TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUE OF ENGINEERING

A
Course Manual
On

MICRO-HYDRO PWER
(BELEL)

B.E. in Electrical Engineering

BY

Shahabuddin Khan
(Lecturer)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Western Regional Campus
Pokhara-16, Nepal
 Preface

This manual entitled A course manual On Micro-Hydro Power for Bachelor in Electrical
Engineering [BEL (IV/II)] is compiled according the need of students of Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuwan University.

The main aim of this manual is to cover the latest syllabus of Bachelor in Electrical
Engineering [BEL]. This manual covers all the basic concept regarding to micro-hydro design

We want to express gratitude to Electrical departments teachers for their valuable suggestion,
inspiration and full support for making it possible

Lastly, we would like to thank my parents and my closest friends for their continuous support
and words of advice.

Thank you,

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to thank Dr. Basanta Gautam, HOD Paschimanchal Campus (WRC) for his valuable
guidelines and ways for manual production.

I am very grateful to Mr. Bhirgu Raj Bhattarai, coordinator, Thesis steering Committee, Western
Region Campus. It will be non forgettable their suggestion and advices for the production of manual
to fulfill the subject syllabus requirement.

I would like to thank Er. Sikendra Mahoto, Er.Nitesh Kumar Yadav, Er. Bibek Adhikari, Er. Suraj
Shrestha for their valuable cooperation and curriculum coverage.

I am very grateful to the my fellow student Sajeet Poudel , Bishal Rimal, Ganesh Bhandari, Paras
Subedi and Gaurav Sapkota who helped us to improve the quality of this manual.

I am only solely taken the responsibility of any possible mistakes that may have occurred while
preparing the manual. Welcome, comment, queries and suggestion for further improvement will be
highly appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.

Thank you.

sworld.sk.sk@gmail.com

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Micro hydro basics and status in Nepal ............................................................................... 1
1.1 Micro hydro ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO HYDRO .............................................................................. 1
1.3 Need of micro hydro .................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Advantage of micro-hydro ........................................................................................................... 1
1.5 Disadvantages of Micro Hydro .................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Comparison of Micro-Hydro with other renewable energy sources:........................................... 3
1.7 Power from water ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.8 Typical layout of Micro- Hydro ................................................................................................... 4
1.9 Components of Micro Hydro ....................................................................................................... 4
1.10 Micro-hydro Schemes ................................................................................................................ 5
1.11 Micro Hydro Design Approach ................................................................................................. 6
1.12 Golden Rule for MHP Design.................................................................................................... 7
1.13 Micro hydro in Nepal ................................................................................................................. 7
1.14 Organizations involved in Micro hydro ..................................................................................... 7
1.15 Status of micro hydro power in Nepal ....................................................................................... 8
1.16 Factors helping growth of micro-hydro in Nepal ...................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Hydrological and demand survey......................................................................................... 9
2.1 Hydrograph .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Exceedance Curve / Flow Duration Curve .................................................................................. 9
2.3 Conversion of Hydrograph to FDC.............................................................................................. 9
2.3 Importance of Flow Duration Curve: ......................................................................................... 10
2.4 Types of FDC ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.4.1 Steep Flow .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Flat Flow ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.5 Compensation Flow ................................................................................................................... 11
2.6 Hydrological cycle ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.7 Load Factor ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.8 Plant Factor ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.8.1 Plant factor from Calculation of FDC ................................................................................. 13
2.8.2 Importance of Plant factor .................................................................................................. 13
2.8.3 Factors for Improving Plant Factor ..................................................................................... 13
2.9 Matching Power Supply and Demand ....................................................................................... 13

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 2.9.1 Steps for matching supply and demand .............................................................................. 14
2.10 Capability and Demand Survey ............................................................................................... 15
2.10.1 Need for Capability and Demand Survey ......................................................................... 15
2.10.2 Items to be covered by Capability and Demand Survey ................................................... 16
2.11 Selection of micro hydro sites.................................................................................................. 16
2.11.1 Basic Reference Materials ................................................................................................ 16
2.11.2 Radius of Site Identification ............................................................................................. 17
2.11.3 Calculation of River Flow ................................................................................................. 17
2.12 Methods of finding ADF (annual average daily flow)............................................................. 18
2.12.1 Possible Steps to follow in absence of Rain Gauge for determining ADF ....................... 19
2.13 Flow Prediction by Correlation Method .................................................................................. 19
2.14 Site Survey: .............................................................................................................................. 20
2.14.1 Measuring Head: ............................................................................................................... 20
2.14.2 Measuring Flow .................................................................................................................... 23
2.15 Load Demand Curves .............................................................................................................. 27
2.15.1 Factors to consider in demand survey............................................................................... 28
2.15 Peak Demand Forecasting.................................................................................................... 28
2.16 Optimum Generating Installed Capacity ................................................................................. 29
2.17 Geological Consideration......................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3: Turbines, drive system and governors ............................................................................... 30
3.1 Turbine ....................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.1 Types of turbine .................................................................................................................. 30
3.1.2 Turbines for MHP ............................................................................................................... 30
3.1.3 Pelton Wheel .................................................................................................................. 30
3.1.4 Turgo Turbine ................................................................................................................ 34
3.1.5 Cross Flow Turbines ...................................................................................................... 34
3.1.6 Comparison of costs of the turbines.................................................................................... 36
3.1.7 Effect on efficiency during part flow conditions ................................................................ 36
3.1.8 Nomogram .......................................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Drive systems ........................................................................................................................ 39
3.2.1 Essential elements of Drive System:................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Types of Drive System........................................................................................................ 39
3.2.3 Information needed for designing or selection of a drive system ....................................... 41
3.2.4 Procedure for design of a drive system ............................................................................... 42
3.3 Governor................................................................................................................................ 43

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 3.3.1 Components of Governor .................................................................................................... 43
3.3.2 Necessity of Governor ........................................................................................................ 43
3.3.3 Type of Governor ................................................................................................................ 43
3.3.4 Working Principle of Speed Governor ............................................................................... 44
3.3.5 Working Principle of Dummy Load Governor ................................................................... 44
3.3.6 Comparison between Speed Governor and Dummy Load Governor ................................. 44
3.3.7 Specifying the Governor ..................................................................................................... 45
3.3.8 Electronic Load Controller (ELC) ...................................................................................... 45
Chapter 4: Generators and voltage regulators ...................................................................................... 49
4.1 Generator.................................................................................................................................... 49
4.2 Types of Generator .................................................................................................................... 49
4.2.1 Comparison between A.C and D.C power .......................................................................... 49
4.2.2 Choice for A.C Power ......................................................................................................... 49
4.2.3 Choice for D.C Power ......................................................................................................... 50
4.3.4 Types of A.C. Generator ..................................................................................................... 50
4.3.5 Choice between single and three phase supply ................................................................... 62
4.3.6 Comparison between IGC and ELC ................................................................................... 63
Chapter 5: protection, Switchgear and measurement .......................................................................... 64
5.1 Protection ................................................................................................................................... 64
5.2 Role of Protection System ......................................................................................................... 64
5.3 Basic objectives of system protection: ....................................................................................... 64
5.4 Single Line diagram of Power Plant with Low Tension Distribution Line ............................... 64
5.5 Single line Diagram of micro-hydro .......................................................................................... 65
5.6 Switchgear.................................................................................................................................. 65
5.6.1 Isolators ............................................................................................................................... 66
5.6.2 Fuses ................................................................................................................................... 66
5.6.3 Main switch......................................................................................................................... 67
5.6.4 Circuit Breaker: ................................................................................................................... 67
5.6.5 Oil Circuit Breakers (OCB) ................................................................................................ 68
5.6.6 Air Circuit Breaker ............................................................................................................. 68
5.6.7 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker............................................................................................ 69
5.6.8 Moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) ............................................................................. 69
5.6.9 Contractors .......................................................................................................................... 70
5.6.10 Changeovers ...................................................................................................................... 70
5.7 Over current trip ......................................................................................................................... 71

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 5.8 Under/Over voltage trip ............................................................................................................. 71
5.8 Under/Over frequency trip ......................................................................................................... 71
5.9 Temperature trip......................................................................................................................... 71
5.10 Lightening protection ............................................................................................................... 72
5.11 Earthing System ....................................................................................................................... 72
5.12 Metering Equipment ................................................................................................................ 72
5.12.1 Voltmeter .......................................................................................................................... 72
5.12.2 Ammeter ........................................................................................................................... 72
5.12.3 Energy Meter .................................................................................................................... 73
5.12.4 Pressure Gauge.................................................................................................................. 74
5.12.5 Speed meter ....................................................................................................................... 74
5.12.6 Frequency Meter ............................................................................................................... 75
5.13 Appropriate choice of switchgear, protection and measurement: ............................................ 75
Chapter 6: TESTING, COMMISSIONING, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ........................ 76
6.1 Testing and commissioning ....................................................................................................... 76
6.1.1 Headwork: ........................................................................................................................... 76
6.1.2 Electro-mechanical equipment............................................................................................ 76
6.1.3 Alternator ............................................................................................................................ 77
6.1.4 Loading machine on main load ........................................................................................... 78
6.1.5 Taking readings ................................................................................................................... 79
6.1.6 Setting up trips .................................................................................................................... 79
6.2 Operation and Maintenance: ...................................................................................................... 80
6.2.1 Necessity of O&M .............................................................................................................. 80
6.2.2 O and M Responsibilities .................................................................................................... 81
6.2.3 O+M Documents ................................................................................................................. 81
6.3 Micro-hydro fault diagnosis ....................................................................................................... 83
Chapter 7: FINANCIAL EVLAUTION, TARIFF DESIGN AND ISSUES IN MICROHYDRO ..... 91
7.1 Time value of money: ................................................................................................................ 91
7.2 Compounding and discounting: ................................................................................................. 91
7.3 Future and present value: ........................................................................................................... 92
7.4 Cash flow: .................................................................................................................................. 92
7.5 B/C ratio: .................................................................................................................................... 92
7.6 Net Present Value ...................................................................................................................... 93
7.7 Internal rate of return: ................................................................................................................ 93
7.8 Payback Period: ......................................................................................................................... 93

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 7.8.1 Simple payback period ........................................................................................................ 93
7.8.2 Discounted payback period ................................................................................................. 93
7.9 Comparison of alternatives:- ...................................................................................................... 93
7.10 Tariff Category......................................................................................................................... 94
7.10.1. Objective of Tariffs: ......................................................................................................... 94
7.10.2. PRINCIPLES OF TARRIF DESIGN .............................................................................. 94
7.10.3. Types of Tariff ................................................................................................................. 94
7.11 Unit energy cost ....................................................................................................................... 96
7.12 Issues in Micro Hydro .............................................................................................................. 96
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 99
Appenix A .......................................................................................................................................... 100
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................ 101
Tutorial 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 102
Tutorial 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 103
Tutorial 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 104
Tutorial 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 105
PRACTICAL DESIGN PROBLEM .................................................................................................. 106

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 SYLLABUS
MICROHYDRO POWER
EE
1. Micro hydro basics and status in Nepal (2 hours)
1.1. Necessity of micro hydro power, Power from water, typical layout, isolated /mini grid or
grid connected scheme, Micro hydro design approach, Status of micro hydro power
development in Nepal and agencies involved.
2. Hydrological and demand survey (7 hours)
2.1. Plant factor and load factor, Hydrograph and flow duration curve, Hydrological cycle,
Matching power supply with demand, Capability and demand survey, Methods of finding
ADF (annual average daily flow), Methods of head measurements, Methods of flow
measurements, load demand curves of various loads, Peak demand forecasting, Optimum
generating installed capacity, Geological consideration.
3. Turbines, drive system and governors: (9 hours)
3.1. Turbine types for micro hydro, their constructional features and operational
characteristics, Effect on efficiency during part flow conditions, Nomo-gram and turbine
selection, Comparison of costs of the turbines
3.2. Introduction to drive system, Various drive arrangements and their features, Drive
problem, Design parameters for a drive system
3.3 purpose of speed governing, Various governing mechanisms, Electrical load controller as
a governor in micro hydro, Ballast load, water cooled and air cooled ballasts, Effect of ballast
on generator sizing, Ballast sizing.
4. Generators and voltage regulators (9 hours)
4.1. Choice between AC and DC, Synchronous generator specifications, Brushless
synchronous generator and its operational features, voltage regulation, Automatic voltage
regulator (AVR), Practical consideration for AVR, Induction generator specifications and its
operation, Induction generator controller, Induction generator sizing, Sizing of excitation
capacitance, comparison of induction generator with other systems, Mechanical consideration
to be given to the induction generators.
5. Switchgear, protection and measurement: (4 hours)
5.1. Isolators, fuses, main switches, Moulded case circuit breakers(MCCB), Oil and air CB,
earth leakage CB, contactors, Under voltage trips, Over voltage trips, Over current trips,
temperature trips, lightening protection, Earthing system, metering equipment, voltmeter,
ammeterAC and DC, Energy meter, speed meter, pressure gauge, frequency meter,
appropriate choice of switchgear, protection and measurement.
6. Testing , Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance: (5 hours)
6.1. Head works, Electromechanical equipment, Alternator, Loading machine on main load,
Taking readings, Setting up trips.
6.2. Types of manualsoperation manual, component manual, installer manual, preventive
maintenance schedule, log sheet, repair manual, training manual, responsibility of designers,
installer and users as regards to O and M.
7. Financial Evaluation, Tariff design and Issues in Micro hydro: (9 hours)
7.1. Cost elements, the time value of money, compounding and discounting, Future and
present values, Cash flows, Benefit cost ratio, Net present value, Internal rate of return,
Comparison with alternatives

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7.2. Tariff category, Principals of tariff design, Unit energy cost, Flat power tariff vs. energy
tariff.
7.3. Issues: Reliability, funding requirement, Subsidy policy and mechanism, Cost per KW,
Sustainability, Operation and maintenance, Local peoples participation, End use of
electricity for project viability.

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Chapter 1: Micro hydro basics and status
in Nepal
1.1 Micro hydro
Micro hydro is a type of hydroelectric power that typically produces from 5 kW to 100 kW of
electricity using the natural flow of water. These type of power plant can provide power to an isolated
home or a small community. Micro-hydro system complement solar energy because in many areas in
winter the water flow is maximum and solar energy is minimum. In such areas micro-hydro power is
used along with photo voltaic solar energy.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO HYDRO

100 kW (300 kW) or below
Mainly run-of-river type and waterway type
Stable generation source for the rural electrification
Supply to:
Just rural industry or a factory for self-use
One or several isolated rural communities
Mini-grid in rural area
Generation technology with a history and a simple principle that can be managed by local
people
Minimal environmental impact
High initial costs, but no fossil fuel required for its operation
Provides electricity for lighting, livelihood activities and other multipurpose development
Power can be supplied for 24 hours a day

1.3 Need of micro hydro

1. Rural Electrification: Micro hydro are very simple and can provide a means for power supply
to those area which are isolated from national grid.
2. Climate change: To minimize the change in climate due to use of fossil fuel for power
generation, it is better to use micro-hydro.
3. Cost: Lowest cost per watt hour
4. Economic Growth of Country: Best way for increasing power and hence economic-social
growth of people and country

1.4 Advantage of micro-hydro

Following are the advantageous of micro-hydro:
Efficient energy source
It only takes a small amount of flow (as little as two gallons per minute) or a drop as low as
two feet to generate electricity with micro hydro. Electricity can be delivered as far as a mile
away to the location where it is being used.

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 Reliable electricity source
Hydro produces a continuous supply of electrical energy in comparison to other small-scale
renewable technologies. The peak energy season is during the winter months when large
quantities of electricity are required.
No reservoir required
Micro hydro is considered to function as a run-of-river system, meaning that the water passing
through the generator is directed back into the stream with relatively little impact on the
surrounding ecology.
Cost effective energy solution
Building a small-scale hydro-power system can cost from $1,000 $20,000, depending on site
electricity requirements and location. Maintenance fees are relatively small in comparison to
other technologies.
Power for developing countries
Because of the low-cost versatility and longevity of micro hydro, developing countries can
manufacture and implement the technology to help supply much needed electricity to small
communities and villages.
Integrate with the local power grid
If your site produces a large amount of excess energy, some power companies will buy back
your electricity overflow. You also have the ability to supplement your level of micro power
with intake from the power grid.

1.5 Disadvantages of Micro Hydro

Following are the advantageous of micro-hydro:
Suitable site characteristics required
In order to take full advantage of the electrical potential of small streams, a suitable site is
needed. Factors to consider are: distance from the power source to the location where energy
is required, stream size (including flow rate, output and drop), and a balance of system
components inverter, batteries, controller, transmission line and pipelines.
Energy expansion not possible
The size and flow of small streams may restrict future site expansion as the power demand
increases.
Low-power in the summer months
In many locations stream size will fluctuate seasonally. During the summer months there will
likely be less flow and therefore less power output. Advanced planning and research will be
needed to ensure adequate energy requirements are met.
Environmental impact
The ecological impact of small-scale hydro is minimal; however the low-level environmental
effects must be taken into consideration before construction begins. Stream water will be
diverted away from a portion of the stream, and proper caution must be exercised to ensure
there will be no damaging impact on the local ecology or civil infrastructure.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
1.6 Comparison of Micro-Hydro with other renewable energy sources:
Advantage:
It has several advantages over wind, wave and solar power, namely:
a high efficiency (70 - 90 per cent), by far the best of all the technologies
a high capacity factor, i.e. time generating power throughout the year; (typically greater than
50 per cent compared with 10 per cent for solar and 30 per cent for wind)
a high level of predictability, varying with annual rainfall patterns
a slow rate of change; the output power varies only gradually from day to day (not from minute
to minute)
it is a long-lasting and robust technology; systems can readily be engineered to last for 50 years
or more
it is environmentally benign; micro-hydro is in most cases run-of-river; in other words, any
dam or barrage is quite small, usually just a weir, and little or no water is stored
Disadvantage:
Site specific: Only possible where net head and discharge are available while solar can be
installed anywhere but wind power generation is also site specific.
Wear out: Rotating parts may wear out.
In cold climate water may freeze within pipes while there is no problem to other technologies.

1.7 Power from water

A hydropower scheme requires both
water flow (discharge) and a drop of
height (head) to produce power. It is a
power conversion system that absorbs
power in the form of head and flow and
delivers power in the form of electrical
or mechanical shaft power.
We know. E=mgh
Equation may be rewritten as
E = x V x g x h [(kg/m3) x (m3) x (m/s2) x m] [ = ]
= 1000 x V x g x h [kg x (m/s2) x m]
= 1000 x V x g x h [N x m]
= 1000 x V x g x h [J]
The corresponding power may be calculated as
P = E/t [J/s] = E/t [W]
= 1000 x V x g x h/t [W]
= 1000 x (V/t) x g x h [W] = Q x g x h [kW]
Pinput = 10* Q*h [kW]

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 Pout =

= 0.95*0.9*0.8*0.85*0.96*0.9*Pin
= 0.5*Pin
= 5*Q*h KW if, Q is in m/s and h in m.
= 5*Q*h W if, Q is in lps and h in m.

1.8 Typical layout of Micro- Hydro

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S. Khan B. Rimal
1.9 Components of Micro Hydro
1.9.1 Weir
Obstruction in the river to raise the water level to divert water to headrace.
Require neither a high dam nor a big reservoir.
1.9.2 Intake
Structure to take water from the river.
1.9.3 Settling Basin
A pond to collect and flush out sediments like sand and soil
To prevent for suspended materials to enter the waterway. Sometimes omitted in cases that
inflowing sand and soil is minimal.
1.9.4 Headrace
Conveys water from the intake to the forebay
Usually an open canal made of concrete, but sometimes it is made of soil and/or pipes.
1.9.5 Forebay
A pond-like structure at the top of the penstock to take water in the penstock from waterway
A spillway is connected to a forebay.
Functions as a final settling basin for suspended materials in water.
1.9.6 Penstock
Pipe to convey water from forebay to turbine.
Steel pipe in case of high pressure.
Hard vinyl chloride plastic pipes or FRP(Fiber Reinforced Plastic) pipes in case of low pressure
1.9.7 Power House
A house for electro-mechanical equipment (turbine, generator, controllers and panels)
Sufficient space for dismantling equipment during repair and maintenance activities.
1.9.8 Turbine
Converts the water energy to rotational power
1.9.9 Generator
Generates electricity from the rotational power of the turbine.

1.10 Micro-hydro Schemes

They are classified as:
i. On the basis of size:

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 ii. On the basis of grid connection:
Grid Connected Plant: Those MHP which generates power for its primary load and is also
connected to the grid for exchange of power between MHP and Grid are called Grid Connected
Scheme. When power generation is greater than local demand MHP sells its power to the grid
and when load is excess to its capacity it buys from grid. This is an example of implementation
of net-metering system.
Isolated system or Standalone System: Those MHP which operates separately and keep the
load and supply balance are called isolated MHP Scheme.

Table: Comparison Between Grid-connected and Isolated System

1.11 Micro Hydro Design Approach

CAPABILITY AND DEMAND SURVEY
To explore what demand is there for a new scheme,
how much and where it is needed and in what form,
Whether there is willingness and ability (capability) to pay.
HYDROLOGY AND SITE SURVEY
This establishes the hydropower potential of the site.
It shows how the water flow varies throughout the year,
Where must be taken for the cheapest and most effective scheme.
It shows how much power will be available and when it will be available.
PRE-FEASIBILITY SURVEY
Quick cost study of a range of design options and rural energy source from both view
consumer as well as funder.
Must compare result of energy demand survey with the hydrology study i.e. supply
demand matching.
Recommendation for management structure, tariff structure etc. and time-scale for
institution-building and management skills
FEASIBILITY SURVEY
Detailed engineering calculation and coasting
Golden Rule O+M first, economics and plant factor second, engineering Design
last.

