PHENOMENOLOGICAL MODELS FOR TURBULENCE

Reynolds Equation

Since turbulence is a continuum phenomenon, the instantaneous velocity and

pressure fields satisfy the Navier-Stokes equation. i.e.,

u i u i p 2ui

+uj = + (1)
t x j x i x j x j

u i
= 0. (2)
x i

During a turbulent motion u and p are random functions of space and time.
Hence, these may be decomposed into mean and fluctuating parts, i.e.

u = U + u , U i = u i , u i = 0 , (3)

p = P + p , P = p , p = 0 , (4)

where U and P are the mean quantities and u ' and p' are the fluctuating parts. Here, a
bar on the top of the letter stands for the (time) averaged quantity. That is

1 t+T
T T
u i = lim u i dt (5)
t0

The probabilistic (ensemble) average is defined as

+
< u i >= u f (u)du ,

i (6)

where f (u ) is the probability density function of u . Ergodicity assumption implies that

the time average and ensemble average are equal. Hence,

u i =< u i >= U i (7)

Note that the ergodicity hypothesis has not been proven for turbulence; however, it is
commonly used to relate the theoretical results to the experimental data.

It is also well known that while u i = 0 , p' = 0 ,

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 u i u j 0 , p' u i 0 , u i u j u k 0 . (8)

About a century ago, Reynolds suggested to use the decomposition given by (2)
and (3) into the Navier-Stokes equation and average the resulting equation. Noting that

u i
U i u j = U i u j = 0 , = 0, (9)
x j

it follows that

U U i uu
= P + U i i j ,
2
i + U j (10)
t x j x i x j x j x j

U i
=0 (11)
x i

Equation (10) is referred to as the Reynolds equation. The term u i u j is the stress
induced by the turbulent fluctuation. i.e.,

Tij = u i u j = Tji (12)

Equation (10) may be restated as

U U i U j
i + U j = P ij + ( U i + ) u i u j (13)
x j
t x j x j x i

U i U j
where ij = P ij + ( + ) is the mean viscous stress tensor and u i u j is the
x j x i
turbulent stress tensor.

The Reynolds stress (turbulent stress) is a symmetric tensor and its components
are given by

u 2 u v u w

tT
= u v v 2
v w .
(14)

u w v w w 2

Note that the turbulent stresses introduce six additional unknowns into the
averaged Navier-Stokes equation.

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Phenomenological Theories of Turbulence

The classical phenomenological theories of turbulence are referred to as the first-

order closures (closure at the order of the first moment) or zero-equation models (no
additional differential equation are introduced to solve).

Boussineq Eddy Viscosity Model

Boussineq suggested

u k u k U U j
Tij = ij + T i + ,
(15)
3
j x x i

where

T = T

is the eddy viscosity. For plane shear flow,

U
12
T
= T = T . (16)
y

It is now well recognized that T is not a constant and is strong function of state of
turbulent motion.

Prandtl Mixing Length Hypothesis y U

Prandtl argued that l

l
T = u v (17)

and for a thin shear layer

1 1
dU
(u 2 ) 2 ~ ( v 2 ) 2 ~ l , (18)
dy

where l is the mixing length. Hence,

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 U U
T = l 2 , (19)
y dy

or

U
T = l 2 . (20)
y

G.I. Taylor recovered the mixing length hypothesis based on a vorticity transport
formulation and von Karman used a similarity analysis for estimating the mixing length
as

dU
dy
l= 2 (21)
d U
dy 2

The mixing length theory has dominated the field of turbulence modeling for
more than half a century. It is now known that the mixing length hypothesis works for
turbulent flows, which are characterized by single length and velocity scales. The reason
for its effectiveness is simply due to dimensional requirements!

Logarithmic Velocity Near a Wall

Near a wall, there is a region (inertial sublayer) where turbulence is characterized

by a single length scale (distance from the wall y ) and a single velocity scale (shear
0
velocity = u * = ). In this region,

l = y , = 0.4 = von Karman constant (22)

and the shear stress is about 0 . Equation (19), then implies

2
U
0 = y
2 2
, (23)
y

or

dU u *
= . (24)
dy y

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Integrating Equation (24), it follows that

U 1
= U + = ln y + c , (25)
u *

or
+1 + + u *y
U = ln y + B , y = , ( 30 < y + 300 ) (26)

where B 5 .

Very near wall, in the viscous sublayer, turbulence fluctuation becomes small and
the viscous stress becomes dominant. As a result,

dU
0 = (27)
dy
or
2 dU dU +
u* = , =1 (28)
dy dy +
Hence,

U + = y+ ( 0 < y + 5 ). (29)

A schematics of the velocity profile is shown in the figure. Reichardt suggested a

smooth curve for the buffer region (Schlichting, McGraw-Hill, 1960). Outside the
1 1

viscous sublayer approximate expressions given by u + = 8.74( y + ) 7 and u + = 11.5( y + ) 10

may be used.

30
U+
20
U + = 2 .5 ln y + + 5 . 5
10
U + = y+
12 30 300
Schematics of turbulent velocity profile near a wall.

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