Kole, Chittaranjan (Ed.). 2006.

Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in

Plants, Volume I Cereals and Millets. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, New York. (pg 256-
264)

US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA:ARS). 1998.

USDA Nutrient Database, Release 12, Laboratory Home Page.
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/cgi-bin/list_nut_edit.pl [18 July 2010]

Balai Penelitian Tanaman Serealia. 2003. Sorgum. http://balitsereal.litbang.

deptan.go.id/ind//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=76&Itemid=145. [20
Maret 2010]

The Kawali variety is a new superior variety promoted by the Indonesia Research
Board of Cereal Crops (Balai Peneitian Tanaman Serealia Indonesia) in 2001. Kawali
variety is a hybrid from the ICSV 233 pedigree from ICRISAT (India). This variety
has high protein content, compact and big sorghum heads, resistant to different
common diseases and fairly resistant to aphids. The organoleptic test scores for this
variety is the highest compared to UPCSA-S1 and Mandau varieties which were
usually cultivated in Indonesia before 2001 (Balai Penelitian Tanaman Serealia, 2003).

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is the fifth most important cereal crop, after
wheat, rice, maize, and barley. A largely self-pollinated crop, it is grown on over 40 million
hectares (Kole, 2006) in both temperate and tropical regions. Sorghum is mainly grown as a
rainfed crop by subsistence farmers in the semiarid tropical regions of Africa and Asia as
well as by other farmers in the USA and Latin America. It is a suitable crop for drought and
heat-stressed environments and can be grown from sea level to elevations in excess of 300
m, in high rainfall areas, in semiarid regions, and in different seasons.

Sorghum has also been diversified into a sugar source, a construction material, a raw
material for household implements, and a raw material for industry. The change from a
harvested wild plant with much internal variability to an important resource for use and
improvement is the result of management.

Sorghum is adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions but is particularly

adapted to drought. It has a number of morphological and physiological characteristics that
contribute to its adaptation to dry conditions, including an extensive root system, waxy
bloom on the leaves that reduces water loss, and the ability to stop growth in periods of
drought and resume it again when conditions become favorable. It is also tolerant to water
logging and can be grown in high rainfall areas. It is, however, primarily a crop of hot,
semiarid tropical environments with 400 to 600mm rainfall that are too dry for maize. It is
also widely grown in temperate regions and at altitudes of up to 2,300m in the tropics.

Sorghum is an important part of the diets of many people in the world and is
nutritionally rich. It is made into unleavened breads, boiled porridge or gruel, malted
beverages including beer, and specialty foods such as popped grain and syrup from sweet
sorghum. Sorghum starch is manufactured in the USA by a wet-milling process similar to
that used for corn starch, then made into dextrose for use in foods.

Nutritional composition of sorghum

 Average values (per 100g), (USDA:ARS, 1998)

Singh, Ram J and Jauhar, Prem P (Ed.). 2006. Genetic Resources, Chromosome
Engineering and Crop Improvement, Volume 2 Cereals. CRC Press, New York.

Grain sorghum quality is determined by several factors, such as visual quality,

nutritional quality (including whole grain, protein, and starch digestibility; nutrient
bioavailability), antinutritional factors such as tannins, processing characteristics, cooking
quality, and consumer acceptability (Singh and Jauhar, 2006).

Winch, Tony. 2006. Growing Food A Guide to Food Production. Springer, USA.

Nevertheless there are some characteristics of the sorghums that are almost always
found in common, listed below:

Drought resistance: sorghum has been called the “camel of the plant kingdom”, though
in fact most millets are more drought resistant than most sorghums. Sorghum needs much
less water than maize, though young maize plants can be equally drought resistant as
sorghum plants of the same age. The plant has certain features that enable it to survive
drought, such as its ability to remain dormant during dry periods, and then recover.

Adaptability: sorghums can be found which will grow on a wide range of soils and
rainfall.

Intolerance of cold: virtually all of the sorghums are killed by frost.

 Preparation for food: sorghum grain is prepared for eating in many ways like maize,
which it closely resembles both botanically and nutritionally.

Damage by birds: in 1967 it was estimated that the loss of food that year alone in the
Sudan area caused by the Weaver bird (Quelea spp.) was 4 million MT. These birds, and
others, can make devastating attacks on sorghum, unlike maize, which protects its seed
inside a cob.

Pollination: sorghum is mainly self-pollinated, although about 6% crosspollination can

occur, depending on the variety, growing conditions and compactness of the inflorescence

Average yields of sorghum vary widely, from between 300 and 3000 kg/ha for rainfed
crops, to 2–6 MT/ha for irrigated crops. According to FAO the average for the years
1988/90 was 0.4–3.4 MT/ha, for the bottom 10% and top 10% of producer countries
respectively

Smith, C Wayne and Frederikse, Richard A. (Ed.). 2000. Sorghum: Origin,

History, Technology and Production. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Canada.

Bach-Knudsen, K.F., Kirleis, A.W., Eggum, B.O., and Munck, L. 988.