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 Set out in detail about the tariff structure and how it will be implemented
Obligation and priority rights are determined.

1.12 Golden Rule for MHP Design

O+M first, economics and plant factor second, engineering Design last is the Golden rule for
MHP design.
Why Golden Rule??
Because success of the scheme depends in the end on correct operational procedures and
effective management of the scheme when operating.
To tailor the technical design to suit the level of operational and organizational resources
(skills, finance, accessibility, repair workshop techniques and tools) in the region.
To tailor the technical design to meet local economic conditions, such as the financial resources
of the users, how much they can afford to pay for the hydro installation and how much time
they can devote to managing it in future years given their priorities.

1.13 Micro hydro in Nepal

Micro hydro has existed in Nepal for centuries and in the form of milling (Pani Ghatta). The first
modern micro hydro plant was installed just only four decades ago which further followed by the
installation of thousands of plants. Those plants were used initially for the purpose of milling only.
However the micro hydro has increasingly used as add-on and standalone system for the purpose of
electric lighting over the last two decades.
The history of micro hydropower starts with enthusiasm to improve water mills aiming to perform
water mills better and generate electricity of nominal capacity. With successful results the enthusiasts
started to look for wider options. Balaju Yantra Shala established in 1960 through Swiss assistance.
UMN established of institutions to support technology development mostly in Butwal, 1960-1970.
The first micro hydropower plant of 5 kW capacity was installed in Godavari, Kathmandu with the
Swiss Assistance in 1962 AD. Addition of generators for electrification and the establishment of
private manufacturing companies further spread in eighties and subsequent decades. Most of
equipment or components (e.g., Turbines, Trash Racks, Mild steel Pipes, Conductors and Load
Controllers) are, in general, locally manufactured in Nepal. Generator and valves are imported from
abroad especially from India and china, and also from Europe in some cases.

1.14 Organizations involved in Micro hydro

Following are the organization involved in micro-hydro for the development of micro
hydro in Nepal.
Annapurna Area Conservation Project (ACAP) and Canadian Center for International Studies are
the most prominent among the number of NGOs and INGOs in the micro hydro sector.
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) under the Ministry of Environment as a policy and
advisory body, in 1996 which promote the use of alternative/renewable energy technologies and co-
works with the development partners, private sectors, NGOs/INGOs to provide policy, technical and
financial support.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) and the Agricultural Development Bank of
Nepal (ADB/N) initialed a joint programme in order to enhance the technological base of the micro-
hydro installations in the country.
Rural Energy Development Programme (REDP) of the United Nations Development Programme
provides significant assistance to the program to uplift the living standard of rural population during
the programme.
The Nepal Government Remote Area Development committee (RADC), another key player, supports
community owned plants with an aim of achieving regionally balanced growth, efforts are directed at
remote areas.

1.15 Status of micro hydro power in Nepal

With the active participation from the private sector and through the technical and financial assistance
of AEPC and other national/international financing agencies, around 3,300 MHPs have been installed
in the country in hilly and mountains locations. These mini/micro/ Pico hydropower plants are
generating close to 30,000 kW of installed capacity to provide electricity for about 350,000 households
approximately.
The present policies also make subsidy in the cost of electrical equipment and transmission and
distribution systems. The subsidy is 75% in remote mountainous district and 50% in the remaining
district. This has been promoting for the development of Micro hydro development in rural areas.

1.16 Factors helping growth of micro-hydro in Nepal

External Technical Assistance,
Indigenous Innovation And Conducive Government Policies
Government Subsidy For The Last Two Decades, Initially From The Agricultural
Development Bank Of Nepal (ADB/N) And More Recently From The Alternative Energy
Promotion Center (AEPC) Interim Rural Energy Fund (IREF)

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 Chapter 2: Hydrological and demand
survey
2.1 Hydrograph
A hydrograph is a graph showing
the rate of flow (discharge) versus time
past a specific point in a river, or other
channel or conduit carrying flow. It shows
how flow varies throughout the year. It
also help to know the time for which
specific flow is available for e.g.
Discharge of 200 l/s is available only 9
months.
Fig: Hydrograph

2.2 Exceedance Curve / Flow Duration Curve

The FDC shows how flow is distributed over a period (usually
a year). The vertical axis gives the flow, while the horizontal
axis gives the percentage of the year that the flow exceeds the
value given on the y-axis. The Flow Duration Curve is one of
the most fundamental pieces of information that feeds into the
design of a hydropower project.

2.3 Conversion of Hydrograph to FDC

By taking all the flow records over many years and placing those with the highest figures on
the left and the lower figures placed progressively over to the right. Follow following Step and we get
FDC:
Step1: Record the data [Discharge and Time] from Hydrograph.
Step 2: Arrange the data in descending order of discharge.
Step 3: Express the time in term of percentage. It is found by dividing 100% by number of data points.
Step 4: Now plot the graph between Discharge vs % exceedance time.

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 STEP 1 STEP 2

STEP 3 [100%/10=10%] STEP 4

2.3 Importance of Flow Duration Curve:

FDC is more useful when calculating the energy available for a hydro-power scheme.
The FDC can immediately indicate the level of flow that will be available for at least x% of the
year (known as Qx).
Helps in determining minimum and maximum flow.
This is a useful planning tool, allowing a choice of size of turbine and indicates required
variable flow performance of turbine.
Further it gives the idea about irrigation plan, water resources project and for design of drainage
system and in flood control system.

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2.4 Types of FDC
2.4.1 Steep Flow
A steep flow duration curve is bad for micro-hydro. It implies a flashy catchment
one which is subjected to extreme floods and draughts.
Factor which cause a catchment to be flashy; are:
Rocky, shallow Soil
Lack of vegetation cover
Steep, short streams
Uneven rainfall (frequent storms, long dry periods)

2.4.2 Flat Flow

A flat flow duration curve is good because it means that the total annual flow will be
spread more evenly over the year, giving a useful flow for longer periods, and less severe floods.
Characteristics of a flat FDC are:
Deep Soil
Heavy vegetation
Long, gently sloping streams
Bogs, marshes
Even rainfall ( temperate or two monsoons)

2.5 Compensation Flow

A portion of the flow, historically called the compensation flow (but now also referred to as the
residual, reserved, prescribed or hands-off flow), may need to by-pass the scheme for aesthetic
or environmental reasons. In schemes where water is diverted from the main course of the river this
compensation flow is needed to maintain the ecology and aesthetic appearance of the river in the
depleted stretch.

Fig: Hydrograph and FDC with Compensation flow

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2.6 Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle is the
system which describes the
distribution and movement of
water between the earth and its
atmosphere. It is commonly
known as the Water Cycle. The
model involves the continual
circulation of water between the
oceans, the atmosphere,
vegetation and land. The water
cycle is driven by energy from the
sun. It is a sequence of conditions
through which water passes or
circulates on and below the
earths surface and the
atmosphere.
The water cycle has four stages:
storage, evaporation, precipitation, and run-off.

2.7 Load Factor

The load factor is defined as the average load divided by the peak load in a specified time period

=


=

The load factor considers consumer behavior pattern and the average consumption of power by the
households. The higher the load factor is, the smoother the load profile is, and the more the
infrastructure is being utilized. The highest possible load factor is 1, which indicates a flat load
profile.

2.8 Plant Factor

The ratio total energy consumed in a particular period to the maximum energy available from the
plant in the same period.

=

Plant factor shows to what extent the energy available from the plant has been used.

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2.8.1 Plant factor from Calculation of FDC

2.8.2 Importance of Plant factor

The plant factor shows the extent of energy use from the available energy potential. A lower plant
factor means less energy consumption, less revenue generated and a longer payback periods which
may even increase the plant cost. A plant factor of 0.4 in the initial years and 0.6 or more in the
subsequent years is desirable. Plant factor can be improved by matching power supply and demand
through a careful capability and demand survey.

2.8.3 Factors for Improving Plant Factor

Careful seasonal and daily matching of water power requirement.
Good planning and effective maintenance
Energy
Energy survey
survey before
before installation.
installation.
Increasing day time load like grinding mills, stones crusher, storage cooker.

Q: If 5 KW of power is used for six hours a day from a 10 KW plant, calculate the load factor
and the plant factor?

=

5
= = 0.5
10

=

56
= = 0.125
10 24
2.9 Matching Power Supply and Demand
Matching the supply and demand is very important. In the case that demand exceeds supply
capacity following scenario occurs.
Power shortages
Downsize supply area
Limit power usage

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In the case that demand is much less than supply capacity following scenario occurs.
More costly than that of appropriate capacity
Possible to extend the supply area
Possible to introduce battery charging systems
Possible to encourage to introduce livelihood equipment

2.9.1 Steps for matching supply and demand

1. Decide what priority you give to each use of water.
Priority Application Via Local Needs
1 Drinking Water Domestic Supply/Taps Hygiene
2 Flood Control Bunding/Watershed Management Safety
3 Irrigation Canal Technology Agriculture
4 Hydro Power Mechanical Agro-Processing
Commercial End Users
Electrical Domestic Light
Domestic cooking
Domestic Heating
2. Consider how the water demand variation throughout the year compares with water
availability. To do this, prepare a demand/supply graph for a typical year.
3. Prepare a demand supply graph for a typical day.
4. Calculate the plant factor considering only the primary loads.
5. Calculate the plant factor with addition of secondary loads.
6. Consider minimum down time and modify the plant factor accordingly.
7. Calculate the unit energy cost and compare with other available alternatives.
Q. A proposed micro hydro scheme with a gross head of 50 meters is proposed to meet the
following demands as an alternative to a diesel powered mill and a generator which costs
around $ 0.08 per Kwh of energy.
Category Time Demand Duration in year
lighting 6 pm to 12 pm 20 Kw Round the year
Milling 8 am to 4 pm 12 Kw Round the year
Irrigation Suitable slot 4000m3/day During Dry month only
Storage Cookers Any time 2 Kw As per power availability
Battery Charging Any time 1 Kw As per power availability
Provided that minimum flow is 160 l/s is available during winter from Kartik to Poush while it does
not fall less than 200 l/s from Magh to Ashwin, will there be enough water to satisfy the irrigation
demand together with lighting and milling demand? If yes, decide whether the proposed scheme is
viable if the annual cost of capital repayment is $ 4000 and O and M cost is 10% of the annual
repayment cost.

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Solution:
Step 1: Setting Priority
Priority I: Irrigation
Priority II: Lighting (20 KW from 6pm to12 pm)
Priority III: milling (12 KW for 8 hrs from 8 am to 4 pm) : Primary loads
Priority IV: Battery charging (noncommittal basis): Secondary loads
Priority V: HS cookers (noncommittal basis): Secondary loads

Step 2: Is there enough water to satisfy all these demands?

Consideration of irrigation demand
Water requirement=4000 m3/day
Water availability=.160*3600*8 (8 hrs. only are available in a day for irrigation) =4608 m3/day
Hence there is enough water to satisfy the irrigation demand as well.
Step 3: Prepare a demand supply
graph for a typical day

Step 4: Plant factor for primary loads

= {(20*6) + (12*8)}/ (20*24)
= 216/480
= 0.45
Step 5: Plant factor considering the secondary loads (on yearly basis)
= 0.45+ {(0.5+2)*9 months}/ (20*12months)
= 0.54
Note: In secondary Plant factor Battery charging is considered only half time so 0.5
Step 6: Modified plant factor considering 1 month breakdown time
= (11/12)*0.54
=0.5
Step 7: Per unit cost of micro hydro
= (4000+400)/ (20*0.5*8760)
= $0.05/kWh which is less than per unit cost of diesel i.e. $0.08 cents/kWh

Hence micro hydro is financially justified.

2.10 Capability and Demand Survey

2.10.1 Need for Capability and Demand Survey
To explore whether the scheme will be effectively managed over its life in terms of tariff
collection, maintaining financial accounts, resolving conflicts, distributing welfare benefits
etc. and to assess the assistance required to raise capability of locals to required level.

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 To explore what demand is there for a new scheme, how much and where it is needed and in
what form, whether there is willingness and ability to pay and how would the new scheme
bring the benefit to less advantaged people and what are the disadvantages of the scheme.

2.10.2 Items to be covered by Capability and Demand Survey

Map of village showing distances and position of house and possible future commercial
activities
Types of people and their comments on how the proposed scheme will affect their economic
security and opportunities in the future.
Summary of institutions, organization etc. who may help in financing the scheme.
Description of current irrigation system and its management and future plans for irrigation
and how people expect hydropower to affect their irrigation system
Assessment of capability of local organization to manage complex scheme involving finance,
welfare distribution, operation and machinery and maintenance of machinery
Interview notes from people/ institution
Quantity of energy required, what for and when it is required
Description of new appliances and the way how they are purchases, maintained and operated
Assessment of likelihood of effective and long lasting distribution of benefits from the
scheme to the poor member of the community.
Recommendation for organizational precondition for raising capability of locals
A plan for management system explaining how tariff and revenue would be collected.

2.11 Selection of micro hydro sites

2.11.1 Basic Reference Materials
The basic reference materials required are the following:
1) Topographical map: scale: 1/50,000
Topographical map provides important information, such as landform, location of communities, slope
of the river, catchment area of proposed sites, access road, etc. In the Nepal, topographical maps of
scale 1/50,000 are available for Northern Nepal 1/25,000 are available for southern Nepal at the
Ministry of Land Reform and Management. [Online Available at http://pahar.in/nepal-topo-maps/]
2) Rainfall data: isohyetal map and others
Although it is unnecessary to gather detailed rainfall data at this stage, it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the rainfall characteristics of the project area using an isohyetal map for the region
and existing rainfall data for the adjacent area. Isohyetal map provides the interpolation and averaging
will give an approximate indication of rainfall.

Fig: Section of Topographical map of Dhangadi Fig: An example of isohyetal map

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2.11.2 Radius of Site Identification
As most of the electric energy generated by a small-scale hydropower plant is basically intended for
the consumption of the target area, it is important to consider that the plant site should be as nearer as
possible to the load center. In the case of highly dispersed communities, which are distributed over a
relatively large area, it may be more advantageous to construct individual micro-hydropower plants,
rather than to supply power to all groups by a single plant, due to lower transmission cost, easier
operation and maintenance and fewer impacts due to unexpected plant stoppage, etc.

2.11.3 Calculation of River Flow

Among the river flow data mentioned earlier, historical records of flow data in the area surrounding
the project site should be used to estimate the river flow, taking the rainfall distribution
characteristics into consideration.
Qp = Rr Qo Ao
Where,
Qp : river flow per unit catchment area in project area (m3/s km2)
Rr : rainfall ratio between catchment area of the proposed site for micro-hydro project and of existing
gauging station
Qo : observed river flow at existing gauging station or existing hydro-power station (m3/s)
Ao : catchment area of existing gauging station (km2)

2.11.4 Identification of Potential Sites

There are different methods and techniques for identification of possible sites. Here we have
considered only map survey for site identification.
Map Study
Potential sites are identified on the topographical map with a scale of 1/50,000 by interpreting the
head. The following parameters should be considered in the map study:
(1) Site identification considering river
gradient and catchment area
Sites with high head, shortest
waterway and high discharge level are
naturally advantageous for hydropower
generation. The information on the river
gradient (elevation difference and river
length) and the drainage area could be
obtained in the map study. While some
experience is required to identify potential
sites from a topographical map, if the
diagrams shown are prepared in advance for
the subject river, the identification of
potential sites is much easier.

(2) Identification based on waterway

construction conditions
As far as the basic layout of a micro-hydro scheme is concerned, most civil structures are
planned to have an exposed structure. Because of this, the topography at any potential site must be
able to accommodate such exposed civil structures.

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2.12 Methods of finding ADF (annual average daily flow)
Steps:
W 1
1. Select a site for micro hydro.
2. Record the location of three rain gauge
say W, Y, and Z. Let x, y and z be their
annual average rainfall in mm/yr.
3. Connect the rain-gauge location and
bisect them to get a common point as 0 Catchment Y
shown in figure.
4. Find area covered by each rain gauge. Area
i. Area W = portion bounded by 1- 2
0, 0-2 & catchment boundary,
ii. Area Y = portion bounded by 1-0,
0-3 & catchment boundary,
iii. Area Z = portion bounded by 2-0, 3
0-3 & catchment boundary.
iv. Total Area (Catchment Area) =
Area W + Area Y + Area Z Z
v. Then the average rainfall in this catchment area is given by,
= (Area Z / Total Area) * z + (Area Y / Total Area) * y + (Area W / Total Area) * w
5. Find the runoff (mm/yr)
i. Runoff = Rainfall Evaporation
ii. Runoff by Rainfall Runoff Graph (A graph
between Annual Average Discharge Rainfall vs
Annual Average Runoff) as shown.
iii. Runoff = 50% of Rainfall (Rough Assumption )
6. Volume of run off in mm3/yr
= run off mm/yr * catchment area mm2
7. Finally, ADF= Vol. of run off in m3/s
8. Net Flow = ADF - ADFirrigation - ADFseepage
Q. Three rain gauges are placed at three location x, y, and
z to estimate rainfall in catchment area and the recorded
rainfall are as follows:
Gauge at x rainfall x = 2000 mm/yr
Gauge at y rainfall y = 2500 mm/yr
Gauge at z rainfall z = 3000 mm/yr
If the area for x, y, and z count 45, 40 and 50 squares where 1 square = 1 square mm and the
scale of map is 3KM to 10 mm. calculate,
i. The average rainfall in the catchment area in mm/yr.
ii. Total catchment area in mm2.
iii. Runoff from the catchment area.
iv. The annual average daily flow in m3/sec.

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 Solution
Area W=45squares
Area Y=40squares
Area Z=50squares
w=2000mm/yr
y=2500mm/yr
z=3000mm/yr
Scale of map: 1square-box=1mm2 and 10mm=3 KM =3000m
Total area = 45+40+50 = 135 squares
Average rainfall = (45/135)*2000+ (40/135)*2500+ (50/135)*3000
= 2518.52mm/yr
Run off in mm/yr = 50% of 2518.12 = 1259.26 [Note: Runoff can be found by Rainfall Runoff
Graph But since not specified in question, we use Rough Assumption.]
Catchment area = 135 * 3002* 106 mm2
Volume of run off in m3/s = 135 * 3002* 106 * 1259 mm3/yr
ADF = (135 * 3002* 106 * 1259 * 10-9) / (365 * 24 * 60 * 60) m3/s = 0.49 m3/s.

2.12.1 Possible Steps to follow in absence of Rain Gauge for determining ADF
If you have one or two year time to wait for planning and financial clearance, immediately
install a flow measuring device such as a notched weir into the stream, and monitor as
frequently as possible.
Setup and monitor at least one rain gauge in the region of interest.
Do not use short-term records on their own, as two years data can be misleading (fifteen years
data are required) but correlate them with other data.
Consult a professional hydrologist.
Use the flow correlation method.
Often data in the form of isohyetal maps are available. These shows lines of constant rainfall.
They should never be used as a single indication of rainfall, but are sometimes useful as a check
on other indications. Should be avoided as catchment area is too small for accuracy.

2.13 Flow Prediction by Correlation Method

Steps:
1. Identify the location of proposed scheme and consult government offices for hydrological
records of gauged flows of rivers in the same region. Obtain FDC.

Fig: FDC of river in the same region

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 2. Find the flow of desired river through 10 to 12 measurements in a year. If the case of dry season
only is of interest, as few as 6 measurement would be enough.
3. Find the corresponding flow at gauged river. Plot a graph of stream flow of the gauged site
verses stream flow at ungauged site.

Fig: Correlation of flows of rivers

4. Draw a co-relation line through these points. Do the points cluster sufficiently to indicate a
reasonable correlation??
5. If so, use the FDC to select flow at certain exceedance values, convert these to corresponding
flows for the operated site and plot on FDC for ungauged site.

Fig: FDC obtained of required river by correlation

2.14 Site Survey:

It is important to measure the head and the flow with reasonable accuracy to ensure that the
power requirements are met. It is better to under estimate the head and the flow rather than to
overestimate them to obtain conservative hydraulic power capability of the stream.

2.14.1 Measuring Head:

The vertical fall of the water, known as the
head, is essential for hydropower
generation. The head between the intake
point and the headtank and the head between
the headtank and the outlet point should be
measured. At the initial planning stage,
however, it may be sufficient to measure the
head between the planned headtank location
and the outlet level.
While a surveying level can be used
for the purpose of measuring, a more simple head measuring method may be sufficient.
Three popular methods for head measurement are

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 Water filled plastic tube.
Altimeter.
Sighting meters (Abney level).
2.14.1.1 Water filled plastic tube:
This is the most inexpensive method of head measurement. It requires a piece of transparent plastic
tube about 20m long and a diameter of 10mm. Fill the tube with water so that when the two ends are
held together, the water level is about 300mm from the top with no air bubbles in tube. The water
inside the tube will always find the same level on either side. A plastic funnel will help to pour in the
water.
Now, one person holds one end of the tube at the water level of the reservoir/ forebay tank.
The second person moves downhill till his eyes are in level with the water level of the fore bay tank.
His end of the tube is adjusted till the water level in the tube is in level with his eyes. Now record
that one reading has been taken. After this the tube is lowered such that the water level in the tube is
in line with the soles of his feet. Now the first person moves downhill till his eye level is in line with
the soles of the feet of the first person. He now raises the tube till the water level is in line with his
eye. Now record that a second reading has been taken. This process is repeated till the location of the
turbine.
The number of readings taken is summed up. This is multiplied with the average height to
eye level of the two people who took the measurements. This gives the total head. This procedure
should be repeated two to three times to obtain good accuracy.
A variation of this method is to connect one end of the tube with a pressure gauge. The
pressure at each measuring point is recorded and the sum of the total pressures can be used to
calculate the overall head. Another variation of this method is to use graded rods(scale) instead of
human height for better accuracy.

