posit that this same process is present in the Egyptian language (e.g., nkt/qnt victory;
qnj/gm powerful; gm power).

Yorb /g/ Yorb /k/ Egyptian ciLuba

Ogn God of iron, war, akinbravery, brave, qn/qni be brave, be di-kima, bu-kitu, mu-kale
hunting valor strong brave
Okun strength qn.t brutality, violence, lu-kana brutality
akoni brave person, valor Cye-nge war
hero bu-kole force, energy,
okn (lion) heart xrw battle, war strength
heart xrw.yt war
xrw.yt war Kanda "to refuse permission,
xrwyw war, rebellion, forbid, prohibit, restrain,
revolt command or order not to do,
disapprove" [n+l>nd]
Hrw terror, dread, kala strength, power
fright
nkama force, might, power,
qny(t) elite corps strength
qn brave man, hero,
soldier, mighty, capable,
active
gn to pound kn to hammer qma to hammer out, to Mu-kanda to pound
kn to be powder create ka-koono(u) powder
smooth (<koona scrape, shave,
grate)

Page 17 of 23
ogn twenty (cf. Hausa kun to be full qm complete, total up nkum end
gama) to, amount to
km complete, total up
to, amount to
gn finished product, okan 1 integer km finished, end, Nkamukilu<kamuka(<kama
grade1 complete finished)
xm to bring to end nkum finished, -kama
stop le-kela to quit
igun angle, edge, kun ends, limits hn to limit, km put to -kama end, mu-kalu limit
extremes an end
gun perspiration ikunmoisture in the Cya-shima moisture,
(moisture) nostrils humidity (k>sh)
gn thorns ikn stalk, reed qn mat Mu-nkan-gi thorns
olgnn cat ekun tiger (cat family)

knnn lion (cat

family)

As we can see here, the Yorb g-n root semantically and phonetically corresponds with Greek nike and
Egyptian nxt/qnt in terms of bravery, strength, violence and war. The ciLuba-Bantu /l/ sound also
corresponds with Egyptian /n/ and the above themes can be seen in ciLuba hale (also kule) to be crazy,
deranged, wild, foolish, mad, reckless, vicious, violent (to become<hala). The /k/ sound can also
alternate with /sh/ in ciLuba, so we have the following reflexes: -shil() "severe, hard, tough, scary,
stiffened, stiff, strong, solid"; -kol -shil() "a great strength." This corresponds to Egyptian xrw war,
battle, which has a reflex: kAhA difficult, strong, wild. We also have in Egyptian
Drj firm, hard, efficient [Wb V 599], where /D/ historically derives from /g/. See also nTrt fixed [Wb II
366]. The /T/ sound in Egyptian derives from Afro-Asiatic /k/.

Conclusion
The Greek word nike means victory and was personified as a goddess that was associated with war,
politics, sport, courting, love and childbirth.12 We posited that this term is actually African and derives
from the Egyptian term nxt victory, mighty, obdurate, stiff, hard, support, stiffen, become hard,
successful, strength, force, strong man, champion, bully, strong of arm, adult, a hero, to protect." This
term was personified as a goddess nxt.t (a form of Hathor) and it was this deity that was directly borrowed
into the Greek pantheon. This term is reflected in ciLuba-Bantu as nke "solid, hard, fixed" (syn.
ndendende "tenacity, toughness, persistence").
Some semantic shading occurs with an alternation of phonemes, and by way of metathesis, which
can be seen in the word qnt victory, might, brutality, violence"; qn 'Brave man, Elite Soldier, Hero"; qnj
"be strong, valiant, mighty, capable, active, conquer, amount (to), be profuse." This form of the word is
cognate with the patron of war and violence in Yorb: gn, which has by-forms of the word rendered
akin bravery, brave, valor; okun strength; akoni brave person, hero; okn (lion) heart heart.
gn, like the goddess Nike, was also associated with war, politics, sport, courting, love and childbirth
(as a god of fertility).
Another association with gn is his role as a fertilizing agent of the earth. In Imhotep
(forthcoming), I have demonstrated the linguistic correspondence between Yorb gn and Igbo
ogwu.13 His role as a spirit of fertility corresponds with the Igbo goddess of fertility Ogwugwu.14

12
See www.goddessnike.com/goddess_nike_and_her_roles.php (retrieved October 23, 2013)
13
Linguistically, names that correspond with gn (g-n) in Yorb will drop the final -n in Igbo (-g-).
14
Ogwugwu is also the spirit of the dark forests.