Carbohydrate Composition and Nutritional Quality for Rats of Sorghum to Pepared
from Decorticated White and Whole Grain Red Flour. J. Nutr. 118: 588-597.

Sorghum contains 6.5-7.9% insoluble fiber and 1.1 to 1.23% soluble β-glucans, which
comprise most of the soluble fiber (Bach-Knudsen and Munck, 1985 in Smith et al., 2000)
The whole (red pericarp) and 28% decorticated (white pericarp) caryopses contained,
respectively, 5.9 and 2.1% nonstarch polysaccharids (NSP), 2.7 and 0.8% cellulose, 3.2 and
1.3% noncellulosic polysaccharides (β-glucans), 9.5 and 2.1% dietary fiber, and 4.0 and
1.3% acid detergent fiber.

DRY MILLING

Dry milling processes for sorghum grain vary from cracking to produce a crude product
to dehullig and degermination, which produce highly refined fractions of bran, germ, meal,
flour and grits of various size.

DECORTICATION or Dehulling
 Sorghum kernel's outer layer is abrasively removed until 5 to 20% of the initial weight
is removed, depending on the degree of refinement desired. The decorticated grain is used
directly or cracked and sieved to produce different sized products or ground to fine flour in
an attrition stone or plate mill with sifting to remove large pieces of bran.

http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/compend/text/ch07.htm
 Ragaee, Sanaa. Abdel-Aal, El-Sayed M. and Noaman, Maher. 2006. Antioxidant activity and
nutrient composition of selected cereals for food use. Food Chemistry 98:32-38.

cereal grains contain constituents that have demonstrated health benefits for humans,
such as antioxidants and anti-disease factors. For instance, phytic acid was found to play a
major role in the treatment of cancer, hypercholesterolemia, hypercalcuria and kidney stones

Table. Chemical composition of whole grain sorghum grew at Experimental Farm,

College of Food Systems, UAE University

Chemical Composition
Starch (%dry basis) 67.7 ± 1.2
Protein (%dry basis) 12.1 ± 0.1
Total ash (%dry basis) 1.87 ± 0.03
Crude fat (%dry basis) 3.32 ± 0.1
Soluble dietary fiber (%dry basis) 1.42 ± 0.01
Resistant starch (%dry basis) 1.77 ± 0.02
Insoluble dietary fiber (%dry basis) 19.59 ± 0.41
Total dietary fiber (%dry basis) 21.01 ± 0.41
P (mg/kg) 349.9
K (mg/kg) 239.9
Mg (mg/kg) 187.7
Ca (mg/kg) 27.3
Na (mg/kg) 4.6
Zn (mg/kg) 3.1
Fe (mg/kg) 10.6
Mn (mg/kg) 1.2
Cu (mg/kg) 0.2
Cr (mg/kg) 0.8
Total phenols as gallic acid equivalent 4128 ± 9.3
(µg/g)
DPPH scavenging capacity at 10 min 195.8 ± 8.82
(µmol/g)
Source: Ragaee et al. (2006)

Awika, Joseph M. and Rooney, Lloyd W. 2004. Sorghum phytochemicals and their
potential impact on human health. Phytochemistry 65: 1199-1221.

Scalbert, A., Morand, C., Manach, C., Remesy, C., 2002. Absorption and metabolism of
polyphenols in the gut and impact on health. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy 56: 276–
282.
 Andreasen, M.F., Kroon, P.A., Williamson, G., Garcia-Conesa, M., 2001a. Esterase
activity able to hydrolyze dietary antioxidant hydroxycinnamates is distributed along the
intestine of mammals. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49: 5679–5684.

Clifford, M.N., 2000. Anthocyanins – nature, occurrence and dietary burden. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 80: 1063–1072.

Gouni-Berthold, I., Berthold, H.K., 2002. Policosanol: clinical pharmacology and

therapeutic significance of a new lipid-lowering agent. American Heart Journal 143: 356–
365.

Weller, C.L., Hwang, K.T., 2003. Recoverable lipids from grain sorghum dry distiller’s
grain. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Biennial Sorghum Industry Conference, Albuquerque,
NM.

Castano, G., Menendez, R., Mas, R., Amor, A., Fernandez, J.L., Gonzalez, R.L.,
Alvarez, E., 2002. Effects of lovastatin on lipid profile and lipid peroxidation in patients
with dyslipidemia associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. International Journal of Clinical
Pharmacolology Research 22: 89–99.

King, D., Fan, M.Z., Ejeta, G., Asem, E.K., Adeola, O., 2000. The effects of tannins on
nutrient utilization in the White Peking duck. British Poultry Science 41: 629–630.

Sorghum contains various phytochemicals (including phenolic compounds, plant sterols

and policosanols) that are secondary plant metabolites or integral cellular components
(Awika and Rooney, 2004). Phenols help in the natural defense of plants against pests
(insects) and diseases (fungi), while the plant sterols and policosanols are mostly
components of wax and plant oils. The phytochemicals have gained increased interest due
to their antioxidant activity, cholesterol lowering properties and other potential health
benefits.