Fig: Head Measurement by Water Filled Plastic Tube

Fig: Data Sheet for Head Measurement Using Water Filled Plastic

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2.14.1.2 Altimeters
The principle of the altimeter is that it measures atmospheric pressure. Height is calculated using
changes in air pressure. This method is useful in case of long survey distance or bad visibility All that the user
had to do is to record one reading at the expected fore bay location. Then he has to record the second
reading at the turbine in order to determine the head. The second reading should be taken as quickly
as possible to prevent any atmospheric changes to affect the reading. However, several measurements is
required as shown in the following figure, since in one measurement, accuracy is not expectable by changes
during the day in temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity.

2.14.1.3 Abney Level

The Abney level is a hand held sighting meter. With this method, the angle of the slope () is
measured. The linear distance (L) is also measured. The head is H is given by
H = L. sin ()
Steps:
Two posts are driven into the ground one at the position of the proposed fore bay and the other
at a position that is 20m to 30m downhill.
A clear line of site between the top of the posts is
required.
The angle between the tops of the two posts is
measured using the Abney level and the distance
between them is also recorded.
The head is measure between these two posts using
the above relationship.
Now, the first post is shifted further downhill as
compared to the second post and the measurement
recorded.
This process is repeated till the position of the
proposed turbine is reached. The heights are all
added up to obtain the overall head.

Fig: Data Sheet for Head Measurement Using Abney Level

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2.14.2 Measuring Flow
The flow should be measured during the worst case condition. During the rainy season, the
flow will be high and will provide high power output. However, during the dry season, the flow will
be low. It should be estimated whether the load requirement will be met even during the worst case
dry seasons. Therefore, the flow measurement should be done during the dry seasons.
Three simple methods of flow measurements are
a) Bucket method
b) Float method
c) Salt Gulp Analysis
a) Bucket Method:
Steps:
Take a 15 liter bucket or any container
with known volume. If the volume of
the container is not known then it can
be found out by filling the container
with water from a 1litre bottle. Count
the number of liter that has been added.
This is giving the volume of the
container.
The most challenging task in this
method is to find a location in the
stream where the water can be directed
into the bucket. This is done by placing
the bucket at the bottom of a natural
narrow fall in the stream path or by building a simple weir by using a wooden channel or a
corrugated sheet such that the stream water flows through this weir during measurement.
Now, using a stopwatch, record the time it takes to fill the bucket.
Repeat the experiment three times and take the average.
The volume of the bucket divided by the average time it takes to fill the bucket gives the flow
rate of the water.
b) Velocity Area method
The amount of water passing a point on the stream channel during a given time is a function
of velocity and cross-sectional area of the flowing water.
Q = V*A
where, Q is stream discharge (volume/time), V is flow velocity and A is cross-sectional area.
Following two methods are used.
Using electromagnetic current meter
Float measuring method

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i. Using electromagnetic current meter
Generally, the current meter used for the measurement of river flow is screw type. But nowadays, an
electromagnetic current meter that doesnt have rotating parts is available in the market. This is suitable for
measurement of river flow in a small-scale hydro site. It is lightweight, and can be measured even in Shallow
River.
In case of survey for small-scale hydropower development, a simple method like the
following are sufficient for discharge measurement using electromagnetic current meter.
(1) Three-points measuring method Vm = 0.25 ( V0.2 + 2*V0.6 + V0.8 )
(2) Two-points measuring method Vm = 0.50 ( V0.2 + V0.8 )
(3) One-point measuring method Vm = V0.6
(4) Surface measuring method Vm = 0.8 Vs
where, Vm: Mean velocity Vs: Surface velocity
V0.2: Velocity at the depth of 20% below the water surface
V0.6: Velocity at the depth of 60% below the water surface
V0.8: Velocity at the depth of 80% below the water surface
Following should be considered when selecting the point of measurement in the stream .
(1) No irregular wave and whirlpools at the surface.
(2) No subsurface flow, back-flow, and stagnation.
(3) No irregular change of water level.
(4) No crossing-over of stream line.
During measurement, the riverbed should be cleaned, if necessary.
ii. Float measuring method
Basically, float measuring method is applied during floods when measurement with current
meter is not possible. But, it is applicable during the stage where development sites are not decided
yet or the current meter is not available.
Measuring method
1) Measurement should be made at the place where the axis of streambed is straight and the cross
section of the river is almost uniform.
2) Flowing distance of floats should be more than the width of river.
3) Setting transverse lines at the upstream and downstream perpendicular to the axis of streambed.
Flow-down distance (upstream and downstream lines) = L
4) Measuring the cross sectional areas at the upper and lower transverse lines to get the average value
of the cross sectional areas of flow (Amean). Additional measurement should be made at the middle
section of two lines if the cross section of river is not uniform.
5) Floats are dropped at upstream of the upper transverse line, the time required from upper to lower
transverse line is measured.
6) Measurement should be done several times at different divisions of the river cross-section in the
transverse direction. (More than three divisions).

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Stream flow calculation formula
Vm = C Vmean
C: (1) Concrete channel which cross section is uniform = 0.85
(2) Small stream where a riverbed is smooth = 0.65
(3) Shallow flow (about 0.5) = 0.45
(4) Shallow and riverbed is not flat = 0.2

iii. Possible Error in velocity Area Method

Error in Width
Minimized by taking segments at equal distances and the total surface width could be
measured with more sophisticated instruments available now.

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 Error in Depth
Minimized by taking segments at equal distances and the depth measured by more
sophisticated instruments available now.
Error in Area Measurement
Minimized by correction of width and depth.
Error in time measurement
Take Data more than onetime and find average to get precise time.
Error in length measurement
Take Data more than onetime and find average to get precise length.
Error in Mean Velocity at Verticals
Minimized by taking average velocity.

c) Salt Gulp Method

This method requires more calculations than the other methods but is easier to conduct the
experiment. It needs a conductivity meter and an instrument to accurately weigh salt. The flow rate is
determined by measuring the speed and concentration of a cloud of salty water as it passes
downstream.
Steps:
A known mass of salt is mixed with some water in a bucket until it is fully dissolved.
Record the mass of the salt added to the nearest gram. All the salt water solution is then
tipped into the stream. The mass of salt used depends on the size of the flow. As a thumb
rule, use about 25g of salt for every 5 lisper second flow.
The conductivity meter probe is placed in a fast moving area of flow 25m to 30m
downstream from where the salt solution was added.
The normal conductivity level of the water is recorded. This is called background
conductivity.
As soon as the conductivity readings begin to climb, record then every 5 seconds. Readings
should be recorded until the conductivity has returned to its background level.
Now plot a graph of changing salt concentration versus time.
A smooth curve with a peak value at least twice the level of the background level indicates
that the experiment has been carried out reasonably well.
The area under the curve must be established in order to calculate the flow rate.
The equation for calculating the flow rate is
1 Where, M = mass of salt
= k-1 = conversion factor

A = area under the concentration versus time
curve
The conductivity is converted into salt concentration by multiplying with a conversion factor
that takes water temperature into account. It has the units of ohm-1/mg lt-1. The k-1 value is
around 2 for water at 25 deg. C.
Q: In a flow measurement process using salt gulp method, 100 gram of salt was mixed with
water in a bucket and poured into the stream at a point which is 20 meter up from the location
of the conductivity meter. The readings of conductivity meter when plotted v/s time gave a total
of 130 squares each square being 5 second * 5 ohm-1 * 10-6.

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If the temperature of water is 22 oC, find the flow of the stream in liter/sec. Reciprocal of the
conversion factor i.e. K-1 for 22 oC is 2.04 * 10-6 ohm-1/mgl-1.
Solution:
Given,
Mass = 100 gm
Temperature = 22 0C
Conversion factor = k-1 = 2.04*10-6
Area = no. of square * time *Conductivity = 130 * 5 * 5 * 10-6 = 0.00325
1 (100 103 ) 2.04 106 1 / 1
= = = 62.76 /
0.00325 1

Possible Errors in Salt Gulp Method

2.15 Load Demand Curves

A graphical plot showing the variation in demand
for energy of the consumers on a source of supply with
respect to time is known as the load curve.
If this curve is plotted over a time period of 24
hours, it is known as daily load curve. If its plotted for a
week, month, or a year, then its named as the weekly,
monthly or yearly load curve respectively.
A load or power requirement (also kVA) of a consumer
varies widely. But in general the consumers can be
grouped into a few categories as their needs and demands
are the same. Broadly classified as:
(i) Domestic and residential loads
(ii) Commercial loads (shops, business establishments, hospitals)
(iii) Industrial loads
(iv) Agricultural loads and other rural loads

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2.15.1 Factors to consider in demand survey
The demand survey items are described below. When there is more than one power
demand facility, each facility should be survey.
(1) Location
The suitable route and distance, etc. to each power demand facility should be surveyed to examine the
optimal transmission and distribution lines.
(2) Owners
The opinions and intentions of the owners of power demand facilities regarding the introduction of a
new power supply source should be clarified.
(3) Types and required quality of equipment
The situation of power use by equipment (for power, heating, lighting and electrical control, etc.) and
the required level of accuracy (in terms of the allowable voltage fluctuation and frequency fluctuation)
should be surveyed.
(4) Equipment capacity, etc.
The equipment capacity, power consumption level and electricity tariff (or estimated electricity tariff
in the case of planning) should be surveyed.
(5) Period of use
Any seasonal or daily fluctuation of power use and the range of fluctuation should be surveyed.
(6) Year of installation and service life
The year (date) of installation of each power demand equipment and its service life or planned period
of use should be surveyed.
(7) Likely problems associated with power cut
The likely problems and financial losses associated with a power cut to power demand facilities should
be surveyed.

2.15 Peak Demand Forecasting

In general, the demand for electricity at night is bigger than that in the daytime. The demand
forecast is done for the nighttime.
Demand = Pr + Pp + Ld +
where,
Pr: Power consumed by residents (kW)
Pr = Nh y pr
where,
Nh: Number of households (HH)
: Households increase rate (HH/year)
y: Years considered (years)

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 pr: Power consumption per household (kW/HH)
= 0.1 0.2 (kW/HH) in rural areas
Pp: Power consumed by public facilities (kW)
Ld: Loss over distribution line (kW)
= about 10% of power consumed
: Other consumption for specific facilities

2.16 Optimum Generating Installed Capacity

To determine the optimal installation capacity of micro hydropower plants all technical,
economic and reliability indices are considered in a trade-off relation. Using this approach, the amount
of annual energy potential is determined by using categorized statistics of the flow duration curve in
different months. Then, after specifying the income and costs of the plant, the economic indices of
different alternatives including all the benefits are extracted. The reliability indices are then calculated
and ultimately, through comparison of the technical, economic and reliability indices, a superior
alternative can be selected, determining the optimal installation capacity. This method of calculating
the technical, economic and reliability indices and the subsequent processes used in the planning of a
micro hydropower plant defines its optimum generating installed capacity.

2.17 Geological Consideration

The visit to the proposed site should include a geological survey. It is aimed to return home
with some idea of the following:
Future Surface Movements: For example, loose rock slopes that may be disturbed by construction
work or by heavy rainfall, dry mud indicating mud flows, storm gulley's that may take torrents, and
rock flow during heavy rainfall, signs of flood behavior at valley base level;
Future Sub-surface Movements: For example, landslip and subsidence;
Soil and Rock types: Information is a need in order to design the foundation of civil works, to decide
which materials to use in channel construction and to assess which building materials are available on-
site.
The main purpose of geological survey is to assess the best location of installation of power house,
penstock, channel and other civil works and to estimate their construction cost and future maintenance
cost.
A small effort in the geology is easily rapid in cost saving in channel construction, social penstock,
turbine foundation, safety from channel collapse due to slope instabilities.

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 Chapter 3: Turbines, drive system and
governors
3.1 Turbine
Turbine is a hydro mechanical device that converts Potentio-kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy which is supplied to generators for electrical power generation. The turbine types
widely used in MHP in Nepal are Pelton and cross flow. Cross-flow turbines are used at lower heads
while the Pelton turbines are used at higher heads.

3.1.1 Types of turbine

The types of water turbine are mainly classified into two types with some additional classification as
follows:
1. Impulse turbine
Pelton turbine
Crossflow turbine
Turgo-impluse turbine
2. Reaction turbine
Francis turbine
Propeller turbine
Kaplan turbine
Diagonal mixed flow
Tubular turbine
Straight flow turbine turbine (Package type)
Note: Impulse turbine: Turbine type that rotates the runner by the impulse of water jet having the
velocity head which has been converted from the pressure head at the time of jetting from the nozzle.
Reaction turbine: Turbine construction that rotates the runner by the pressure head of flow.
Shaft arrangement: The arrangement of turbines will be also classified into two types, i.e. Horizontal
shaft (H-shaft) and Vertical shaft (V-shaft)

3.1.2 Turbines for MHP

Normally impulse Turbine are used for micro hydro due to following advantageous.
They are more tolerant of sand and other particles in the water.
Provides better access to working parts.
They are easier to fabricate and maintain.
They are less subject to cavitation (although high head cause high velocity can cause
cavitation at the nozzle or on the blades or the buckets).
They have flattery efficiency curves if a flow control device is built in.

3.1.3 Pelton Wheel

The Pelton wheel is one of the most efficient type of hydraulic turbine. It was invented by
Lester Allan Pelton (18291908) in the 1870. It is an impulse machine, meaning that it uses the
principle of Newtons second law to extract energy from a jet of fluid. Pelton wheel is considered for
use in dams where the flow of water is low and medium to high water head is present.

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3.1.3.1 Working Principle of pelton wheel
The Pelton Turbine consists of a wheel
with a series of split buckets set around
its rim. A high velocity jet of water is
directed tangentially at the wheel. The
jet hits each bucket and is split in half, so
that each half is turned and deflected
back almost through 180. Nearly all the
energy of the water goes into propelling
the bucket and the deflected water falls
into a discharge channel below.

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3.1.3.2 Components of Pelton Turbines

a. Runner:
It consists of series of buckets mounted on the periphery of a circular disc which rotates when
high speed water jet strikes into the bucket.
b. Nozzle:
It is a small piece of pipe tapered at one end and connected to the penstock manifold at the
other end which is used to discharge the jet of water at high speed (hence high kinetic energy)
which strikes the bucket to cause rotation. It can be dissembled or reassembled to suit for
seasonal variation of discharge when needed.
c. Shut off valves
Usually, they are gate valve or a butterfly valve in turbine manifold that should be fully open
when the turbine operates. They are used for isolating the turbine from water supply. They
should be closed very slowly. If closed abruptly, surge pressure created by high head can lead
even to bursting of pipes. It should not be used for flow regulation as the valve can be
damaged due to cavitation effects.
d. Deflector Plate
It is used to deflect the water jet away from the buckets when made to rotate into the water
path. It is a useful device to stop the turbine without shutting of the penstock flow.it is also
used for emergency shutdown. It allows water to hit buckets when a circular disc attached
to the deflector arm is fixed magnetically to an electromagnet and blocks water to hit the
runner when electromagnet is demagnetized.
e. Spear Valve:
It consists of spear head arranged to move within the nozzle allowing variation in effective
orifice cross sectional area without introducing energy losses. Spear can be moved either
by turning a thread manually or automatically by a mechanical speed governor. It is
essential when continuous flow regulation is required. However, it is a costly arrangement
and may also block the penstock flow in case it is detached accidentally when turbine is
running. Its use is decreasing due to invention of ELC as speed governor.

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3.1.3.3 Multi-jet Pelton Turbine
To increase the runner speed of turbine, multi-jet system is used. Multi jet emerged with the advent
of load control governing to capture the following advantages:
Higher rotational speed
Smaller runner and case
Flow control without spear valve
Less chance of blockage leading to reduced surge pressure.
Multi jet arrangement has however the following disadvantages:
Possibility of jet interference on incorrectly designed systems.
Complexities of manifolds and manifold friction losses.
If flow control governing is required, it becomes prohibitively complex.
3.1.3.4 Sizing of Pelton turbines
There are normally two approach of designing Pelton Turbine.
Approach A:
Giving required dimensions to a local manufacturer who already has some standard buckets
Approach B :
Pelton runner of specific diameter, complete with buckets are available. Choose the best
runner for a particular site.

Steps for Approach A:

1. Optimize the penstock diameter to calculate net head
2. Use nomogram to find whether pelton is a suitable option. If yes, find ideal runner diameter
using RPM equation as follows:
38
=

Or,
38
=

where, G is the required gear ratio.
3. Draw a table of the form
njet 1 2 3 4 5
djet mm
D=6*djet mm
D=20*djet mm
Notch width > djet+5 mm
< djet+20 mm

4. From the above table we can find a choice to be made of runner diameter, gear ratio and
number of jets.
The diameter of the jet is given by nozzle equation:
0.54
= 0.25

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 5. The notch width found in the table is compared with the available bucket size and appropriate
bucket is selected.
6. Consider also the part flow requirement and speed regulation requirement to choose the
number of jets

Steps for Approach B:

1. Find the turbine speed using rpm equation:
38
=
2. Calculate the gear ratio G using:
G=Generator rpm/turbine rpm
3. Consider whether the net head can be altered to achieve a desirable turbine speed
4. Consider whether the load can operate at a revised speed.
5. Calculate the flow drawn by the turbine and choose the number of jets which best gives the
desired flow:
2
= 3.43
6. Consider practical modifications of nozzle size and number of jets in order to achieve the
desired flow.

3.1.4 Turgo Turbine

The Turgo turbine is similar to the Pelton but the jet strikes the plane
of the runner at an angle (typically 20 to 25) so that the water
enters the runner on one side and exits on the other. Therefore the
flow rate is not limited by the discharged fluid interfering with the
incoming jet (as is the case with Pelton turbines). As a consequence,
a Turgo turbine can have a smaller diameter runner and rotate faster
than a Pelton for an equivalent flow rate. The Turgo turbine is an
impulse water turbine designed for medium head applications. In
factory and lab tests Turgo Turbines perform with efficiencies of up
to 90%. They have complex blade design but greater flow
possibilities.

3.1.5 Cross Flow Turbines

Cross flow Turbines are also known as Banki \ Mitchell
\ Ossberger turbine. A cross-flow turbine is drum-
shaped and uses a rectangular-section nozzle directed
against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner.
The cross-flow turbine allows the water to flow
through the blades twice. In the first pass, the water
flows from the outside of the blades to the inside. The
second pass is from the inside back out. A guide vane
at the entrance to the turbine directs the flow to a
limited portion of the runner. The cross-flow was
developed to accommodate larger water flows and
lower heads than the Pelton.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.1.5.1 Components of cross flow turbines
a. Runner
It is a drum shaped runner consisting of two parallel discs
connected together near their rims by a series of curved blades.
Runner shaft horizontal to the ground in all cases.
b. Nozzle
It is a rectangular nozzle that directs the water jet to the
full length of the runner. Water coming out of the nozzle imparts
most of its kinetic energy, passes through the runner and strikes
the blade on exit imparting a smaller amount of energy before
leaving the turbine.
c. Guide Vane
It guides the flow of water to the runner.
d. Draft tube (Optional):
A partial vacuum inside the casing can be induced by fitting a draft tube below the runner
which remains full of tail water at all times. Any decrease in the water level induces a greater vacuum
to increase the effective head driving the cross flow. The vacuum induction is limited by air bleed
valve in the casing. Careful design of the valve and casing is necessary to avoid conditions where water
might back up and submerge the runner. This is a costly affair where availability of required head is
not a problem.
3.1.5.2 Sizing a Crossflow
Diameter of the runner
40
=

where Hnet is the net head
Thickness of the water jet
= 0.1 0.2

We know, the discharge is given by,

= = 2

= 2

= 2

where, Anozzle is the cross section area of the nozzle and Lrunner is the length of the runner
Hence, Length of Runner
0.23
= =
2

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.1.5.3 Runner length vs. Output power
Because of symmetry, runner length can be
increased without changing the hydraulic characteristics of
the turbine to increase the power (Doubling the runner length
will double the power output at the same speed). The lower
the head, the longer the runner becomes and conversely on
high heads, the crossflow runner tends to be compact.
However, too long blades will lead to fatigue at junction of
the blades and the disc so intermediate bracing discs can be
placed to avoid fatigue but efficiency reduces as water
interferes with the bracings.
3.1.5.4 Efficiency improvement
Efficiency is maintained over a wider flow
range using partition device which allows a third or two third
of the runner to be closed off.