Page 18 of 23
Ogwugwu literally means well or hole or pit (Umeh 1997). In the town of Ekwulumi, the spirit of
fertility is named Uku, and helps barren women to bare children. gn, in his positive creative aspect,
symbolizes order. gn is also involved in procreation (as farming is an act of creation). gn presides
over the beginning of life and the cutting of the umbilical cord, and he is there at the end of life as well.
gn, it is said, is the hoe that opens the earth to bury you (gn okoko yeri ogu).
Praise poems associated with gn are often sexual in nature. The themes are aimed at
illuminating the generative aspects of gn. For example:

O epn janna bim sil Ijanna.

A gb sok luku oko r oj!

He made his penis lengthen to father a child in the house of Ijanna.

We heard how the penis struck those in the market!

We therefore equate the goddess Nike with Yorb gn. Both names come from a root cognate with
Egyptian nkt/qnt. Although the Egyptians did not deify the latter terms, they deified a variant of this root
as the god @rw (Horus), where x>H and n>r. As noted in Proto-Bantu, *kd bird of prey (hawk) is a
dialectical variant of the Egyptian word Hr or Hrw The god Horus, and derives from the same root
as PB *kd be strong; be hard; be difficult. In ciLuba we have Nkulu, Nkole, Ngal, nGole, Cyal, Kal;
ciKololo hawk, bird, raven. These terms can also refer to a prominent man. We note as well that the
goddess Nike is depicted with wings, just like @rw (Horus) among the ancient Egyptians.
Egyptian H-r is k-l in ciLuba. The k-l root in ciLuba has the following reflexes:

kale, kala15: to be strong, strong, well, vigorous, arduous, firm, steady, solid, hard, immovable,
fixed, steadfast, powerful, robust, tough (as meat), violent, severe, serious (matter), fertile, or rich
or productive (soil), loud (voice); kala (v): to be strong, be full grown, be mature, be firm, be
steady, be stable, be solid, develop, grow, be mature, to exist, to be.

Thus, Nike is a variant of gn (Akin; Qayin/Cain), which are both variants of @rw (Horus). They refer
to the courage, strength and valor needed in times of war and in the hunt. The inspiration comes from
witnessing the wonder and damage done by ancient volcanoes. When surmounted by immeasurable
challenges, it is the spirit of the volcano (an erupting fire; bravery) that allows one to triumph over
adversity. These terms also refer to the instruments of war, which are needed to ensure victory or
success in any battle. The one who has the most advanced weapon, and can wield the weapon most
efficiently, will have the upper hand in a fight.
It is strength, determination and the willingness to never give up (persistence, be stubborn) that
will ensure success in life. These are the characteristics needed in all sports and that is the spirit of what is
captured in the name for the modern sports apparel company: Nike. Although Nike and gn are different
genders, it should be noted that gn is also a goddess in Yorbland (Barnes 1997). We noted that
Yorb g-n can also correspond to Egyptian k-m. Therefore, worthy of consideration is kmjt goddess
[Wb V 130].
Another interesting parallel exists between gn and Nike. However, it is not between the deities
themselves, but between gn and the Nike swoosh symbol on the logo for the apparel company.

15
It should be noted that within ciLuba, the /l/ is often interchangeable with /m/. The /l/ corresponds to Egyptian /m/
and /n/ as well.

Page 19 of 23
The famous swoosh looks like a check sign. But it also looks like the traditional swords of Yorbland,
which can be seen in the image below.

Above is a figure carrying a ceremonial sword called udamalore sword of the well born, from the
Yorb people of Owo, Nigeria | Ivory | Late 19th century. The udamalore is a ceremonial sword worn
by the Olowo, ruler of Owo, and his high-ranking chiefs. It shows the wearer is considered well born,
mature, powerful and influential, a person who is like the elephant. This fragment is from the tip of the
sword blade and portrayed a chiefly figure crowned with a coral openwork cap holding a sword. The cap
originally had a bird, the emblem of spiritual powers, projecting from its side. The shape of the blade may
be inspired by the shape of an elephants trunk. The figure above is currently being held in the
Smithsonians National African Museum of Art, Washington, DC (Object Number: 2005-6-80).
As we can see here, the Nike swoosh and the Yorb udamolare sword are very close in shape. I
do not argue that the Nike Company borrowed this shape and modified it from Africa; just that it is
ironic that an instrument of gn (the sword) would find symmetry in design with a modern sports
company that bears its name unknowingly. Millions of consumers are walking around with a bit of
African religion at the soles of their feet. Maybe this is the secret to Michael Jordans success!