The phenols in sorghums fall under two major categories; phenolic acids and
flavonoids. The phenolic acids are benzoic or cinnamic acid derivatives, whereas the
flavonoids include tannins and anthocyanins as the most important constituents isolated
from sorghum to date. The sorghum phenolic acids are mostly concentrated in the bran
(outer covering of grain). The phenolic acids exist mostly in bound forms (esterified to cell
wall polymers), with ferulic acid (a cinnamic acid derivative) being the most abundant
bound PA in sorghum. The phenolic acids are thought to help in plant defense against pests
and pathogens. The phenolic acids show good antioxidant activity in vitro and thus may
contribute significantly to the health benefits associated with whole grain consumption.
Phenolic acids are more readily absorbed than other phenols from food due to their small
molecular sizes (Scalbert et al., 2002). Around 95% of phenolic acids are bound to the cell
wall components. However, Andreasen et al. (2001) demonstrated that human colonic
esterases (mostly of microbial origin) are capable of releasing esterified diferulates and other
hydroxycinnamic acids from cereal brans. This implies that the bound phenolic acids are
potentially bioavailable.

The most common anthocyanins in sorghum are the 3-deoxyanthocyanidins. These

anthocyanins have a small distribution in nature (Clifford, 2000) and are distinct from the
more widely distributed anthocyanidins in that they lack a hydroxyl group at the C-3
position and exist in nature substantially as aglycones. The 3-deoxyanthocyanidins were also
reported to be more stable in acidic solutions relative to the anthocyanidins commonly found
in fruits, vegetables and other cereals. This suggests a potential advantage of sorghum as a
viable commercial source of anthocyanins.

Phytosterols are cholesterol-like compounds that are structural components of plant cell
membranes. In cereals grains they are mostly found in bran and are extractable as part of
bran oil waxes. Sorghum phytosterols are similar in composition to those from corn and
contain mostly free sterols or stanols and their fatty acid/ferulate esters. The sterols and
stanols are structurally similar, except for the presence of a double bond at position 5 in
sterols, which is lacking in stanols.

Policosanols are a mixture of high molecular weight aliphatic alcohols (also called fatty
alcohols) that are part of the wax components of plants. The compounds are currently
commercially obtained from sugarcane wax by hydrolytic cleavage and further purification
(Gouni-Berthold and Berthold, 2002). In sorghum, wax comprises about 0.2% of the grain,
generally higher than in other cereals. The policosanols represent 19–46% of the sorghum
wax, with octacosanol (C28) and triacontanol (C30) as the most abundant . This translates to
approximately 38–92 mg of policosanols in every 100 g sorghum grain. Weller and Hwang
(2003) reported that these compounds may be the most commercially valuable component of
sorghum grain based on their current market value. There is a considerable interest in these
compounds due to their promotion of cardiovascular health, especially through their
cholesterol-lowering properties. Castano et al. (2002) reported that 10 mg/day of policosanol
was more effective than 20 mg/day of lovastatin (currently popular but expensive and
potentially harmful drug) in reducing LDL cholesterol and raising HDL cholesterol levels.
Other positive benefits provided by policosanols include effects on lipid peroxidation,
platelet aggregation and smooth muscle cell proliferation (Castano et al., 2002 and Gouni-
Berthold and Berthold, 2002). The policosanols are destined to gain importance as natural,
safe and effective dietary alternatives to statin medication.
 Sorghum has a big potential, given its agronomic properties, as well as the emerging
evidence on the biological effects of the phytochemicals present in the grain. The
phytochemicals mentioned above have the ability to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
disease and cancer. High tannin sorghum may also exhibit weight-reducing property. King et
al. (2000) reported the inhibition of intestinal brush-border bound amino acid transporters by
sorghum tannins. In Africa, tannin sorghum is preferred as it has a longer "staying power" in
the stomach, i.e., offers durable satiety value. This property may be related to the slow
digestibility and nutrient release from the tannin-complexed food matrix.
 Charalampopoulos, D. Wang, R. Pandiela, S S. and Webb, C. 2002. Application of
cereals and cereal components in functional foods:a review. International Journal of Food
Microbiology 79:131-141.

One of the most important members of the dietary fibre family is β-glucan. It is
unbranched polysaccharides composed of (14) and (1!3) linked h-Dglucopyranosyl units in
varying proportions. Various forms of β-glucan have been recognised as having important
positive therapeutic effects on coronary heart disease, on the reductions of cholesterol and
glycemic response.

Resistant starch has been recognised as a functional fibre performing an important role
in digestive physiology. Similar to oligosaccharides, especially fructooligosaccharides, it
escapes digestion and provides fermentable carbohydrates for colonic bacteria. Resistant
starch has also been shown to provide benefits such as the production of desirable
metabolites including short-chain fatty acids in the colon. In addition to its therapeutic
effects, resistant starch provides better appearance, texture, and mouthfeel than conventional
fibres.