3.1.6 Comparison of costs of the turbines

Fig: Comparison of cost of Different Turbines. [Reference: Adam Harvey Manual]

3.1.7 Effect on efficiency during part flow conditions

These curves assume turbines which have facilities for varying water flow rate at
constant head. The figure below shows the importance of part-flow performance in selecting
equipment for a site. Assuming that flow-control devices are fitted, an important point to notice is
that the Pelton and crossflow turbines retain high efficiency when below design flow; in contrast the
Francis drops in efficiency, producing very poor power output if run at below half the normal flow,
and fixed pitch propeller turbines are very poor except at 80 to 100 percent of full flow.
The Francis is a popular turbine in larger hydro schemes, but it is more complex and
expensive and has poor part-flow efficiency. It is one of the few turbine which turns at a reasonable
speed at certain power and head combinations. An impulse turbine operated under these conditions

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S. Khan B. Rimal
of head and flow would be much larger, expensive as a result of its size, cumbersomely slow-turning
and would need a greater speed increasing transmission.
In addition to giving high speed at low head-to-power ratios, reaction turbines are particularly
suited to low head applications for a second reason. Since power conversion is caused partly by
pressure difference across the blades, the drop in head below the blades (known as the suction head)
is as effective in producing power as is the head above the turbine.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.1.8 Nomogram
A nomogram is a chart often
used to select a suitable turbine for a
particular site. It shows the head, shaft
speed, output power and specific speed in
the same chart. By using Head (m),
expected Shaft Output (kW) and expected
Shaft Speed (RPM), we can determine
Turbine Type. Similarly, by using Head
(m), Flow Rate (l/s) and Turbine Type we
can determine the Diameter of Runner of
Turbine (m).
3.1.8.1 Turbine selection using
Nomogram
Steps:
i) From the knowledge of the proposed site,
mark head available, calculate the turbine
output power from the following equation
= *10*Q*H Kw

= 65% to 80% for pelton or turgo

= 80% for reaction
= 75% for pelton and turgo
= 65% for locally made crossflow
ii. Rule line across the turbine shaft power
and net head.
iii. Choose desired turbine running speed
and draw a line from this point which is at
right angle to the head-power line.
iv. This will point either to single jet pelton,
multijet pelton, crossflow turbine or francis turbine.
v. For direct drive between turbine and generator,
choose the turbine shaft speed of 1500 rpm.

3.1.8.2 Estimate of appropriate runner diameter

For runner diameter, first decide the most suitable turbine
type and then consult the nomograph to appropriate the
runner diameter. A large runner diameter as well as very
small runner diameter both are expensive due to
complex profile.

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S. Khan B. of
Approximate Diameter Rimal
Runner (m)
3.2 Drive systems
The system is that is used to transmit power from turbine to generator with minimum loss in
the transmission system at correct speed and at a suitable direction is known as drive system. It also
has the function of changing the rotational speed from the one shaft to the other when the turbine speed
is different to the required speed of the alternator or device.

3.2.1 Essential elements of Drive System:

Generator shaft
Turbine shaft
Bearings to support those shafts
Couplings to connect shafts
Pulleys, belts, gearboxes other components used to change speed or operation of the shafts.

3.2.2 Types of Drive System

They are classified as:
Direct coupled drive system
Wedge belt drive system
Wedge belt drive system with extra bearings
Quarter turn belt drive
Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as alternator
Turbine runner mounted on generator shaft
Turbine rotor mounted on generator shaft
a. Direct coupled drive system
This system is only for the case where the
shaft speeds between turbine and
generator are identical because it uses a
flexible coupling to join the two shafts
together directly. The advantages are low
maintenance, high efficiency (>98%) and
low cost. The only disadvantage is that
the alignment is far more critical than
with an indirect drive which can be
overcome by bolting both generator and
turbine to concrete foundations with
metal packing to bring both shaft to the
same height.
b. Flat belt and pulleys
Modern flat belts run at high tension and are made of a strong inner band coated with a high friction
material such as rubber. They have higher efficiencies than V-belts drives and run cleaner (i.e. with
less rubber dust). One pulley must have a slightly convex profile (crowned) which together with good
alignment, keeps the belt in position in either vertical or horizontal use.
The main disadvantage is that a higher tension is needed than with other drives (two tons is not
unusual) which means that the bearings suffer high loads, sometimes requiring additional lay shafts to
be used or standard alternators to be fitted with heavier duty bearings. Also their availability in some
areas is less good than that of V-belt drives.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 Flat belts generally require narrower pulleys than the equivalent multi V-belt with advantages
in cost and reduced overhang. Their maximum speed ratio is around 5:1.
c. "V" or wedge belts and pulleys
This is the most common
choice for micro hydropower
schemes up to 100 kW. A major
advantage is that these belts are
very well known because of their
extensive use in all kinds of small
industrial machinery, hence they
are also widely available.
V-belts differ from flat
belts in that the frictional grip on
the pulley is caused by wedging
action of the side walls of the belt
within the pulley grooves.
Therefore less longitudinal tension
is required to maintain the grip and
less radial load is imposed on the shaft and bearings.
Usually a number of V-belts are run side by side in multiple-governed pulleys. Matched sets
of belts are required to ensure even tension and these sets can be difficult to obtain in some countries.
At higher powers and torques multiple V-belt installations can become cumbersome with eight or more
large belts and very wide pulleys.
The tolerance of misalignment of V-belts is very good but efficiency is low than other types of
belt at around 85-95 %. At very low powers the low efficiency can be a problem and timing belts are
often preferred. Maximum speed ratio is around 5:1.
d. Wedge belt drive system with extra
bearings
These belt can also be alternative
arrangement for flat belt. In this system,
turbine may have extra shaft and bearing for
the generator. The generator extension shaft
must be removable from the bearings to
enable belts to be changed. Turbine and
generators can run at different speeds but
flexible in line coupling is required.
Generator with its extra shaft and bearing
must be mounted on sub frame which can
slide to obtain belt tension.
e. Quarter turn belt drive
These system is often used to accommodate where less space is available. Its alternative arrangement
could be wedge belt instead of flat belt. Generator is mounted on slide rails to obtain belt tension. The

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S. Khan B. Rimal
drive applies load to turbine and generator bearing/shaft. Extra bearing, shaft and coupling may be
used. The disadvantage of this system is that turbine and generator pulleys must be aligned with care.

f. Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as alternator

All the features of direct coupled drive system except it contains gear box that provides speed change
between turbine and generator. The cost of geared motor unit is significantly less than the cost of
separate motor and gearbox.
g. Turbine runner mounted on generator shaft
Popularly known as peltric set. In this system, turbine is assembled on the shaft of generator. Hence,
a very neat and trouble free installation suitable for small power installations. There is speed match
between the two. The shaft should be long enough to give sufficient clearance between turbine and
generator. Care should be taken in designing bearing so that it can tolerate the side load of the
turbine.

Fig: Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as alternator Fig: Peltric set

3.2.3 Information needed for designing or selection of a drive system

1. Power to be transmitted by drive system
2. Speed ration (if not in-line drive system be chosen)
3. Economy and reliability
4. Local availability, relative cost, transportation cost etc.
5. Belt width or number of belts for required power
6. Loads on shafts
7. Initial tension to be applied to the belts (Jockey pulley can be used if necessary)
8. Lubrication of bearings

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.2.4 Procedure for design of a drive system
i. Calculate power transmitted by drive system
ii. Calculate speed ratio between turbine shaft and alternator shaft
iii. Choose most economic and reliable type of drive system
iv. If a belt drive is chosen, decide whether to use a V-belt or flat belt. This will depend on local
condition- local availability, reliability of guarantees, relative cost and so on.
v. Calculate belt width or number of belts
vi. Calculate the loads put onto the shafts by the belts when running under load.
vii. Calculate whether the generator and turbine shaft bearings are sufficiently large to have an
adequate life. If not, decide whether the bearings can be modified or whether the extra shaft,
bearing and coupling should be used.
viii. Calculate initial tension to be applied to the belts.
ix. Decide how tension should be applied and monitored throughout the belt life
x. Decide how to keep the belts clean and dry from both oil and moisture while running
xi. Decide what regular maintenance is required to ensure trouble free operation, what spare parts
should be kept in stock and how and when bearings should be lubricated.
Q: An alternator rated at 50 kW output, 1500 rpm and 70% efficiency is to be driven by a
turbine running at 450 rpm. Which drive system should be preferred?
Solution:

Power transmitted to the alternator = 50/.7=71 kW

This shall be the power required of the drive.
Speed ratio=1500/450=3.33 (a speed increasing drive)
Which drive system is now suitable?
i. Direct belt drive: not suitable
ii. Wedge belt/flat belt drive: suitable.
iii. Wedge/flat belt drive with extra bearings: suitable but use only if (ii) proves unsuitable
after calculations.
iv. Quarter turn belt drive: Suitable but calculations and other considerations are similar to
(ii) and (iii).
v. Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as alternator: Suitable but very expensive
to purchase and maintain.
vi. Turbine runner mounted on the generator shaft: unsuitable
Decision: (ii) is preferred. Go to (iii) or (iv) if necessary.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.3 Governor
A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine,
such as an engine. The speed governor is a device which is used to keep the turbine speed constant
because the speed fluctuates if
there are changes in the load,
water head or flow.

3.3.1 Components of Governor

All Governor has following
components:
i. Detection
ii. Comparison
iii. Judgment
iv. Operation
In Case of ELC,
i. Detection: To detect the value of frequency (f)
ii. Comparison: To compare the observed value with the reference value (set point: fo)
iii. Judgment: To judge the amount of operation in response to the deviation f =(fo f)
iv. Operation: To operate phase of current to the dummy loads according to the judgment

3.3.2 Necessity of Governor

Governor is needed for voltage regulation, frequency regulation and Safety (turbine run-away) and
its necessity on:
i. Demand side
Performance deterioration and damage of electrical appliances due to operation out of
the rated conditions
Quality deterioration of products due to rotational speed fluctuations of induction motors
ii. Supply side
Mechanical stress on the rotating machine system
Contribution to voltage stability.

3.3.3 Type of Governor

There are two kinds of governor to control water flow (discharge) through turbine by operation
of guide vane or to control the balance of load by interchanging of actual and dummy load as follows:
1. Mechanical type (Speed Governor): To control water discharge always with automatic operation
of guide vane(s) according to actual load. There are following two types. Pressure oil operating type
of guide vane(s) and Motor operating type of guide vane(s)
2. Dummy load type (Dummy Governor) : To control the balancing of both current of actual load and
dummy load by thyristor i.e. to keep the summation of both actual and dummy load constant always
for the same output and speed of generator.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.3.4 Working Principle of Speed Governor
Rotational speed (frequency F) is continuously transferred to the controller as a signal
from the speed detector. The transferred speed signal is compared with the preset signal (Fo)
corresponding to the rated speed. If the speed drops i.e. when the load on the generator increase above
rated power consumption, the signal of regulator open is transmitted to the actuator of flow regulator.
Flow regulator continue to be opened until the frequency returns to the rated value. Opposite operation
when load decreases. [Refer Appendix for Block Diagram]

3.3.5 Working Principle of Dummy Load Governor

Frequency is kept constant by matching the total power consumption of actual
loads and dummy loads to the generator output (Pg = Pactual + Pdummy). Power consumption of
dummy loads is controlled by Electronic Load Controller (ELC). ELC adjust current to the dummy
loads by phase-shift control to keep the condition of Pg = Pactual + Pdummy continuously.
[Refer Appendix for Block Diagram]

Fig: Speed Governor Fig: Dummy Load Governor

3.3.6 Comparison between Speed Governor and Dummy Load Governor
Comparison of advantage and disadvantage
Speed Governor Dummy Load Governor
Advantage Sensitive control No need for mechanism to
Not waste generating adjust water flow
power Reasonable relatively
Easy maintenance
Disadvantage Complicated structure Waste generating power
Less maintainability
Need for driving device
(hydraulic, electrical)
Costly
Applicability Small to large scale hydro Micro-hydro
From above comparison, Dummy load governor is suitable for rural electrification project
by micro-hydropower plant which is necessary for economy and high maintainability.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.3.7 Specifying the Governor
To specify the governor, it is necessary to find the tolerance of the end use machinery to
variation in frequency and voltage. Following are some end use load and its tolerance level.

Appliance Sensitivity to frequency fluctuations Sensitivity to voltage fluctuations

Heating None Not a lot

Lights (incandescent) None High V bright and short

lived
Low V dim and long
lived.
Transformers Low Heat and Losses Low no problem
High can get away with High heat and losses (can
+20% get away with +20%)
Motors Low Heat and Losses Low Torque reduction
High can get away with +5- High heat and losses (can
10% get away with +10%)
AC motors go the wrong DC motors go the wrong
speed speed
Hence, our aim is to maintain,
Voltage 7% of rated value
Frequency up to 5% above but not below the rated value.

3.3.8 Electronic Load Controller (ELC)

Electronic Load Controller (ELC) is a controller used in
small hydro power generation to control the frequency of
generator by diverting excess power to dummy/ballast load, thus
the speed, frequency and voltage of generator will be controlled
at certain set point.
Power diversion to dummy load is done electronically
through thyristor as electronic switch which controlled by ELC
main board.

3.3.8.1 Operation of ELC

The ELC consists of a thyristor in series with a ballast load. This combination is connected across the
generator in parallel with the main load.
The operation is summarized as follows:
Suppose the consumer switches off some of his load, then following events take place:
Load is decreased while same water power is available
Speed begins to increase
Increase in speed (frequency) is sensed by the load controller

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 The thyristor of ELC, which acts as a chopper, adds a ballast load of sufficient resistance to
generator (by increasing its on time) to dissipate power equivalent to that which has been
switch.

Fig: Operation of ELC

Suppose the consumer switches on some of his load when dummy load is operating, then following
events take place:
Load is increases while same water power is available
Speed begins to decrease.
Decrease in speed (frequency) is sensed by the load controller
The thyristor of ELC, which acts as a chopper, removes a ballast load of sufficient resistance
to generator such that required power can be supplied to the customer.
3.3.8.2 DUMMY/BALLAST LOAD
Ballast load or dummy load are basically resistive load (resistance) used to dump the
excess power.
3.3.8.2.1 Function of Dummy Load
Dump loads (also known as ballast loads) are activated by an ELC to dissipate power that is
not required.
3.3.8.2.2 Types of Dummy Load
There are two types of dummy load used in MHP. They are: Air Cooled Ballast and Water
Cooled Ballast.

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S. Khan B. Rimal
3.3.8.2.2.1 Air Cooled Ballast Load
Domestic or industrial air convector heaters may also be used as ballast load. The important
features include:
i. Several air convector heaters (at least two) should be installed from reliability view point.
ii. The heaters should be located in dry and well ventilated building with adequate space for dry
air to enter and leave the heater.
iii. These heaters may be used for room heating if criteria in (ii) is fulfilled.
iv. Over temperature trip and alarm must be incorporated with heaters.
3.3.8.2.2.2 Water Cooled Ballast Load
Most common type of dummy load in
existing micro hydro installation. Simply it is a
system for heating water with electrical heater.
Some Features of Water cooled ballast Load are:
i. Water is brought from small outlet from
penstock (to take care of water at very
high pressure, valve should be slightly
open for moderate flow into the tank) or
from separate source.
ii. It consists of insulated water heaters
immersed in water.
iii. Thermostat switch or float switch fitted to
avoid temperature rise beyond 500 C or
to avoid decrease in water level below
predetermined level.
iv. Several water heating elements should be used rather than one element of the required total
rating to increase reliability.
v. If ballast tank is a metallic one, it should be properly earthed for safety.

3.3.8.2.3 Capacity of dummy load

The capacity of dummy load is calculated as follows:
Pd (kW) = Pg (kVA) x pf (decimal) x SF
where,
Pd: Capacity of dummy load (Unity load: kW)
Pg: Rated output of generator (kVA)
pf: Rated power factor of generator
SF: Safety factor according to cooling method (1.2- 1.4 times generator output in
kW) to avoid over-heating the heater.
3.3.8.2.4 Effect of ballast on generator sizing
ELC varies the current flow to the ballast load by adjusting the phase angle at which
conduction starts.
If such current starts to flow to the ballast only after voltage waveform travels an angle of ,
the ballast load, though resistive, acts as if it were acting as a lagging power factor load.
When the consumer load is also of lagging power factor, the reactive power drawn from the
generator is more which may damage the AVR and the generator winding. The condition
becomes worst when =90o

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S. Khan B. Rimal
 To cater this situation, use add 60% rule to find the generator size. i.e.
Generator kVA= (Max kW load/p.f)*1.6
This allowance is satisfactory if the ballast is not oversized. The power dissipation capacity
of ballast load should be between 5% to 15% greater than the usual expected maximum
power output of the generator

Q. A micro hydro scheme is designed to supply single phase, 230 V, 50 Hz electrical distribution
system having a predicted maximum demand of 6 kW at 0.8 power factor.
Determine the ballast size and the water flow rate. The entering water temperature is
25 C and the outgoing water temperature is to be restricted to 50oC. The specific heat of water
o

is 4200J/kg/kelvin.

Solution:
Gen size =(6/0.8)*1.6= 12 kVA
When whole load is diverted to the ballast, voltage across it will be 210-220 V i.e generator
output voltage is around 10 V greater than the ballast voltage because of the reflection of the
chopped wave form.
If 2 kW, 230 V heating elements each consisting of two 1 kW sub elements in parallel are
used, then the element resistance = V2/P=2302/2000=26.45 ohm
At 220 V, the power dissipated=V2/R=2202/26.45=1830 watt
If 3 elements are used, total power dissipation = 1.83*3=5.5 kW (too little than required).
If 4 elements are used, total power dissipation= 1.83*4=7.32 kW (not acceptable as 22% oversized)
Resistance of one sub elements
= 26.45*2=52.92 ohms (as an element consists of two sub elements in parallel)
If 3 elements and one sub elements are used, the equivalent resistance of the
arrangement=52.92/7=7.56 ohm
Total power dissipation=2202/7.56=6.4 kW which is acceptable as oversized by 6% only. So we use
seven sub-element of 1KW as Ballast Load.
Water flow rate:
We know, Heat energy dissipated
= mass of water (m) *sp. heat of water (sph) * temp. diff. (t)
Or, max demand (p) * time (s) = m*sph*t
Or, m/s=p/ (sph*t)
Since 1 kg=1litre approximately,
Flow required =6000/(4200*25) = 0.057 litre/sec.

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 Chapter 4: Generators and voltage
regulators
4.1 Generator
The energy conversion process the kinetic energy of the falling water is converted into
mechanical power. This mechanical power is then converted to electrical power. It takes
place in a machine called generator.

4.2 Types of Generator

They are classified as:
DC Generator: Generates D.C power.
AC Generators: Generates A.C power.
[Note: DC generator is not usually used for small-scale hydropower plant]
4.2.1 Comparison between A.C and D.C power
A.C. D.C.
Needs specialised generating equipment Generating equipment easily available
(12 V alternators)

Must be converted to DC to be stored Battery charging simple

(in batteries) and then converted to AC
for use
Governing critical Governing not critical
Higher voltages transmit with few losses Lower voltages need fat cables to avoid
(L V2) transmission losses

Appliances cheap and readily available Appliances specialised

4.2.2 Choice for A.C Power

Following advantage has lead us for using A.C. Power.
Change in voltage level is easy using transformer
To reduce losses and cost, Transmission of power is done at high voltage which is
easily possible for A.C power.
Equipment and appliances are in large quantity that work under 110 V, 220 V, 240 V,
50/60 HZ supply.
Following disadvantage of D.C. has also lead to use A.C. Power
Costly due to expensive terminal equipment.
Require frequent maintenance due presence of brushes and commutators
DC switches are more than expensive than their AC equivalents.

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4.2.3 Choice for D.C Power
Following Advantage has lead us for using D.C. power.
No governor is required
Storage battery can be charged directly by the dc voltage.

4.3.4 Types of A.C. Generator

They can be classified as:
i. By generator type
Synchronous generator: Independent exciter of rotor is provided for each unit and is
applicable for both independent and existing power network
Induction generator: No exciter of rotor is provided (squirrel cage type). Usually
applicable for network with other power source. Sometimes applicable for
independent network with additional capacitors for less than 25 kW but not so
recommendable for independent network due to difficulty of voltage control and life
time of capacitors except cost saving.
ii. By number of phase
Single phase: Simple structure and easy maintenance. This type is not used in power
network system because it is difficult to purchase the generator with capacity of more
than 2kW in market. In this case three phase generator with delta connection is
applied as shown above.
Three phase: High transmission efficiency due to small current with the same
capacity as single-phase machine (58% of 1-pahse).
Star () connection For 3 phase 4 wire network
Delta () connection or single phase 2 wire network
iii. By shaft arrangement
Vertical shaft: Generator and turbine shaft orientation is along vertical axis. Suitable
for large-scale hydro.
Horizontal shaft: Generator and turbine shaft orientation is along horizontal axis. Not
suitable for large-scale hydro due to limitation of shaft deflection but suitable for
small-scale/micro hydro due to easy maintenance.
4.3.4.1 Induction Machine (As a motor and Generator)
Induction machine consists of yoke, stator and rotor. The yoke is the outer foundation of the
machine. The stator is the stationary parts which carry the three phase field winding and the rotor is
the main rotating part of the machine.
During normal condition it operates as an induction motor. When 3 phase field winding is
connected to an external supply the field winding of the stator rotates with its synchronous speed and
the conductor of a rotors as a result of which current is produced and a force is created, this force starts
to rotate a rotor in a high speed to catch the speed of the stator but it never catch its which is the
motoring mode of the induction motor.
Synchronous speed = Ns =120f/P
Where, f is the frequency
P is the number of poles.
For motoring mode, S = (Ns N)/Ns
Where, Ns is the synchronous speed of the field winding and N is the speed of the rotor.
For generating mode whole of the process will be reversed.