Asar Imhotep

Page 20 of 23
Bibliography
ALLEN, James P. (2005). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Society of Biblical Literature.
_______ (2010). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction into the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, 2nd Edition. Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge.

ASANTE, Molefi A., and Abarry, Abu S. (Eds.). (1996). African Intellectual Heritage: A Book of Sources. Temple University
Press. Philadelphia, PA.

BARNES, Sandra (Ed.) (1997). Africas Ogun: Old World and New. Indiana University Press. Bloomington & Indianapolis.

BENGTSON, John D. (Ed.). (2008). In Hot Pursuit of Language: Essays in Four Fields of Anthropology. John Benjamins
Publishing Company. Philadelphia, PA.
_____ Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages. In Orientalia et Classica
XIX. Aspects of Comparativistics. Moscow, (2008). pp. 45-119.

BERNAL, Martin. (1987). Black Athena Vol. 1. The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. Rutgers University Press. New
Brunswick, NJ.
______(2006). Black Athena Vol. III: The Linguistic Evidence. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ

BILOLO, Mubabinge. (2010). Invisibilite et Immanence du Createur Imn (Amon-Amun-Amen-Iman-Zimin): Exemple de la

Vitalite de lAncien Egyptien ou CiKam dans le Cyena Ntu. Publicationss Universitaires Africaines. Munich, Freising, Kinshasa.
_______ (1986). Le Createur et la Creation dans la Pensee Memphite et Amarnienne: Approche synoptique du Document
Philosophieque de Menphis et du Grand Hymne Theologique dEchnaton. Publications Universitaires Africaines. Kinshasa-
Libreville-Munich.
_______ (2011). Vers un Dictionnaire CiKam-Copte-CiLuba: Bantuite du vocabulaire egyptien-copte dans les essays de
Homburger et dObenga. Academie de la Pensee Africaine. Munich, Freising, Kinshasa.

CAMPBELL-DUNN, GJK. (2006). Who Were the Minoans: An African Answer. Author House.
_______ (2009b). Sumerian Comparative Dictionary. Penny Farthing Press.
_______ (2009a). Sumerian Grammar. Penny Farthing Press.
_______ (2004). Comparative Linguistics: Indo-European and Niger-Congo. Penny Farthing Press.

CHANTRAINE, Pierre. (1928) Sur le vocabulaire maritime des grecs, in trennes de Linguistique: Offertes par quelques amis
mile Benveniste. Paris: Guethner, pp. 125.
([1948] 1973) Grammaire homrique. 2 vols, 5th imp., vol. 1. Paris: Klincksieck.
(1956) tudes sur le vocabulaire Grec. Paris: Klincksieck.
(1961) Morphologie historique du grec. Paris: Klincksieck.
(1966) Grec glauko"v Glauk` o" et mycnien karauko, in Mlanges darchologie, dpigraphie et dhistoire offerts
Jrome Carcopino. Paris: Hachette, pp. 193203.
(196875) Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque. 4 vols. Paris: Klincksieck.

ERMAN, Adolph and Grapow, Hermann. (1971). WRTERBUCH DER AEGYPTISCHEN SPRACHE im Auftrage der deutschen
Akademien hrsg Bd. I-V. Unvernderter Nachdruck. Berlin.

FORD, Clyde. (2009). The Hero With An African Face: Mythic Wisdom of Traditional Africa. Bantam Books. New York, NY.

FU-KIAU, K. K Bunseki. (2006). Simba Simbi: Hold up that which holds you up. Dorrance Publishing, Inc. Pittsburgh, PA.
______ (2001).African Cosmology of the Bantu Kongo: Principles of Life & Living. Athelia Henrietta Press. Brooklyn, NY.
______ (1991).Self Healing Power and Therapy: Old Teachings from Africa. Inprint Editions. Baltimore, MD.

GARDINER. Alan H. (2007). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, 3rd edition. Friffith
Institute Oxford. Cambridge.

HILL, Richard and Hogg, Peter. (1995). A Black Corps d'Elite: An Egyptian Sudanese Conscript Battalion with the French Army
in Mexico, 1863-1867, and its Survivors in Subsequent African History. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing, MI.