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Induction generator:
We know that the slip will be negative when the Induction machine acts as a generator. This
means in generating mode the speed of the rotor is greater than the speed of the 3 phase field winding
i.e. greater than the synchronous speed.
Therefore, an induction machine can be operated as a generator when its rotor is rotated by an
external means above the synchronous speed. An excitation is given to the stator field winding. Now
according to electromagnetic induction e.m.f. will be induced in a stator. This is the voltage generated
by the induction generator.
Torque slip characteristics of the induction machine.

=

120


= 120

-120fs =Np-120f
120f (1-s) =Np
120(1)
N=

For a generating mode the speed of the rotor will be

120(1)
N= above synchronous speed.

Types of Induction Generator

Grid connected IG
Rotor run beyond the synchronous speed by the prime mover and reactive power for
excitation is drawn from the grid.
Stand-alone (isolated) IG
Rotor run beyond the synchronous speed by the prime mover and reactive power for
excitation is supplied by externally connected excitation capacitors.
Voltage build up in Induction Generator
Residual magnetism in the magnetic circuit
induces small voltage in the stator. Such a voltage
across a capacitor connected at its terminals causes
lagging magnetizing current through the stator
terminal (leading current through the capacitors).
Such magnetizing current increases the air gap flux
and hence increases the voltage at the stator
terminal. The process continues till final voltage is
built up due to saturation. The value of capacitance
below which no emf is induced is called critical

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capacitance (C3) in the curve to follow). In this curve C4<C3<C2<C1. As capacitance decreases, its
reactance (the slope of the curve) increases.
Power factor balancing and excitation:
The generated power produced by induction
machine is inductive type as the load is inductive and
only resistive. Therefore lagging power will be produced.
The lagging power results in high current flow and
voltage drop. Therefore this power factor has to be
corrected. This lagging power factor is being corrected
by using capacitor which is as shown in the fig. For a 3
phase star connected stator winding. In all sides 3 C
magnitude of capacitor is added. For a single phase, C,
and 2C magnitude is added.
Value of excitation capacitance:
Following two method are used for calculation of value of excitation.
i. Electrical test Method
No load test is performed in which the line current and supply voltage are measured
when machine is run as motor with no mechanical load applied.
The voltage obtained divided by current gives the reactive valve. Now the use
capacitor valve would be equal to this reactance valve. The magnetizing reactance
calculated from no load voltage and current gives the capacitive reactance to be
provided by the excitation capacitors.
ii. Using manufacturers data
This involves an estimation of magnetizing current component using the full load
current and power factor mentioned in the manufacturers data sheet. The magnetizing (capacitive)
reactance and hence the capacitance is then calculated from this current and the rated voltage.

Q. A 8 KW, 750 rpm, 50 Hz, 380 V (line to line) 3 phase induction motor draws a line current of
15 A when the machine supplied at its rated voltage and frequency with no mechanical load.
What size of excitation capacitors are needed for delta connection in order to make the machine
generate at approximately its rated voltage when driven slightly above its rated speed? Find also
the voltage for which the capacitors have to be designed. Also calculate the value of excitation
capacitance and their voltage ratings when they are to be star connected.

Solution:
Given: P= 8 kW
N= 750 rpm
Vl-l = 380 V
Delta connection [Vp = Vl and Ip = Il/3 ]
The delta connected excitation reactance must be equal to the equivalent delta magnetizing
reactance at no load of induction machine.
380
Thus, Xc(delta) = Xm =

= 15 = 43.88
3

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 1
The required value of capacitor for f= 50 Hz, =

1
Or, = 25043.88 = 72.54
And the minimum peak voltage for capacitor = Vp * 2 = 380*2 = 537.4

Star Connection [Vp = Vl/3 and Ip = Il ]

380
3
Xm = = 14.63
15
1
The required value of capacitor for f= 50 Hz, =

1
Or, = 25014.63 = 217.63
380
And the minimum peak voltage for capacitor = 2 = 310.26
3

Note: C_star = 3 * C_delta

Q: A 3 phase 15 KW, 4 pole induction motor (frame size D160L) rated at 380 V (line to line), 50
Hz have been chosen to be used as induction generator. Use manufacturer's data sheet to find
full load current and full load power factor and calculate the size and voltage rating of the
excitation capacitors when they are to be connected in a) delta b) star

Solution:
Given,
P = 12 kW (3-phase)
V= 380 V (l-l)
From manufacturer data sheet full load current 23 A full load power factor = 0.8
The reactive component of this current can be taken as magnetizing current,
= = 23 ( 1 (0.8)) = 13.48
Delta connection [Vp = Vl and Ip = Il/3 ]
The delta connected excitation reactance must be equal to the equivalent delta magnetizing
reactance at no load of induction machine.
380
Thus, Xc(delta) = Xm = = 13.48 = 48.8

3
1
The required value of capacitor for f= 50 Hz, =

1
Or, = 25048.8 = 65.23
And the minimum peak voltage for capacitor = Vp * 2 = 380*2 = 537.4

Star Connection [Vp = Vl/3 and Ip = Il ]

C_star = 3* C_delta = 3*65.23 =195.69
380
And the minimum peak voltage for capacitor = 2 = 310.26
3

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Induction generator controller:
The induction generator controller is the voltage controller it is also known as governor. It
consists of a ballast load. When the load decreases, it means voltage increases. Now the (IGC) sense
this increase voltage and sent some sort of power into ballast load until voltage is balanced. Again if
voltage decreases from a predetermined valve then it cuts the supply power to the ballast load.
Therefore the (IGC) is same as of electronic load controller, but the (IGC) sense voltage where the
electronic load controller sense frequency.
Operation of IGC.
Isolated IG has poor output voltage at increased load due to inability of supplying enough
reactive power. Also its voltage is dependent on speed. Hence some form of voltage and
frequency control must be adopted.
IGC performs both these function for induction generator by making use of load speed
characteristics of the turbine and voltage speed characteristics of the generator.
IGC senses the output voltage of the
generator (changed due to both change in
load as well as speed) and controls the
output voltage and speed by diverting
varying amount of power to the ballast
load. Unlike in ELC, the voltage is sensed
rather than speed avoiding the use of
separate AVR.
IGC allows reactive loads to be supplied
only if the power factor is not less than 0.8
lagging.

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Specification of Induction generator
Electrical Specification:
IG should be rated to supply a load of p.f. not less than 0.8 lagging using Induction Generator
Controller (IGC).
To choose a motor to act as a generator, simply divide the generator rating required in kW by
a de-rating factor of 0.8 to compensate for possible load imbalance in case of three phase
machines and winding imbalance in case of single phase machine.
The mechanical input power to the generator must not be more than the motor rating as
otherwise shafts and bearings may be over loaded. As the losses in the generating mode will
be supplied from the mechanical input power, the rated electrical output power will be
significantly less than the motor rating.
Since the efficiency of induction machine is same in both motoring as well as generating mode,
it is to be made sure that motor is not rated less than the required generator rating divided by
its efficiency. This is, though, normally taken care by above de-rating rule.
When an Induction motor is used as induction generator, voltage output will be approximately
10% lower than the motor supply voltage while operating at same frequency and same
magnetizing current. So either decide to supply electrical power at lower voltage or obtain the
output voltage equal to the rated motor voltage by increasing the frequency using an IGC.
Mechanical specifications:
Induction machines up to 50 KW usually have bearing and shafts designed to drive through
pulleys and belts.
Still it is important to ask manufacturer whether the machine under consideration is capable
of doing this.
The manufacturer may, on request, fit some heavy duty bearing if there is some doubt
whether the normal bearing will withstand the belt drive force.
All the considerations for synchronous generators equally apply for induction generator too.
4.3.4.2 Synchronous Generator
Synchronous machines are used in micro hydro power plant above 50 kW and in large hydro power
plants. The components of a synchronous machine when used as a generator are as follows:
i) Exciter
ii) Stator
iii) Rotor
The main difference between the synchronous machines and the induction machines is that, in the
former conductors one placed in the stator winding, whereas in the latter the conductors are placed in
the rotors. The stator is also stationary in the synchronous machines.
120
The synchronous speed of the generator is given by:

Operating principle:
When an externally excitation source is excited to the rotor of the generator and it is rotated
with the help of the turbine shaft then the magnetic flux i.e. rotating is generated in the field winding.
This field windings cuts the conductor of a stator winding as a result of which emf will be produced in
a stator winding. This voltage produced is now used by a load (consumer) which is the main principle
of the synchronous generator. Synchronous generator is widely used in a large hydro power because
they need not have to do power factor correction, which are the advantages. Now the excitation of the

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synchronous generator is done by externally supplied DC source, such as battery, DC generators, and
so on. Self-excited generators are also in practice. At first they will run by residual magnetic flux, and
the rectifier is used to convert ac to dc. (i.e. alternating current to direct current).
Synchronous generator may be single phase or 3 phases. Single phase generator is known as
alternator and was found in the small scale (below 10 kW). The use of single phase generator may
overcome the load balancing in one hand and at the other hand, it is difficult to use the obtained
electricity for various purposes such as Husking mill, oil expeller because they need greater capacity
of motor, but single phase motor cannot be found of greater capacity.
Voltage regulation of synchronous generator:
Like in a dc generator the voltage goes on reduction as the load increases, i.e. the increasing
current reduces the voltage. This is due to the demagnetization of the magnetic flux. Now if the voltage
reduced the frequency increases. This may give the severe problems in synchronous generator. So to
save from this problem automatic voltage regulators are place on the field winding. The automatic
voltage regular consists nothing but a variable resistors. This variable resistor helps in maintaining the
constant voltage output. This fig. is shown below.

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Automatic voltage regulation
AVR is a device which helps to maintain constant terminal voltage irrespective of change in load.

Single line diagram of AVR

It works on the principle of
detection of errors. The output voltage of
an AC generator obtained through a
potential transformer and then it is
rectified, filtered and compared with a
reference. The difference between the
actual voltage and the reference voltage
is known as the error voltage. This error
voltage is amplified by an amplifier and
then supplied to the main exciter or pilot
exciter. Thus, the amplified error signals
control the excitation of the main or pilot
exciter through a buck or a boost action
(i.e. controls the fluctuation of the
voltage). Exciter output control leads to the controls of the main alternator terminal voltage.
Operation of AVR
Under load condition, the terminal voltage drops due to:
Resistance
Leakage reactance
Armature reaction
This drop in voltage must be regulated to have constant voltage under all condition by
adjusting the main field dc magnetizing current. This done by automatic voltage regulators.
AVR also adjusts the voltage imbalance due to change in speed to some extent.
AVR Practical consideration
off the shelf diesel generators AVR may be unreliable for micro hydro due to varying load
and shaft speed.
AVR in such case is mounted in separate wall to avoid temperature variation, condensation
and mechanical vibrations.

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 AVR responds to continuous long time under speed condition (if any ) and draws high field
current to increase the voltage causing over heating which may damage AVR and Generator
itself. Therefore protection against such under speed must be incorporated.

Under speed Protection:

Connection of AVR to a shaft mounted speed switch to ensure that excitation is
applied only when shaft speed is 80-90% of normal speed.
Adding a under and over frequency trip to the AVR circuit. A time delay to under
speed should be provided to avoid unnecessary tripping.
Using an intelligent AVR with frequency roll off characteristics i.e. excitation is
reduced at reduced frequency causing voltage to reduce.
The failure of AVR could result in long delays before the system is back in operation causing
huge loss of revenue. So a plentiful spare parts must be available and reordering must be
done if any of them is used.

Types of Synchronous Generator

Synchronous
Generator

Brush Type Brushless

Rotating Field Rotating Armature

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Brush type synchronous generator
Generators with slip ring and carbon brushes are called Brush type Synchronous Generator.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Brush type synchronous generator
Advantage Disadvantage
Good load bearing capacity Carbon bushes need to be changed time
to time
High staring potential(motor running) Failure of rectifier over time
Easy maintenance Possibility of over speed
Note: Earlier in Nepal, we used rotating armature brush type synchronous generator but due to its
disadvantage its use is decreasing day by day.
Brushless synchronous generator
Mostly used nowadays in MHP. Generators without slip ring and carbon brushes are called
Brushless Synchronous Generator.
A brushless synchronous generator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one
shaft. Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts are readily identifiable
on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the main alternator and the smaller one is the
exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main
alternator has a rotating field and a stationary armature (power generation windings). A bridge
rectifier, called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on the rotor.

Fig: Brushless synchronous

generator

Operation of brushless synchronous generator

Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase
output from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor,
and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The
result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator.

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Off the shelf vs. custom built
Off the shelf:
Machine that are easily available or just like available on the self. Such machine are easily
available and cheap usually intended for diesel engine.
Custom built:
These are machines that are to be ordered to company according to required specification
which is used when cost is not a restriction and is suited for micro hydro application with no risks of
winding failure, bearing and capacity to supply for line losses.
Comparison between off-self and Custom Built
Off-the-shelf Custom-Built
Advantages Advantages
Easily obtained; about half the cost of custom- Mechanical and electrical duties as specified; no
made unit; replaced parts easily found. Generally danger of winding failure at over speed, bearings
will be high speed so relatively small and light: correctly sized, so will not wear rapidly. Higher
A 1500 rpm, 100 kW alternator can be moved than nominal voltage settings available to allow
with small manual hoist. for line losses.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Maximum safe speed rating often not known; Twice the cost of mass-produced unit; long
therefore risk of mechanical failure at turbine delays in ordering quite likely; delays in
over-speed. Bearings usually not sufficiently obtaining spare parts are possible.
strong, will wear rapidly. Voltage adjustment
may be limited.
Precautions Precautions
Assess quality of workmanship and adhesive If a low-speed alternator requested, savings will
strength. Request bracing of windings if be made on gearing and bearing-loading, but the
necessary to protect from mechanical failure at weight, size and cost of the alternator will
over speed. If necessary, request replacement of increase, since the weight of copper is
bearings; check that bearing housings can proportional to inverse of speed square. (A 500
accommodate heavier bearings. rpm, 100 kW alternator will be the size and
weight of a small car).

Specification of Synchronous Generators

Electrical Specification:
Sufficient VA rating in condition of maximum demand with margin for the following:
Transmission line/transformer in between generator and load
Possible expansion of loads and supply system
Working with ELC
Supplying induction motor loads
To take care of all these, add 25% to kVA capacity when ELC is not there. For an ELC,
apply add 60% rule.

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 Mechanical Specification
Bearing
Intended for a constant drive, they are Likely to be under sized for hydro application
Manufacturers should be consulted if pulley and belts are to be added
Over speed protection
Rotor windings intended for diesel generator may be pulled out due to huge centrifugal
force at over speed. Following protections are necessary:
Incorporating a over speed trip
Installing wedges and extra binding at experienced local workshop
Testing without modification at safe condition if ready for risk.
Insulation and operating temperature
Advanced insulation withstands around 2000 degree Celsius allowing machine to run
very hot
Smaller cross section copper wire can be used in this case to save cost which stabilize
at very high temperature
Alternators life is around 20000 hrs. (continuous) which goes half if operated at 8-10
degree above the rated temperature and goes double when operated at 8-10 degree
below the rated temperature
Appropriate bearing size should be chosen as heat is conducted to bearing and reduces
grease viscosity.

4.3.4.3 Comparison of Synchronous Generator and Induction Generator

Advantage of Synchronous Generator
Item
Independent operation
Power factor adjustment
Excitation current
Voltage and frequency
adjustment
Synchronizing current
Synchronous generator
Independent operation is possible
Operation at desired power factor
in response load factor is possible
DC exciter is employed.
Adjustment is possible as desired
in independent operation
Transient current and voltage
drop in the system are small since
the paralleling is made after
synchronization.
Induction generator
No independent operation is
possible since excitation from
other system is required
Operation power factor is
governed by generator output and
cannot be adjustable
The lagging current is taken as
the exciting current from the
system so that the power factor of
the system decreases. The
exciting current increases in low
speed machines.
Voltage and frequency
adjustment is not possible. The
generator is governed by the
voltage and frequency of the
system.
Connection to the system to be
made by forced paralleling by
which a large current is created,
resulting in a voltage drop in the
system.

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 Advantage of Induction Generator
Item Synchronous generator Induction generator

Construction
Exciter and field regulator
Excitation current
The rotor has exciting winding
outside the damper winding
which is equivalent to the bars
of squirrel-cage of induction
generator. This is more
complicated
Required
DC exciter is employed.
The rotor is the same as a
synchronous generator but the
rotor is of the squirrel cage
type. Thus, the construction is
simple and sturdy. It can be
easily correspond to operation
under adverse conditions and is
the best suited for small or
medium capacity.
This is not required since
exciting current is taken from
the system
The lagging current is taken as
the exciting current from the
system so that the power factor of
the system decreases. The
exciting current increases in low
speed machines.

Synchronization Required. Thus, synchronism No synchronizing device is

detector is necessary
Stability Pull out may occur if the load
fluctuates suddenly
required since forced
paralleling is made. Rotating
speed is detected and making
is performed almost at
synchronous speed.
Stable and no pull out due to
load fluctuation.

Q. Discuss why induction generator cannot supply load of power factor less than 0.8 lagging??
Ans: When an inductive load is connected then the voltage of the generator would decrease more than
in the case of resistive load. IGC then would respond by reducing the power sent to the ballast load
until the load returns to the desired level. As the voltage change is more than that would be the case
for true power change, the ballast load is reduced by more than the true power change and thus the
turbine speed then generator speed and finally the frequency would increase. The change in frequency
due to load of power factor less than 0.8 lagging would be higher than the desired level. So, to prevent
the over frequency the IGC would allow loads of power factor less than 0.8 lagging to be supplied.
Thus, induction generator cant supply load of power factor less than 0.8 lagging.

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4.3.5 Choice between single and three phase supply
Single Phase
Larger Transmission Losses
Needs no load balancing
Switchgear and load control cheaper
More powerful units larger and more
expensive
Generally, good for loads less than 10KW.
4.3.6 Comparison between IGC and ELC
ELC
It is mainly used for synchronous generator.
It controls the power supplied to load by
sensing change in frequency.
AVR is required.
It operates at all conditions.
S. Khan
Three Phase
Smaller transmission losses (due to 415V
transmission)
Needs a balanced load on all three phases.
Switchgear and load control more expensive
More powerful units smaller and cheaper.
Generally, good for loads greater than 5KW.
IGC
It is mainly used for induction generator.
It controls the voltage and frequency.
No AVR is required.
It allows reactive loads to be supplied only if
power factor is more than 0.8 lagging.
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 Chapter 5: protection, Switchgear and
measurement
5.1 Protection
Protection is the science, skill, and art of applying and setting and / or fuses to provide
maximum sensitivity to fault and undesirable condition.

5.2 Role of Protection System

Protection system, which operates when a fault occurs at equipment and electric lines in the
power system, plays the following roles:
To detect the fault by inputs from instrument transformers
To separate the section in which the fault occurs from the normal sections.
To prevent the fault from expanding to the normal sections by circuit breaker operation.
To avoid a fatal accident and equipment damage

5.3 Basic objectives of system protection:

Protection does not mean prevention, but minimizing the duration of the trouble, the five
basic objectives are:
i) Reliability: assurance that the protection will perform correctly.
ii) Selectivity: maximum continuity of service with minimum system disconnection.
iii) Speed of operation: minimum fault duration and consequent equipment damage.
iv) Simplicity: minimum protective equipment and associated circuitry to achieve the protection
objectives.
v) Economics: maximum protection at minimum total cost.

5.4 Single Line diagram of Power Plant with Low Tension Distribution Line

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5.5 Single line Diagram of micro-hydro

5.6 Switchgear
Any device or combination of devices, capable of making or breaking circuit on all conditions
including fault is termed as switch-gear. Switchgear is needed to isolate the power supply when
necessary. It is used to have some control over the electrical power flow.
Protection equipment work together with switches and will send signal to circuit breaker to operate
when a fault occurs or is cleared.

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5.6.1 Isolators
Isolators are device capable of making or breaking a circuit breaker under no-load condition. It is
also called no load breaking switch or disconnected switch. It is used for disconnecting feeders,
circuit breakers, transformer and bus bar for regular maintenance and repair works. This is
accomplished by operating another switch gear like circuit breaker or switch fuse unit connected in
series with the isolator for protection of the system.

Features:
The isolator must be capable of carrying maximum fault current for the time, the fault is being
cleared by an interrupting device in series with it.
In high voltage installation the capacitance between lines and earth is significant through the
line is disconnected by opening circuit breaker and isolator there is some voltage to which the
capacitance is charged. To discharge this voltage after disconnection isolators are usually
incorporated with earth terminal.
Isolators are used extensively for connecting at tiers, feeders, for repair and maintenance of
lines, transformers, circuit breakers or any component of the system.

5.6.2 Fuses
Fuse is the simplest and cheapest device used for interrupting an electrical circuit under short
circuit or excessive overload, current magnitudes. As such, it is used for overload and/or short circuit
protection in high voltage (up to 66 KV) and low voltage (up to 400 V) installations/circuits. The action
of a fuse is based upon the heating effect of the electric current. In normal operating conditions, when
the current flowing through the circuit is within the safe limits, the heat developed in the fuse element
carrying this current is readily dissipated into the surrounding air and therefore fuse element remains
at a temperature below its melting point.
However, when some fault, such as short circuit occurs or when load capacity exceeds its
limiting value, the heat generated due to this excessive current cannot be dissipated fast enough and
the fusible element gets heated, melted and breaks the circuit. It thus protect a machine or apparatus
or an installation from damaged due to excessive current.
Mainly there are two types of fuses;
a. Wire Fuse:
It is also sometimes called 'kit-kat' or 'cut-out' fuse. After melting the fusible wire another same
capacity fusing wire is used to replace the previous melted wire. They are available up to 100 A rating
and rupturing capacity is of 4 kA.
b. Cartridge Fuse:
For interrupting high fault currents up to 80 kA cartridge fuses are use. They are also called
HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuse. The body of the fuse is made of ceramic and the fuse element
(made of silver) is surrounded are quenching powder usually quartz sand.

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5.6.3 Main switch
A main switch is a central cut-off switch that controls
the smaller cut-off switches and machines of a building. The
main switch can be cut off by a human or a computerized
system to control the flow of power in the building. They are
similar to isolators but with an addition of a fuse on the phase
conductor. Fuses are used as current limiting devices.

5.6.4 Circuit Breaker:

A circuit breaker is a device which is used for making and breaking an electrical circuit once
or repeatedly several times during normal as well as abnormal operating conditions of the circuit.
There are different types of circuit breakers, such as;
Air circuit breakers
Oil circuit breakers
Sulpherhexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers
Vacuum circuit breakers
All these air, oil, SF6 and vacuum are for arc extinguishing purpose oil, SF6 and vacuum are more
efficient for extinguishing the arc for very high fault level and voltage than air. But for micro and
mini hydro system air circuit breaker is sufficient for this purpose whose capacity is fault level up to
31 MVA. The schematic diagram of circuit breaker is given below.

Fig: Schematic diagram of circuit breaker

Fig: Schematic diagram & protective scheme

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5.6.5 Oil Circuit Breakers (OCB)
Oil circuit breakers (OCBs)
are the oldest type of circuit breakers.
Oil circuit breakers are usually
employed for high voltage
application up to 11 KV with a
current rating up to 2400 A. In OCBs
the main contacts are immersed in oil
and the oil acts as the ionizing
medium between the contacts. The
oil is mineral type, with high
dielectric strength to withstand the
voltage across the contacts under
normal conditions.
OCBs may be of various
types, but regardless of that the basic of arc extinction process remains same in all CBs. When main
contacts are separated during the operation of the CBs an arc will be produced. The arc will thus
generate heat decomposing the oil around the main contacts and liberate gases (mostly hydrogen). The
production of the hydrogen gas in this manner appreciable increases the dielectric strength of the gap
between the contacts which aids in the arc extinction process. Oil has the following advantages:
Ability of cool oil to flow into the space after current zero and arc goes out.
Cooling surface presented by oil.
Action of oil as an insulator lending to more compact design of switchgear.
Absorption of energy by decomposition of oil.

5.6.6 Air Circuit Breaker

Air Circuit Breaker
(ACBs) are used for
medium and low voltages.
In air circuit breakers, the
interrupting contacts are
situated in air instead of any
other medium. The arc
produced is chopped into
number of small arcs by the
arc chute as it rises due to
heat and magnetic force. In
such CB high resistance
principle is employed for
effective arc extinction. The arc is lengthened by means of the arc runners and arc chutes thus
increasing the resistance. Arc resistance can be increased in the following ways:
Cooling: When the temperature is decreased by cooling the voltage required to maintain the
ionization of the air increase which in turn increases the resistance.
Lengthening: As the length of the arc increases the resistance also increases.
Splitting: An appreciable voltage is absorbed at the two contact surfaces so that on splitting of
an arc into a number of small arcs in series the voltage available for the actual column is
reduced.

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5.6.7 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations with
high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of
electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected.
The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is connected
to the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other terminal is
connected to the earth directly. If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal
body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears across the terminal of the coil
connected to the equipment body and earth. This voltage difference produces a current to flow the
relay coil.
If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes
sufficient to actuate the relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power supply
to the equipment. The typicality of this device is, it can detect and protect only that equipment or
installation with which it is attached. It cannot detect any leakage of insulation in other installation of
the system.

5.6.8 Moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB)

Moulded case circuit breakers are designed to provide circuit protection for low voltage distribution
systems. They will protect connected devices against both overloads and short circuits. Current ratings
ranges from low values such as 15 amperes, to industrial ratings such as 2,500 amperes.
MCCBs are composed of five main components:
a) Frame: The frame also known as the molded case, provides an insulated housing to mount to mount
all the circuit breaker components.
b) Operating mechanism: The operating mechanism handles the opening and closing of the contacts.
The speed that the contacts open or close is independent of how fast the handle is moved. The position of
handle indicates the status of the contacts whether they are closed, open or tripped. The handle will be in
a midway position when the contacts are tripped.
c) Arc extinguisher: An arc is created whenever a circuit breaker interrupts a current flow. The arc
extinguishers job is to confine and divide that arc, thereby extinguishing it.
d) Contacts: This unit provides the connection on normal condition and opens the circuit during
abnormal condition.
e) Trip unit: The function of the trip unit is to trip the operating mechanism in the event of a short circuit
or a prolonged overload of current. Protection is provided by combining a temperature sensitive device
with a current sensitive electromagnetic device, both of which act mechanically on the trip mechanism.

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 Fig: Connection diagram of MCCB with different types of supply

5.6.9 Contractors
A contactor is an automatic switching device which operates under the action of an electromagnet
for repeatedly breaking and making of electric circuit. A contactor has three components. The contacts are
the current carrying part of the contactor. This includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact
springs. The electromagnet or coil provides the driving force to close the contacts. The enclosure is a frame
housing the contact and the electromagnet. Enclosures are made of insulating materials like Bakelite, Nylon
6, and thermosetting plastics to protect and insulate the contacts and to provide some measure of protection
against personnel touching the contacts. Open-frame contactors may have a further enclosure to protect
against dust, oil, explosion hazards and weather.
When current passes through the
electromagnet, a magnetic field is
produced, which attract the moving
core of the contactor.The electromagnet
coil draws more current initially, until
its inductance increases when the metal
core enters the coil. The moving contact
is propelled by the moving core; the
force developed by the electromagnet
holds the moving and fixed contacts
together. When the contactor coil is de-
energized, gravity or a spring returns
the electromagnet core to its initial
position and opens the contacts.

5.6.10 Changeovers
They are used to select a source of power. In micro hydro, they are used to select power
either from grid or micro hydro.

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5.7 Over current trip
Trips which occurs when current exceeds beyond preset value is called over current trip.
Over current can damage generator winding, switches, cables and other equipment due to excess heat
generated. Fuse, MCCB, PTC thermistor (Positive temperature coefficient) etc. are usually used for
the protection against over current. The causes of over current are listed below:
Excess load to generator
Faulty equipment being connected to generator
Lagging power factor
Short circuit
Incorrect frequency

5.8 Under/Over voltage trip

Trips which occur when voltage drops or exceeds beyond a preset value. Electric motors and
alternators will be damaged if under-voltage persists for a long time. Over-voltage damages lamps,
heating element insulators etc. The causes of over voltage and under voltage are:
Under Voltage Over voltage
Defective AVR Defective AVR
Machine overloaded Leading power factor load
Bad power factor Poor regulation of transmission line
Poor regulation of transmission line Generator run at over speed.

5.8 Under/Over frequency trip

Trips when frequency drops or exceeds beyond a preset value. Electric motors and alternators
may be damaged due to incorrect frequency. Following are the cause of under/over frequency trip.
Under frequency Over frequency
Defective governor Defective ELC
Machine overloaded Excess water
Insufficient water Generator run at over speed due to
Belt slip sudden decrease in load

5.9 Temperature trip

Trip which occurs when temperature violates its set limit. Probes are generally embedded in
winding and wired to trip or give alarm. The general causes of the temperature trip are:
Overloading of generator
Incorrect frequency
Excess current due to low power factor
Wave form distortion
Defective bearings
Bad ventilation
Ambient temperature too high
Altitude not within rated value

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5.10 Lightening protection
A lightning protection system is designed to protect a structure from
damage due to lightning strikes by intercepting such strikes and safely
passing their extremely high currents to ground. A lightning protection
system includes a network of air terminals, bonding conductors, and ground
electrodes designed to provide a low impedance path to ground for potential
strikes.

Transmission lines are subjected to direct stroke which are protected

by running earth wire. Indirect strokes may damage electrical and electronic
equipment and installations which is protected by installing lightening
arresters (LAs).LAs have high resistance at normal voltage and low
resistance at high voltage as insulating material breaks at high voltage.

5.11 Earthing System

The term earthing means connecting of the non-current carrying parts of the electrical
equipment or the neutral point of the supply system to the general mass of the earth in such a manner
that at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger. Earthing is
achieved by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installations to some system of electrical
conductors or electrodes placed in intimate contact with the soil some distance below the ground level.
This contacting assembly is called the earthing. The metallic conductors connecting the parts of the
installations with the earthing and the earthing connections as a whole, it is customary to use the term
the earthing system.
All equipments are earthed which gives rise to zero voltage reference to all other voltages. All metal
works are earthed by electrically connecting them to earth electrodes which may be a GI pipe or copper
plate buried in the ground. Earth resistance of these earth electrode must be less than 1 ohm as
measured by earth megger. One of the popular earthing system is TT system (used in Srilanka) in
which neutral at source is earthed in conjunction with earth fault protection. Earth fault protection
consists of an earth fault relay associated with earth leakage circuit breaker to isolate the power system
if earth fault is detected.

5.12 Metering Equipment

5.12.1 Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for
measuring electrical potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a
scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit while digital
voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of
an analog to digital converter.

5.12.2 Ammeter
An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring
instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. The
main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very
low resistance and also inductive reactance. It is connected in
series because of low resistance.

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Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are mainly -
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeter.
Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
Rectifier type Ammeter.
Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-
DC Ammeter.
AC Ammeter.
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, and also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC.

5.12.3 Energy Meter

Watt hour meter or energy meter is an instrument which measures amount of electrical energy
used by the consumers. Utilities install these instruments at every place like homes, industries,
organizations to charge the electricity consumption by loads such as lights, fans and other appliances.
Most interesting type are used as prepaid electricity meters.
Basic unit of power is watts. One thousand watts is one kilowatt. If we use one kilowatt in one
hour, it is considered as one unit of energy consumed. These meters measure the instantaneous voltage
and currents, calculate its product and gives instantaneous power. This power is integrated over a
period which gives the energy utilized over that time period.
These may be single or three phase meters depending on the supply utilized by domestic or
commercial installations. For small service measurements like domestic customers, these can be
directly connected between line and load. But for larger loads, step down current transformers must be
placed to isolate energy meters from higher currents.
Energy meter or watt hour meter is classified in accordance with several factors such as:
Type of display like analog or digital electric meter.
Type of metering point like grid, secondary transmission, primary and local
distribution.
End applications like domestic, commercial and industrial.
Technical like three phases, single phase, HT, LT and accuracy class meters.

5.12.3.1 Electromechanical induction type Energy meter

It is the popularly known and
most common type of age old watt hour meter.
It consists of rotating aluminum disc mounted
on a spindle between two electro magnets.
Speed of rotation of disc is proportional to the
power and this power is integrated by the use of
counter mechanism and gear trains. It comprises
of two silicon steel laminated electromagnets
i.e., series and shunt magnets.
Series magnet produces the flux which is
proportional to the current flowing and shunt
magnet produces the flux proportional to the
voltage. These two fluxes lag by 90 degrees due
to inductive nature. The interaction of these two
fields produces eddy current in the disk, exerting

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a force, which is proportional to product of instantaneous voltage, current and phase angle between
them.
Vertical spindle or shaft of the aluminum disc is connected to gear arrangement which records
a number, proportional to the number of revolutions of the disc. This gear arrangement sets the number
in a series of dials and indicates energy consumed over a time. This type of meter is simple in
construction and accuracy is somewhat less due to creeping and other external fields. A major problem
with these types of meters is their easy prone to tampering, leading to a requirement of an electrical
energy monitoring system. These are very commonly used in domestic and industrial application.

5.12.4 Pressure Gauge

It is the device used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit. A manometer is a
good example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Two common
reasons for gauge failure are pipe vibration and water condensation. The pressure gauge must be
located for better operator visibility

5.12.5 Speed meter

A speedometer or a speed
meter is a gauge that measures and
displays the instantaneous speed of
the shaft of the generator and motor
used in the micro-hydropower.

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 5.12.6 Frequency Meter
A frequency meter is an instrument that displays the frequency of a periodic electrical signal.
Various types of frequency meters are used. Many are instruments of the deflection type, ordinarily
used for measuring low frequencies but capable of being used for frequencies as high as 900 Hz.
These operate by balancing two opposing forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured cause
a change in this balance that can be measured by the deflection of a pointer on a scale. Deflection-
type meters are of two types, electrically resonant circuits and ratiometers.
An example of a simple electrically resonant circuit is a moving-coil meter. In one version, this
device has two coils tuned to different frequencies and connected at right angles to one another in
such a way that the whole element, with attached pointer, can move. Frequencies in the middle of
the meters range cause the currents in the two coils to be approximately equal and the pointer to
indicate the midpoint of a scale. Changes in frequency cause an imbalance in the currents in the
two coils, causing them, and the pointer, to move.
Another type of frequency meter, not of the deflection type, is the resonant reed type,
ordinarily used in ranges from 10 to 1,000 Hz, although special designs can operate at lower or
higher frequencies.

5.13 Appropriate choice of switchgear, protection and measurement:

A number of switchgear combinations are studied and compared with each other against
relevant criteria, with the aim of achieving:
Satisfactory performance
Compatibility among the individual items; from the rated current In to the fault-level rating
ICU
Compatibility with upstream switchgear or taking into account its contribution
Conformity with all regulations and specifications concerning safe and reliable circuit
performance
Overall Cost ( initial + maintenance + protection saving )

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 Chapter 6: TESTING, COMMISSIONING,
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Testing: The means by which the presence, quality, or genuineness of anything is determined; a
means of trial.
Commissioning: Process by which an equipment, facility, or plant (which is installed, or is complete
or near completion) is tested to verify if it functions according to its design objectives or
specifications.

6.1 Testing and commissioning

It is very important to carry out the testing process with the trained personnel. Ample time
should be spent on doing so. Manufactures literature should be read and if there are any doubt the
content should be clarified. Time and budget should be allocated to this process at planning stage. It
is the last stage of micro hydro installation and have huge pressure on contractors and purchasers for
desired performance tests. Performance tests to be carried out and recorded carefully by trained
personnel with regard to the following:
Head works
Electromechanical Equipment
Alternators
Loading machines on load
Taking readings
Setting up trips

6.1.1 Headwork:
The channel should be cleaned and flushed out so that all loose soil, stones etc. will not enter
the turbine. It may be better to let the water run along the channel with the flushing valve open for
some times, e.g. overnight. This will flush out all the stones, sticks, etc. and also will wash away any
loose areas of sol from sides of the channel. It is necessary to observe if channel as a whole is
functioning as designed. Example leakage, overflow, silt deposit. The penstock should be pressure
tested by closing the main valve & letting the pipe fill slowly with water. But there shouldnt be any
air during the test. There will usually be a 200% overpressure test specified for larger plants with a
procedure given. It is very important to allow the penstock to fill at a slow rate as this will allow air to
escape. Keep doors & windows open when test are carried out because a failure can flooded
powerhouse with a very short time. It may also be wish to design the powerhouse to have all doors
opening outwards so that they will tend to let the water out if flooding occurs.

6.1.2 Electro-mechanical equipment

Before the machines are run it is best to check all the equipment.
Check that all the nuts and bolts are tight,
That the rotating part is free to rotate,
That the bearings are lubricated,
Couplings or drives are correctly aligned and tightened.
All wiring is according to circuit diagrams provided by the alternator, switchboard, ELC,
manufactures.
Ventilation is not obstructed.

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 The governor is filled with oil if necessary.
If there is an ELC that the ballast load is full of water.
That all switches are in the off position.
That the tailrace is clear.

Alternator insulation levels should be checked and if low it should be dried out in accordance to the
manufactures requirements.
It is always better to run up one item at a time and observe how it works. When doing so it is best to
keep the main gate valve partially closed so that only the required amount of water flows through it.
This is because it can take a long time to shut this valve if anything goes wrong.
If possible disconnect the turbine from the alternator by removing the belts and run a turbine at a
very low speed, e.g. As much as 5% of the rated speed. If it is a problem to disconnect the alternator
then run them together with the exciter or AVR fuse disconnected, since this will prevent the voltage
from building up. The governor should be on manual control.
Observe any noise, misalignment on the drive, or any uneasy or knocking movement. If detected
these should be rectified. Check bearing temperature with time. There may be oil pumps circulating
oil into the bearings, these should also be checked.
After about half an hour of running, if there is no sign of anything wrong, raise the speed gradually
in 10% intervals up to rated speed and repeat all the observation described above and in the
manufactures literature.
If after running at rated speed for some time, there is no indication of anything going wrong, (for
example the bearings are not overheating, rotating part not touching anything) then governor (if it is
a mechanical type) can be tested by putting it back to automatic. It may need some adjustment to
bring the turbine to rated speed, but having done this, the speed should run stable at a present value.
Testing mechanical governors on an uploaded turbine will indicate to some extent whether the
governor is working in the proper manner. This can be done by running the turbine to 90% of rated
speed, and to 110% of rated speed, with the governor on manual. If, when the governor is switched
back to auto, the speed drops or raises to the rated value then the governor is functioning in proper
manner. If not, check the setting up procedure.
On flow deflection type governors (as opposed to flow control) it is more difficult to do such a test as
there may be no auto-to-manual switch.
If the mechanical governor is functioning satisfactorily it is time to test the alternator.

6.1.3 Alternator
Once the insulation level of the alternator is above the recommended level the alternator can be tested.

Stop the turbine and reconnect the exciter wires or AVR fuse. All connection and the arrangement of
the electrical equipment must be carefully checked against the wiring diagrams. The connection of
monitoring and control equipment must be checked. Perfect wiring is essential for a successful
commissioning. If the alternator manufacturer has indicated the direction of rotation, the machine
should run in this direction. It is important to see that warm exhaust air from any machine should not
be drawn into the intake opening of the alternator.

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With limited water flow, run up the turbine to about 5% of the rated speed and observe that the
complete equipment runs smoothly in this condition. At this stage it may be observed that a small
voltage appears on the voltmeter. Gradually increase the speed to about 95% of rated speed on ELC
type governing or 100% on mechanical type governing. This is because, in ELC type governing, as
soon as the machine reaches rated speed the ballast load is switched on.

At the above alternator speed the voltage should remain steady and it should be equal on all three
phases. Again observe that the machine runs smoothly. On an ELC system raise the speed so that it is
just on rated speed. Check that this gives a small ballast power.

On new alternators the AVR is factory set and it is not necessary to change these settings. However, if
there is a need to change the voltage it is best to follow alternator manufacturers instructions. If any
changes are carried out they should be within the nameplate values or the manufacture should be
informed of the final no load voltage at the terminals, the no load exciter voltage and current and also
the full load values. This is because if these values are beyond the design value damage to the alternator
or AVR could result.

Electronic AVRs will hold the voltage steady under the load condition to within +- 2% .or as stated in
the specifications. Transformer type AVRs will have a variation of +- 5%. It will also be noticed that
a transformer AVR will drop about 10 volts on phase to neutral when the machine is hot.
On testing the machine it may be observed that there is an oscillation on the voltage at this stage. It is important
to locate the cause of this oscillation and then rectify it. The oscillation in the voltage may be due to various
reasons, for example it may be due to the governor and the speed variation, or to the AVR, or to the belts, so it
is important to check them before changing the present on the alternator AVR.

The alternator should be observed for some time before loading into the ballast or main load. It is also
necessary to start taking various readings of voltage, current, frequency, exciter current, temperature
etc., along with time of recording, ambient temperature and even flow in the channel.

If the governor is an ELC it should be set up in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, and
various readings taken with time. If the alternator is running into ballast it is necessary to keep the
current in all three phases balanced and also take a reading of the neutral current. The machine should
respond to the adjustment of the frequency control of the ELC.

The water flow through the turbine can now be increased to load the machine. In the case of an ELC
type governor, the machine should be load tested on the ballast load first. In the case of a mechanical
type governor the machine must be tested on the main load or on a dummy load. The loading procedure
must be recorded and all readings entered against time.

6.1.4 Loading machine on main load

If a transmission line is induced on the scheme this should be megger tested before energizing.
All relevant wiring in the switchboard should be checked against the circuit diagrams.
On connecting up the hydro power to the switchboard the meters on this board should
indicate the presence of power. The loads can be switched on individually and the currents recorded.
If there are any electric motors to be run on the hydro the direction of rotation of the motors should
be checked. When heavy loads such as motors are connected on to the hydro it is necessary to wait a
few seconds between starting each motor for the turbine to stabilize after the first start.