DW, E. Blj. (1994). Oludumare: God in Yorb Belief. Africa Tree Press. NY.

IMHOTEP, Asar. (2011a). Passion of the Christ or Passion of Osiris: The Kongo Origins of the Jesus Myth.
MOCHA-Versity Press. Houston, TX.

Page 21 of 23
______ (forthcoming). Ogun, African Fire Philosophy, and the Meaning of KMT. MOCHA-Versity Press.
Houston, TX (unpublished).
______ (2012b). Egypt in its African Context Note 3: Towards a Method for Vocalizing mdw nTr Symbols.
______ (2013). Aaluja: Rescue, Reinterpretation and the Restoration of Major Ancient Egyptian Themes, Vol. I.
MOCHA-Versity Press. Houston, TX.
______ (2010). Reinterpretations of the Ankh Symbol: Emblem of a Master Teacher.
______ (2011c). Reinterpretations of the Ankh Symbol Part II.
______ (2009). The Bakala of North America The living Suns of Vitality: In Search of a
Meaningful Name for African-Americans. MOCHA-Versity Press. Houston, TX.
______ (2008). Esodus: Internal Reflections and Conversations with the Sun. MOCHA-Versity
Press. Houston, TX

LOPRIENO, Antonio. (1995). Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. New York, NY.

MALLORY, J.P and Adams, D.Q. (2006) The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European
World. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.

MEEUSSEN, A.E. (1967), Bantu Grammatical Reconstructions in Africana Linguistica, 3 (*), ps. 79-121).

MORRISON, W.M. (1906). Grammar and Dictionary of the Buluba-Lulua Language: As Spoken in the Upper Kasai and Congo
Basin. American Tract Society. New York, NY.

OBENGA, Theophile. (2004). African Philosophy, The Pharaonic Period: 2780-330 BC. Per Ankh Publishing. Senegal.
_______ (1992). Ancient Egypt & Black Africa: A Students Handbook for the Study of Ancient Egypt in Philosophy, Linguistics
& Gender Relations. Karnak House. London
_______ (2007). Ancient Egyptian and Modern Yorb: Phonetic Regularity. In Ankh Journal #16. Per Ankh. Paris, France.

ODUYOYE, Modupe. (1996). Words and Meaning in Yorb Religion: Linguistic Connections in Yorb, Ancient Egyptian &
Semitic. Karnak House Publishing.
_______ (2001). Yorb Names: Their Structure and their Meanings, 3rd Edition. Daystar Press
_______ (1984). The Sons of Gods and the Daughters of Men: An Afro-Asiatic Interpretation of Genesis 1-11. Orbis Books.

SAMBU, Kipkoeech A. (2008). The Kalenjiin Peoples Egypt Origin Legend Revisited: Was Isis Asiis? 2nd Edition. Longhorn
Publishers. Nairobi, Kenya.
_______ (2011). The Misiri Legend Explored: A Linguistic Inquiry into the Kalenjiin Peoples Oral Tradition of Ancient Egypt.
University of Nairobi Press. Nairobi, Kenya.

SAAKANA, Amon Saba. (Ed.) (1991). African Origins of the Major World Religions, 2nd Edition. Karnak House Publishers.
UK.

SOM, Malidoma. (1994). Of Water and the Spirit: Ritual, Magic, and Initiation in the Life of an African Shaman.
A Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putman Book.

STRONG, James. (1890). A Consise Dictionary of the Words in The Greek Testament; With Their Renderings in the Authorized
English Version. Madison, NJ.

TOWEET, Taaita (1979). A Study of Kalenjiin Linguistics. Keyna Literature Bureau. Nairobi, Kenya.

TURNER, Patricia and Coulter, Charles R. (2001). Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.

VYGUS, Mark. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Dictionary. (downloadable .pdf).

WILKINSON, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. New York, NY.

Websites
Beinlich Egyptian Online Dictionary
http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/er/beinlich/beinlich.html (German)

Canaanite Dictionary
http://canaanite.org/

Page 22 of 23
Dictionnaire ciLuba
http://www.ciyem.ugent.be/ (French)

Kalenjiin Online Dictionary

http://africanlanguages.com/kalenjin/

Meeussens Proto-Bantu Reconstructions

http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/CBOLD/Docs/Meeussen.html

Tower of Babel
http://starling.rinet.ru/

Yorb Dictionary
http://www.Yorbdictionary.com/

Page 23 of 23