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6.1.5 Taking readings
While readings are being taken it is important to keep everything in a steady state, as it may
take as much as 15 minutes to take all the readings. It is also important to use calibrated meters.
Following Data should be taken.
Flow instruments can be taken in the channel or in the tailrace and used in the calculation of
the gross hydro power available at the site or forebay tank. If flow measurements are made in
the channel should be adjusted so that all the water flows through the turbine without any
overflow. An alternative is to stop flow temporarily into the forebay and then time a decrease
in water volume in the forebay.
For various flow readings the pressure drop in the penstock can be recorded at the pressure gauge on
the penstock.
Turbine speed (rpm) should be recorded for various loads and flow conditions.
Bearing temperatures should be recorded over a period of 8 hours against ambient temperature.
If the alternator is belt driven, the speed of the alternator should be recorded with various loads.
Alternator temperature at various points on the case and the inlet and outlet air temperature should be
recorded with time and against the ambient temperature.
If the governor is a hydraulic type the temperature of the oil should be recorded over a period
of 8 hours.
Alternator voltages and currents on the three phases and the exciter voltage and current should
be recorded.
If governing is by ELC special voltage and ammeters are prepared to read the voltage and
current flowing out of the alternate into the ballast. These should read the true RMS values
of the current. The neutral current should also be recorded.
If a transmission line is used the voltage at both ends must be recorded along with the load
currents and the power factor.
Some turbine manufactures require that an over speed test also be carried out on the turbine
and alternator.
With the above readings it is possible to work out the power available at site and all the power losses
along the system. Each efficiency can be worked out and also the total efficiency.

These readings will help at a later date as reference on the project, as any faults can be picked out from
a new set of readings. For example if the alternator is running hot, the temperature can be measured
and referred back to the original test report.

6.1.6 Setting up trips

Once the turbine and alternator have been tested and their performance is satisfactory, the trips
can be set up so that the plant can be handled over for use by client.
The trip should be set up in conjunction with the test report as they will require specific time
delays depending how long it takes for certain loads to start. (During starting the speed may drop below
the required trip present value.) The trips should be tested individually and also together. It may be
better to allow the trips to trip the circuit often rather than under set them, as damage to the equipment
will result if they are not functioning when needed.

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6.2 Operation and Maintenance:
Maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) involves fixing any sort of mechanical,
plumbing, or electrical device should it become out of order or broken (known as repair,
unscheduled, casualty or corrective maintenance).

Fig: Flowchart of O&M Stage

6.2.1 Necessity of O&M

For every power facilities, O&M is a primary issue
MHP can easily encounter problems without proper O&M.
O+M procedures must be planned to prevent breakdown and reduced power o/p
Failure in O+M causes financial crisis and loss of confidence of MHP
Safety in the place of work is also a major consideration.
Use of O+M procedure will ensure choice of the correct spare parts and correct tools.
O+M procedure should include checks on the condition of safety equipment and training in
the proper use of safety equipment
More careful O&M is necessary for lower quality equipment and facilities.
Locally manufactured equipment is often used for rural electrification because of
budget limitations.
Facilities for rural electrification are constructed without consideration for high
quality/standard.

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6.2.2 O and M Responsibilities
The design engineer, the equipment installer and the user of the scheme, all have important role
to play in the O+M of micro hydro scheme. Roles of Designers, installers and users are:

Designers:
Should have O and M in mind throughout the design process.
Should have an understanding of skilled levels, motivation, availability and cost of O and M
staff in order that appropriate designs are used.
Must know the user of the scheme well in advance and write the O and M schedule for them
specifying the task of resident O and M staff, local workshops, manufacturers etc.
Must choose appropriate equipment which can be repaired easily by local workshops.
Must arrange and supervise proper training courses for O and staff and write the training
manuals.
Installers:
Will have supervised specifications to work to in case of large scheme.
Will be responsible for detailed design and quality control in case of smaller scheme.
Should be present during a quality check stage and during commissioning and testing stage
and should be bound by contract to make good any inadequacies.
Should provide full O and M documentation associated with special equipment.
Should conduct formal training courses for operators in presence of design engineer.
Users:
Responsible for O and M duty and recruitment of O and M staff.
Should implement O and M schedule and make sure that spare parts are replaced and stocked
in time.
Should recruit and pay the wages to O and M staff.
Should implement the training schedule specified by the design engineer.
Should make sure that the recommendation of the design engineer are followed by the local
workshop in case of complex repairs.
More complex repairs should be referred to the manufacturers ( e.g. Repair of the runner)

6.2.3 O+M Documents

Even for small informal installations, a structured system for O+M is essential. This is
expressed in a complete set of the following document:
Operation manuals
Component manuals
Installers manual
Maintenance schedule
Repair manuals
Log books
Training manuals

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1. Operation Manual:
This will contain basic operating instructions, such as start-up, maximum loads, descriptions
of meters, trips etc. This manual readily available to O+M staff, and in the right language.
2. Components Manual:
Typically, manuals are available for turbines, alternators, switches, belts, couplings, governors
and so on. Copies of all manuals must be readily available in the right language.
3. Installers manuals:
These should cover any equipment not covered by the manuals; for example, the penstock
and the powerhouse. These documents should give drawings, dimensions, design information and
O+M schedules.
4. Maintenance schedule:
This describes in detail the various maintenance tasks and when they should be carried out.
Typical items will be greasing bearings and emptying silt basins. Most problems will occur during
times of heavy rainfall and more frequent inspection may be necessary during the rainy season.
Repair work on the other hand is more easily carried out during the dry season. The schedule takes
account of these variations. Each scheme must have schedules drawn up which are specifically
designed for the equipment used in the particular scheme.
5. Repairs Manual:
This document lists sources of technical assistance. It will give the name and address of the
design engineer and of other suitable technical advisers. For each component it gives the address of
the manufacturer and of the local workshop familiar with that components. It will have space for
notes as to the current state of any service contract, works carried out by that particular repair work
shop, costs incurred, and so on.
6. Log Book:
This may vary from a small notebook to a more formal record book which can be checked
and countersigned by a supervisor. It is an essential document for continuity and monitoring of
O+M activity. Without a log book, for example, oil changes might be missed or the fact that a certain
bearing fails far too often might not be noticed.

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7. Training Manual:
This contains the content of both the initial training courses offered to O+M staff, and of
annual or bi-annual follow up courses. The information is presented clearly in the right language so
that it can be used to help initiate further training for new staff members. It also contains training
notes addressed to administrative staff associated with the scheme.

6.3 Micro-hydro fault diagnosis

Turbine problems
Fault Cause Remedy
Insufficient water. Check water supply
Stop water and rotate shaft by
Rotating parts not free to rotate. hand. Something may be stuck
inside the runner.
Could be a governor fault,
In Pelton and Turgo the Where the deflector is not
deflector may be in the path of returning to the open position.
the water jet. It may be necessary to move
deflector manually.
Check water outflow in the
tailrace. If valve is not opening
Turbine does not start Spare valve is not opening. then less water will flow in
tailrace. Repair valve if
necessary.
In the case of Francis turbine it Check movement of levers as
may be that the guide vanes are water is turned on. Repair if
not opening. necessary.
Guide vanes open, turbines
Open inspection covers and
does not run. This could be due
clean if necessary. It may be
to vegetation etc. Which get
necessary to remove the
into the turbine and wraps itself
draught tube too.
around the guide vanes and
runner.
Check and adjust water supply
Insufficient water.
Turbine starts but does necessary.
not come up to speed. Governor not functioning. Adjust if necessary.
RPM meter reading incorrect. Check with another meter.

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 Defective governor Repair.
Belt slip on governor. Check and adjust.
Turbine starts but
Rpm meter reading incorrect. Check with another meter.
operates at a higher
speed.
Defect in ballast circuit, e.g.
For ELC type governors. fuse blown or elements
defective.
Check and increase if
Insufficient water.
necessary.
Trash rack blocked. Check and clean if necessary.
Check pressure gauge.
Turbine starts but drops If pressure reading drops with
speed as it is loaded. Foreign matter in penstock increase in flow of water and
which blocks flow of water. needle vibrates, this could be
due to something stuck in
penstock.
Defective governor. Repair.
Check and reduce water and/or
Insufficient water in stream or
load in turbine to match water
Turbine operates for a reservoir.
available.
short time and then
In the case of Pelton and Turgo
drops in speed or stops.
it could be that the tailrace is Check and clean if necessary.
flooded.
Sometimes could be reduced by
This is often observed on fine adjustment of governor.
Turbine speed varies up
mechanical governor. Not a major problem up to 5%
and down on no load.
variation.
(Known as hunting)
Could be belt slip in the
Tighten belts.
governor.
Could be due to pulsating load. Check on different loads.
Defective governor. Check and repair.
Turbine speed varies up
Oscillation set up by a long flat Tighten flat belts or adjust
and down on load.
belt and governor. governor.
Oscillation set up by Vee belts. Due to belt slip. Tighten belt.
Could be small stones carried Not a major problem as water
Noise from inside the by the water. carries them out.
turbine. Stop turbine and check. Repair
Something has become loose.
if necessary.
Bearing worn out. Replace.
Noise from Bearing Something loose or touching
Inspect and repair.
inside.
Excess grease. Reduce and check.
Bearings run too hot. Plain bearing worn out. Inspect and repair.
Low oil. Top-up oil.

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 Cooling device not functioning. Check and repair.
Belts too tight. Check tension.
A high degree of skill is needed
If bearings have been
to sort this type of problem. The
remetalled or housing or shafts
correct tolerance should be
Bearings run too hot. repaired.
maintained.
(Contd.)
A high degree of skill is needed
If bearing are incorrectly to sort this type of problem. The
loaded. correct tolerance should be
maintained.
Incorrect alignment. Check and correct
Belt too loose. Check and tighten.
Check and apply belt paste.
Lack of belt paste.
(Only on flat belt.)
Belts too old. Replace if necessary.
Belt Slip.
Number of belts not sufficient. Check and replace belts.
Check load and reduce if
Load too large.
necessary.
Incorrect type of belts. Check and replace.

Alternator Problems
Fault Cause Remedy
Check and replace with identical
AVR fuse ruptured.
type.
With the alternator at rest apply a 12
or 24V dc supply to the field
Residual magnetism is too
windings, for a short time. This
small due to heavy shocks
should bring back the residual
during transport or after
magnetism. It is also possible to run
prolonged period of standing
the alternator with battery connected
idle.
to the field. This is known as the
Battery Test.
No voltage from the A break or bad connection on
alternator. the exciter wires, field windings Check cable connection, exciter
or main stator windings. Battery windings and field windings.
test will not excite.
Measure speed and bring to rated
Speed is too low.
speed.
Check all the switches are in off
Heavy load already connected position. If ELC is used then it could
to alternator before starting. be a short circuit on the electronic
switches.
Exciter diodes defective. Will
Replace diodes if necessary
not excite with the battery test.

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 Replace if necessary. If the alternator
AVR defective. excites on the battery test, it is clear
indication that the AVR is defective.
Internal short circuit in
windings. Battery test would Test windings.
not generate a voltage.
Brush gear worn or not free to Replace if necessary.
touch rings. Clean if necessary.
Manual regulator defective. Repair.
No voltage from the Megger test slip rings with all
Defective slip rings.
alternator. electronic components disconnected.
(Contd) Field wires are connected to the
wrong polarity of the exciter or Field wires have to be interchanged.
AVR.
Short circuit on field surge
protector. The field surge
protector is across the field
Test and if necessary replace surge
windings to protect the exciter
protectors.
diodes against a high voltage. If
this is short circuited, the field
current will not build up.
Speed not correct. Measure and connect.
AVR defective. Check using battery test.
Voltage preset too low. Adjust preset.
Single transformer type AVR.Adjust air gap or tappings.
Three transformer type AVR. One of the transformer is defective.
Manual regulator. Stuck or open at some points.
Brush gear not clean. Clean brush gear.
Rotate brush holder to best position
Brush gear moved. on commutator to get highest dc
voltage.
Alternator voltage too
low with no load. Rotating diodes defective. Disconnect and check.
Make better connections electrically,
Connections not good.
the bad connections will be hot.
If electronic AVR it may be sensing a
high voltage. For eg: Phase to phase
instead of phase to neutral.
AVR sensing wires connected If transformer type AVR, it may be
to wrong terminals. sensing a low voltage. For eg: Phase
to neutral instead of phase to phase.
Check circuit for low voltage
winding tapping.
Speed too high. Correct speed
Voltage preset too high. Adjust preset.
Alternator voltage too
External preset. Defective or not in circuit.
high with no load
AVR defective. Replace AVR.
AVR sensing wires open. Check wiring

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Alternator voltage too
AVR sensing wires connected If transformer type AVR, it may be
high with no load
to wrong terminals.
(Contd.)
Belt slip.
Alternator is over loaded.
Bad power factor.
If current sensing is available In
on the AVR it may be interchange the voltage sensing
connected the wrong way.
AVR setting is not corrected.
Quadrature drops kit.
In the case of an alternator with
a separate exciter the load
dependent excitation
incorrectly connected, so the
Alternator voltage excitation decreases instead of
drops with load. increasing with load.
Brief voltage collapse when allowed. If it is more than this loads
large loads are switched ON.
A diode may be defective.
Internal winding may be short
circuited.
Brush gear worn-out.
Unbalanced loads.
Severe waveform distortion.
Speed not stable.
Belt slip.
Flat belts.
Alternator voltage
hunts continuously
AVR
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If electronic AVR it may be sensing a
low voltage. For eg: Phase to neutral
instead of phase to phase.
sensing a high voltage. For eg: Phase
to phase instead of phase to neutral.
Check circuit for low voltage
winding tapping.
Tighten belts.
Check current and reduce if
necessary.
Try some other load.
transformer type AVRs
wires.
AVR setting may be under-
compensated.
If wrongly connected, disconnect if
necessary.
Compare the separate exciter unit
with with the writing diagram. With a
is
meter unit, it should be observed that
this voltage should increase with
load.
A brief voltage collapse of 15% is
should be started in a different
manner i.e. Star/delta starting.
Check and replace.
This may not show on simple battery
test. Isolate all electronics and
megger test windings.
This can be seen on the brushes as
sparking should reduce and voltage
should improve.
Check loads.
Check type of load and change if
possible.
Check governor and speed.
Check belt and tighten if necessary.
The flaps of long flat best may cause
this. Adjust stability of governor or
AVR.
Electronic AVRs have an adjustment
for stability.
In Electro-mechanical AVRs the
springs need to be adjusted.
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Bad connection
Slip rings worn-out due to
Alternator voltage
irregular surface.
hunts continuously
Large loads. Due to large
(Contd.)
pulsating loads.
External interference.
Defective bearings. (Plain
bearings only)
Various star points connected
with one another and large
circulating currents of triple
mains frequency is flowing in
the neutral wire.
There is highly unbalanced load
that leads to overload of the
conductor.
Neutral conductors gets
too hot.
Type of governing.
Type of load. For eg: 3-phase
star connected transformer.
Inlet or outlet of all alternator
cooling system is obstructed or
partially throttled.
The warm outlet air is free to
enter the inlet openings for cold
air, resulting in a re-circulation
Alternator becomes too
of warm air.
hot
(NB: Modern The ambient temperature is too
alternators can have high, caused by cramped space,
specified case lack of ventilation or other
temperature of around factors.
1000C) Alternator winding is badly
contaminated causing cooling
to be ineffective.
Alternator overloaded or power
factor is too low.
Waveform distorted.
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A bad connection to the AVR can
cause hunting due to sparking in the
connection.
Machine or replace.
Test on different load.
Screen all alternator control wires.
Due to uneven air gap, check and
change bearings.
Connect star point choke to suppress
circulating currents in neutral wire.
Alternatively, leave star points
without connecting together.
Measure neutral conductor currents
and distribute load symmetrically on
all three phases.
If an ELC is used which has a
waveform control type switching,
then a neutral current will be present
between alternator and ballast. Use a
large cable.
It may be due to triple mains
frequency currents in the primary of
the transformer. Disconnect neutral
and check.
The inlet or outlet of the cooling air
should not be obstructed.
Clean mesh if necessary.
This may occur below the alternator
in the bed of a base plate. A re-
circulation of cooling air must be
prevented by means of partition
sheets. (Baffles)
The installation site must be
ventilated and the ambient
temperature should not be above
alternator rated temperature.
Clean alternator with dry compressed
air when at rest and clean windings.
Reduce output current to rated value,
correct power factor with capacitors.
Due to bad load or the use of
thyristors.
B. Rimal
 Alternator under strain and
incorrectly aligned.
Alternator has been transported
with locked rotor causing Replace bearings.
Brinelling of the bearings.
Bearing has too little grease.
Bearing has too much grease
and is therefore overheating.
Alternators runs Bearing is defective due to
roughly, bearings normal wear and tear.
produce noise or
overheat.
Main rotor has a short circuit vibrations appear and intensify with
between windings.
If the shaft or housing has been bearing fit too tight on shaft.
filled or sleeved.
Bearing locks or sleeves
touching housing.
Bearing loose in housing.
Plain bearing, if bearings have
been remetalled.
Excess belt slip. Due to belt slip
pulley gets hot and this heat Adjust belt.
flow along the shaft to bearing.
Loose bolts.
If alternator has been rewound
Alternator vibrates the rotor is out of balance.
foundation
The pulley may be out of
balance.
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Re-align alternators.
Replace grease filling immediately.
Alternators with automatic grease
feeder do not suffer from excess
grease, this is only possible in
machines not having this device. If
the bearing temperature does not drop
after a period of running some grease
should be removed from the bearings.
Note: The permissible bearing
temperature increase is rather high. It
amounts to 500C. So, at ambient
temperature of 250C a bearing
temperature of 25+50=750C is
permissible.
Install new bearing of same grade.
Test alternators runs faultlessly
without excitation on no load,
load.
Measure resistance of main rotor
windings.
The shaft diameter is too large and
If housing diameter too small and
bearing fit too tight to housing.
Check housing
Check housing and bearing for
marks. If the bearing is free in the end
plate housing it will rotate in the
housing causing heat.
Scrape bearing to suit shaft.
Tighten all fixing and bolts.
Remove belts and rotate alternator
shaft, if the shaft returns to same
position it is out of balance.
Remove pulley form alternator and
carry out above test. Balance
alternator with pulley.
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Problems that may arise with an ELC type of governor
Fault Cause Remedy
Ballast fuse blown. Check and replace with same type.
Ballast element burnt. Check and replace.
Speed too high. Defective ELC. Needs repair.
No voltage from alternator. See above on alternators.
Defective meter. Check with another meters.
Defective ELC Needs repair.
Insufficient Water Check and increase.
Speed too low. Alternator over loaded Reduce load and check.
Defective meter. Check with another meter.
Belt slip. Tighten belts.
Defective ELC. Needs repair.
Belt slip or belt flap of flat Check and tighten. Apply belt paste
belts if necessary to flat belts.
Speed hunts.
Interacting with AVR. (New
Needs skilled personnel.
installations only)
Type of load. Due to large pulsating load.
Needs repairs. Do not run plant if
Defective ELC
Ballast Voltmeters there is more than 20% variation.
unequal when load is Ballast fuse blown Check and replace.
not connected. Ballast element burnt. Check and replace.
Defective meter. Check and replace.
Ballast voltage rises
with alternator volts Defective ELC. Needs repairs.
during start-up.
Defective trips. Needs repairs.
Incorrect voltage, frequency,
Unable to connect load. Check on meters.
etc.
Defective switch Needs repairs.
Ventilation blocked. Check and clean.
ELC gets hot.
Fans not working Check and replace.
Switchboard Problems
Faults Cause Remedy
Defective trips. Needs repairs.
Trips need to be reset. Check and repair all trips.
Incorrect voltage, frequency, etc. Check on meters.
Defective CB Needs repairs.
Load too large. Check with small loads.
Unable to connect load.
Could be an earth fault. Check earth fault relay or trip.
Power supply not coming into
Defect in transmission line.
switchboard form powerhouse.
Broken insulator. Check and repair.
Loose connections. Check and repair.
Defective switch. Replace.
Switch overloaded. Check currents or loads.
Switch gets hot.
Clean and tighten all connections. If
Loose connections in switch.
it still gets hot, replace switch.

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 Chapter 7: FINANCIAL EVLAUTION, TARIFF
DESIGN AND ISSUES IN MICROHYDRO
The financial and economic analysis of the scheme indicates the validity of the project in terms
of its capital cost. It focuses on the sources of funding for the project, annual income, annual
expenditure and financial indicators of the project such as Net Present Value, Benefit Cost
Ratio and Internal Rate of Return on the investment. In Nepal the financial and economic
analysis of the proposed MHS is conducted as per the guidelines prepared by AEPC / REDP
and the analysis shows that the proposed MHS is viable both financially and economically.
The financial analysis of the scheme includes the financial status of the MHS. It focuses on the
source of funding for the project, annual income, annual loss and financial indicator of the project
such as Net Present Value, Benefit Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return, Value Added Tax
(VAT) is also included during this Analysis.
The economic analysis is carried out in order to assess the economic viability of the project.
Various tools have been adopted to evaluate the economic viability of the proposed MHS.
They are Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR), Net present Value (NPV), and payback
period. In order to carry out the analysis, the assessment of all kinds of costs incurred and benefits
brought about by the project in the society as a whole is made. As the scope of the economic cost
and benefit is a broad area, in this project some assumption have to be made in order to make
the assessment of the economic costs and benefit from the proposed MHS simple and precise.

7.1 Time value of money:

The time value of money (TVM) is the idea that money available at the present time is
worth more than the same amount in the future due to its potential earning capacity. This core
principle of finance holds that, provided money can earn interest, any amount of money is
worth more the sooner it is received. TVM is also referred to as present discounted value.

7.2 Compounding and discounting:

Time Value of Money says that the worth of a unit of money is going to be changed in
future. Put simply, the value of one rupee today will be decreased in future. The whole concept
is about the present value and future value of money. There are two methods used for
ascertaining the worth of money at different points of time, namely, compounding and
discounting. Compounding method is used to know the future value of present money.
Conversely, discounting is a way to compute the present value of future money.

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7.3 Future and present value:
The future value (FV) measures the nominal future sum of money that a given sum of
money is "worth" at a specified time in the future assuming a certain interest rate, or more
generally, rate of return. The FV is calculated by multiplying the present value by the
accumulation function. The value does not include corrections for inflation or other factors that
affect the true value of money in the future. The process of finding the FV is often
called capitalization.
On the other hand, the present value (PV) is the value on a given date of a payment or series of
payments made at other times. The process of finding the PV from the FV is called discounting.
PV and FV are related, which reflects compounding interest (simple interest has n multiplied by
i, instead of as the exponent). Since it's really rare to use simple interest, this formula is the
important one.

7.4 Cash flow:

7.5 B/C ratio:

It is a decision making tool used to systematically develop useful information about the
desirable and undesirable effects of public project. It estimates and totals up the equivalent money
value of the benefits and costs to the community of projects.
It is defined as the ratio of the equivalent worth of benefits to the equivalent worth of costs.
1. PW method: BCR(conventional)=PW(B)/((I-PW(S)+PW(o&m))
2. PW method: BCR(modified)= (PW(B)-PW(o&m))/I-PW(s)
3. AW method BCR(conventional)= AW(B)/((CR+AW(o&m))
4. AW method BCR(modified) = (AW(B)-AW(o&m))/CR

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5. FW method BCR(conventional) = FW(B)/(FW(I)-S+FW(o&m))
6. FW method BCR(modified) = (FW(B)-FW(o&m))/FW(I)-S

7.6 Net Present Value

A micro hydro project is expected to bring revenue in future years, and also to incur
running costs.
The NPV is simply the PV of all revenues minus the PV of all running and capital costs.
i.e. NPV=PV-investment
If NPV at discount rate r% is +ve then MHP scheme is feasible and vice versa.

7.7 Internal rate of return:

The IRR is the discount rate at which NPV=0.
The net present value for example may be $1500 at a discount rate of 12%.If the
discount rate is higher, the NPV is less. In this case a discount rate of 15% may yield a
NPV of 0.The project is said to have an IRR of 15%.
The IRR value tells the inventor the annual rate of return on moneys.
The IRR indicate which project will maximize return on monies.

7.8 Payback Period:

7.8.1 Simple payback period
This is often used in pre-feasibility study.
Simple PBP=total capital cost/(annual revenue-annual expenditure)
It is easy to calculate.
It does not take account of the time value of money.

7.8.2 Discounted payback period

Considers time value of money.
Ignores cash flow beyond the discounted payback period

7.9 Comparison of alternatives:-

For most of the engineering projects, equipments etc., there are more than one feasible
alternative. It is the duty of the project management team (comprising of engineers, designers,
project managers etc.) of the client organization to select the best alternative that involves less cost
and results more revenue. For this purpose, the economic comparison of the alternatives is made. The
different cost elements and other parameters to be considered while making the economic
comparison of the alternatives are initial cost, annual operating and maintenance cost, annual income
or receipts, expected salvage value, income tax benefit and the useful life. When only one, among the
feasible alternatives is selected, the alternatives are said to be mutually exclusive.
The economic comparison of mutually exclusive alternatives can be carried out by different equivalent
worth methods namely present worth method, future worth method and annual worth method. In these
methods all the cash flows i.e. cash outflows and cash inflows are converted into equivalent present
worth, future worth or annual worth considering the time value of money at a given interest rate per
interest period.

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7.10 Tariff Category
Tariff is the schedule of rates framed for supply of electrical energy to different classes
of consumers.
Electrical energy produced by the power system is delivered to a large no customers. The tariff
becomes the attention for the electric supply company. The company has to ensure that the tariff such
that it not only recovers total cost of producing electrical energy but also earns profit on the capital
investment.

7.10.1. Objective of Tariffs:

1. Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating transmitting and distributing
equipment.
2. Recovery of cost of operation, supplies and maintenance of the equipment.
3. Recovery of cost of metering equipment billing collection cost and miscellaneous
services.
4. A satisfactory return on total capital investment.

7.10.2. PRINCIPLES OF TARRIF DESIGN

1. It should be simple and capable of easy explanation to the consumers
2. Proper return should be calculated to recover the payment and interest, O&M cost,
well fare funds or any other necessary annual expenditure
3. It should be discussed with villagers and an agreement in principle should exist
4. It should be workable in practice
5. It should reflect willingness and ability of all the villagers to pay for the scheme
6. Tariff should satisfy all class of consumers
7. It should include practical advice of most of the villagers

7.10.3. Types of Tariff

Simple tariff
Flat rate tariff
Block rate tariff
Two part tariff
Maximum demand tariff
power factor tariff
Three part tariff

7.10.3.1 Simple Tariff (Energy Tarrif):

Definition: When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is known as simple tariff
(Uniform Rate Tariff). This is the most simplest of all tariff. In this type, the price charged per
unit is constant. It means, the price will not vary with increase or decrease in number of units
used.
Disadvantages:
The cost per unit delivered is high.
There is no discrimination among various types of consumers.

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7.10.3.2 Flat Rate Tariff:
Definition: When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates,
it is said to be Flat rate Tariff. In this type, the consumers are grouped into different classes.
Each class is charged at different uniform rate. The different classes of consumers may be
taken into account of their diversity and load factors. Since this type of tariff varies according
to the way of supply used, separate meters are required for lighting load, power load etc.

7.103.3 Block rate tariff:

When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding blocks
of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates is called as block rate tariff.
In this type, the energy consumption is divided into many blocks and price per unit is fixed in
each block.

7.10.3.4 Two Part tariff:

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the
consumer and the units consumed it is called two-part tariff. In this type, the total charge to
be made from the consumer is split into two components. ie, fixed charges and running
charges. The fixed charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the customer.
Thus the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum demand + a certain
amount per kWh of energy consumed.
Total charges = Rs (X x kW + Y x kWh)

It is easily understood by the consumer. It recovers fixed charges which depend upon
the maximum demand of the consumer independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages
Consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or
not the electrical energy. There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the
consumer.

7.10.3.5 Maximum demand tariff:

It is similar to two-part tariff. The only difference is the maximum demand of the
consumer is calculated by installing a maximum demand meter at his premises. This type of
tariff is mostly applied to the bulk consumers.

7.10.3.6 Power factor tariff:

The tariff in which the power factor of the consumers is taken into account is known as power
factor tariff.

7.10.3.7 Three part Tariff:

When the total charges to be made from the consumer is split into three parts, fixed charge,
semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as three-part tariff. This type of tariff is
applied to big consumers. The principle objection of this type of tariff is the charges are split
into three components (fixed charge, charge per kW of maximum demand, charge per kWh of
energy consumed)

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7.11 Unit energy cost
Unit energy cost= (total annual cost/power used *period for which power used)
Or, UEC = (A+O&M)/ (P*8760*Plant Factor)
This gives the per unit energy cost and compare with energy cost of alternative source.
Can be easily and quickly calculated at a very early stage of planning to predict
financial viability.
Important and valuable indicator for an investor.

Plant factor= (power used*time power used)/ (power installed*power considered)

Greater p.f. reveals that micro hydro power is successful.
Low p.f. means less energy consumption, less revenue generated and longer payback period
which is not good from economic point of view.

7.12 Issues in Micro Hydro

Reliability
Hydro produces a continuous supply of electrical energy in comparison to other small-
scale renewable technologies. The peak energy season is during the winter months when large
quantities of electricity are required. However, as micro hydro plant is operated as isolated
power plant, the failure may cause total interruption of the supply. Nonetheless, technology
advances (such as maintenance-free water intake equipment and solid-state electrical
equipment) ensure that these systems are often more reliable in remote areas. Often these
systems are more dependable than the local power main.

Funding Requirement
Micro-hydro plant can be viable only through grants, soft loans or subsidy. MHP
schemes require a high investment cost that are mostly acquired through public or donor
funding. There is however a need to increase private sector involvement due to the high demand
of public funds and the need to attain a long-term sustainability. Public and especially donor-
based funding of entire MHP schemes should be complemented by creating conditions which
make MHP projects attractive to private investors, including financial incentives and smart
subsidies, and through this, the public funds can develop a leverage effect for private
investment. However development of MHP depends on a certain degree of public support.
With the current experience with off-grid MHP systems show that it is very difficult to develop
schemes with less than at least 50% public funding.

Subsidy Policy and Mechanism

Micro hydro electrification has featured conspicuously in the Five-Year Plans of Nepal
since 1980. In eighth year and nine year plan, targets for micro hydro plants were set 5MW for
each period. Subsidy in various forms since 1985 has been the key policy feature however
subsidy was initially provided for electrical components at 75% of cost for remote areas and
50% for non-remote areas. The policy was reformulated with establishment of Alternative
Energy Promotion Center in 1997 as a government body for the promotion of renewable energy
technologies, which includes micro hydro as well. Since 2000, the Interim Rural Energy Fund
(IREF)'s energy sector assistance Program has administered subsidy for micro hydro. As
verified by IREF the subsidy provision is on a kW output basis. This is a push pull element that
tends developers and manufacturers to pay attention to quality as manifested in actual output.
Making 10% load from productive use mandatory the reformulate policy also keeps micro
hydro in a rural energy perspective. Subsidy is augmented by the mini grid support program

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 that supports the project cycle with detailed procedural guidelines, promotes productive end
use, develops local support structures, and supports training activities and the development of
standards.

Cost per KW
In the test examined in the five countries, the capital cost of micro hydro plants, limited
to shaft power, ranged from US$714 (Nepal, Zimbabwe) to US$1,233 (Mozambique).The
average cost is US$965 per installed kW which is in line with the figures quoted in some
studies. The installed costs for electricity generation schemes are much higher. The installed
cost per kW ranged from US$1,136 (Pucar, Peru) to US$5,630 (Pedro Ruiz, Peru) with an
average installed cost of US$3,085.

Sustainability
Microhydro power is generated through a process that utilizes the natural flow of water.
This power is most commonly converted into electricity. With no direct emissions resulting
from this conversion process, there are little to no harmful effects on the environment, if
planned well, thus supplying power from a renewable source and in a sustainable manner. As
microhydro is considered a "run-of-river" system meaning that water diverted from the stream
or river is redirected back into the same watercourse. The simplicity and low relative cost of
micro hydro systems open up new opportunities for some isolated communities in need of
electricity. With only a small stream needed, remote areas can access lighting and
communications for homes, medical clinics, schools, and other facilities. Thus, sustainability
of microhyro is high.

Operation and Maintenance

Efficient and continuous running through the life of the scheme is essential in order to
repay large capital investments. Operation and maintenance (O+M) procedures must be
planned and put into action in the initial stages of any scheme to prevent breakdowns and
reduced power outputs. The failure to use O+M procedures will result in financial problems
and loss of confidence in the value of micro-hydro. The design engineer, the equipment
installers and the users of the scheme, all have important parts to play in the O+M of micro-
hydro schemes. Ongoing operation, maintenance, and surveillance (OMS) are required to keep
a plant running smoothly. However, OMS should not be considered only after building a micro
hydro facility. It should be considered in choosing a site, designing the facility and when
looking for financing. Sites that are remote or have poor access will have greater servicing
costs. Facility design can greatly influence ongoing OMS costs including surveillance
requirements and replacement and repair costs. Consideration should also be given to the
availability of spare parts and the possible purchase of spare parts in advance. In financing the
project the annual OMS costs need to be factored into the overall project cash flow. Thus, OMS
should be thought of continually throughout the development of the micro hydro project.
Local People's Participation
The active participation of local people to manage and operate their micro hydro system
is essential for microhydro power sustainability. Community mobilization package consists of
six basic principles, namely organization development, skill enhancement, capital formation,
technology promotion, environment management and empowerment of women and
marginalized groups. The establishment of various functional and management groups at
national, district and community level ensured greater participation.

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 End Use of Electricity for Project Viability
Microhydro systems are very flexible and can be deployed in a number of different
environments. They are dependent on how much water flow the source (creek, river, and
stream) has and the velocity of the flow of water. Energy can be stored in battery banks at sites
that are far from a facility or used in addition to a system that is directly connected so that in
times of high demand there is additional reserve energy available. These systems can be
designed to minimize community and environmental impact regularly caused by large dams or
other mass hydroelectric generation sites. Appropriate end use only can pay off the scheme in
time.

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 REFERENCES
i. Adam Harvey, Micro-hydro design manual
ii. Tri Ratna Bajracharya, Mini and Micro Hydropower System Design
iii. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, ENERGY UTILIZATION MANAGEMENT BUREAU,
Manuals and Guidelines for Micro-hydropower Development in Rural Electrification,
Volume I
iv. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, ENERGY UTILIZATION MANAGEMENT BUREAU,
Manuals and Guidelines for Micro-hydropower Development in Rural Electrification,
Volume VI
v. ESSD_SRS_Section8_Micro-Hydro Power Technologies Dr. Shree Raj Shakya
vi. Tokyo Electric Power Co. (TEPCO)
vii. H. Umar Bhatti, A. Siddiqque, T. Iqbal,Hydraulic turbines
viii. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_hydro
ix. http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/micro-hydro-power-pros-and-cons/
x. http://www.energyhimalaya.com/sources/micro-hydro.html
xi. http://www. khullabs.com

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 Appenix A
1. Frequency control in power plant

(a) using governor frequency control (b) using dummy load

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 Appendix B

Fig: Simulink model of Micro-hydro

Fig: Simulink model of ELC

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 Tutorial 1
1. 80 KW of power is to be supplied to a village using a water fall of 40 meters high. How much flow
is needed? [0.4 m3/s]
2. Estimate how much power can be generated with a flow of 125 liters per second and a head of 100
feet. [19.05kw]
3. Out of 15 KW plant capacity, 10 KW of power is used 8 hours a day. Calculate the plant factor and
the load factor of this system. [0.6667]
4. Calculate the unit energy cost of a scheme which re-pays $3000 per year to the Bank and spends
$300 as operation and maintenance cost per year. The scheme has 5 KW capacity but supplies only 2
KW for 6 hours a day. [$0.7534]
5. A proposed micro hydro scheme is proposed as an alternative to a diesel powered mill and a
generator which costs around $0.1 per kWh of energy. The proposed hydro scheme will supply for
lighting, grain milling, battery charging and heat storage cooking in a village. The gross head of the
scheme is 50 meters. The flow variation is shown in the hydrograph given in page 10 of the Micro
Hydro Design Manual by Adam Harvey.
It is estimated that the lighting demand will grow within four years to 40 KW for the hours 6 pm to 12
pm all through the year. The mill in the village is to be operated between 8 am to 4 pm every day which
requires a power of 12 KW. The battery charging requires 2 KW of power. The survey has shown that
20 villagers want to use heat storage cookers requiring 200 watts of power. During three dry months,
farmers in the village intend to irrigate 400 hectares of land each hectare needing 5 m3 water per day.
This irrigation demand is estimated to double within four years. Will there be enough water to satisfy
this irrigation demand together with lighting and milling demand?
Suggest whether the hydro scheme so proposed seems to be a viable proposition.
[Viable]

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 Tutorial 2
1. Three rain gauges are placed at three locations X,Y and Z to estimate rainfall in a catchment
area and the recorded rainfalls are as follows:
Gauge at X: rainfall x=2500 mm/yr
Gauge at Y: rainfall y=3200 mm/yr
Gauge at Z: rainfall z=3500 mm/yr
If the area for X, Y and Z count 60, 72 and 10 squares where 1 square = 1 square mm
and the scale of map is 1 KM to 10 mm, calculate
i) the average rainfall in the catchment area in mm/yr [2925.35mm/yr]
2
ii) total catchment area in mm [142mm2]
iii) run off from the catchment area (use run off rain fall chart) [1425mm/yr]
iv) the annual average daily flow in m3/sec [69.79l/s]

2. In a flow measurement process using salt gulp method, 100 gram of salt was mixed with water in a
bucket and poured into the stream at a point which is 20 meter up from the location of the conductivity
meter. The readings of conductivity meter when plotted v/s time gave a total of 130 squares each square
being 5 second X 5 ohm -1 X 10-6. If the temperature of water is 22 oC, find the flow of the stream in
liter/sec. Reciprocal of the conversion factor K-1 for 22 oC is 2.04X10-6 ohm-1/mgl-1. [62.76 l/s]

3. A micro hydro scheme of 5 KW capacity is to be designed. A turbine with 70% efficiency at full
flow is to be used. The generator efficiency is 80% when used between half power and full power.
Assume a drive system with efficiency of 95%. For some of the year, there is only half water available
because of lack of rainfall and to get some power to the village at this time would be very useful. You
would also like to get some power in the driest month when only quarter flow is available.
i) What is the power required for turbine during full flow condition? [9.39kw]
ii) What is the output power of generator at half flow? [2kw]
iii) What is the output power of generator at quarter flow? [0.1549kw so not advisable]
The turbine efficiency at half flow and quarter flow is 60% and 25% respectively. Is it advisable to
supply power at quarter flow? Give reason for your answer.
4. A particular micro hydro site for use of pelton turbine has the following characteristics:
Gross head: 90 meters, Turbine flow: 75-200 l/s
Alternator speed: 1500 rpm
Friction loss in penstock: 10 %
Efficiency of pelton turbine:80%
Taking part flow efficiency also into consideration, recommend the number of jets, runner diameter
and the bucket size (notch width).

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 Tutorial 3
1. What is the recommended size of a synchronous generator which has to supply a
maximum KW of 80 with a power factor of 0.5 lagging? The generator has to work in
association with an Electronic Load Controller. [256kva]

2. A single phase maximum load of 10 KW at 0.5 p.f. lagging is to be supplied at 230 V, 50

Hz from a micro hydro scheme. Water immersion kettle elements are to be used as
ballast load. Estimate the size and number of kettle elements and the water flow rate if the
temperature to be maintained for entering water is 25 oC and that for outgoing water is 50
o
C. The specific heat of water is 4200 J/kg/oK for the temperature range concerned.
[52.9ohm, 12, 0.095 l/s]

3. In a micro hydro scheme, 15 KW of consumer load at a p.f. of 0.9 is to be supplied. Given

a turbine speed of 500 rpm and a required voltage of 380 V (line to line) at 50 Hz. Select
the correct induction motor to be used as an induction generator. What will be the input
power to the turbine? Use manufacturer's data sheet (fig. 8.6.7, pp 282, micro hydro
manual) for necessary reference. [22.04KW]

4. A 8 KW, 750 rpm, 50 Hz, 380 V (line to line) 3 phase induction motor draws a line current
of 15 A when the machine supplied at its rated voltage and frequency with no mechanical
load. What size of excitation capacitors are needed for delta connection in order to make
the machine generate at approximately its rated voltage when driven slightly above its rated
speed? Find also the voltage for which the capacitors have to be designed. Also calculate
the value of excitation capacitance and their voltage ratings when they are to be star
connected. [72.54microFarad, 537.4V,217.6microFarad, 310.36V]

5. A 3 phase 12 KW induction motor rated at 380 V (line to line) , 50 Hz have been chosen
to be used as induction generator. The manufacturer's data sheet shows the following
data:
full load current: 23 A
full load power factor:0.8
i) Calculate the size and voltage rating of the excitation capacitors when they are to
be connected in a) delta b) star [66.73 microfarad, 537.4 V,195.4 microfarad,
310.26V]
ii) Repeat the calculation in i) when the same machine is to be used at 240 V (line to
line). [105.67 microfarad, 339.4 V, 317.01 microfarad, 195.96 V]

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 Tutorial 4
1. A 90 KW scheme has a startup cost of $ 150000. Annual operation and maintenance cost is 3% of
startup cost and the plant factor estimated is 0.5. If the scheme has 15 years life time, calculate the unit
energy cost for a discount rate of 12%.
2. A micro hydro scheme deposits $ 3000/yr. in the lenders account as repayment of loan and its
interest and spends 12% of the annual repayment as O&M cost each year. The scheme has 6 KW
capacity but supplies only 4 KW for 8 hr. a day. Calculate the unit energy cost of the scheme
3. A feasibility study for a micro-hydro scheme estimates annual revenue of $20000 and annual
expenditure of $8000 for 15 years life period. If the startup cost is $120000, find out net present worth
and discounted payback period for a discount rate of 12%. Comment on your result and also find IRR
of the scheme.
4. A feasibility study for a micro-hydro scheme estimates annual revenue of $20000 and annual
expenditure of $8000 for 15 years life period. If the startup cost is $120000, find out net future worth
and simple payback period and probability index for a discount rate of 12%. Comment on your result.

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 Department of Electrical Engineering

PRACTICAL DESIGN PROBLEM

Based on the head and discharge measurement along with demand and capability survey carried
out during the field visit on 2070/3/1 and 2,

i) Find the gross head using the data obtained both from water filled tube method and the
sighting meter method.

ii) Find the design flow using the data both from velocity area method and salt gulp method.

iii) Decide design head and discharge by comparing all your results.

iv) Calculate the installed capacity of the scheme.

v) Decide the type of turbine to be used and calculate the size of the runner and the water jet.

vi) Decide the type of the governing system to be employed and design its size.

vii) Suggest the suitable drive system.

viii) Decide the type of generator to be used and find its size. Suggest the excitation system to
be employed.

ix) Suggest the mode of operation of the power house to tackle different category of village
loads and to maximize the revenue.

x) Design a tariff system based on the advice from the villagers.

xi) Make a presentation and submit your report regarding above.

Assume a yearly hydrograph having the measured flow to exceed 11 months in a year on your own on
the basis of interview with the villagers.

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