THE EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY

OF GOLD IN SOUTH AFRICA

VOLUME 2
SAIMM PUBLICATIONS

THE MONOGRAPH SERIES

M1 Lognormal-De Wijsian Geostatistics for Ore Evaluation

(2nd ed 1981)
D.G. Krige
M2 An Introduction to Geostatistical Methods of Mineral
Evaluation (2nd ed 1981)
J.-M.M. Rendu
M3 Principles of Flotation (1982)
Edited by R.P. King
M4 Increased Underground Extraction of Coal (1982)
Edited by c.J. Fauconnier and R.W.O. Kersten
MS Rock Mechanics in Mining Practice (1983) (3rd imp. 1986)
Edited by S. Budavari
M6 Assay and Analytical Practice in the South African Mining
Industry (1986)
W.C. Lenahan and R. de L. Murray-Smith
M7 The Extractive Metallurgy of Gold in South Africa,
2 volumes (1987)
Edited by G. G Stanley

THE SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS SERIES

SP1 Proceedings, Underground Transport Symposium (1986)

Edited by R.C.R. Edgar
SAIMM PUBLICATIONS

THE SYMPOSIUM SERlIES

SI Mathematical Statistics and Computer Applications in Ore

Valuation (1966)
S2 Planning Open Pit Mines (1970) (4th imp.)
Edited by P.W.J. van Rensburg
S3 Application of Computer Methods in the Mineral Industry
(APCOM 1973)
Edited by M.D.G. Salamon
S4 Infacon 1974
Edited by H. W. Glen
SS Proceedings of the 12th CMMI Congress, 2 volumes (1982)
Edited by H. W. Glen
S6 Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines (1984)
Edited by N.C. Gay and E.H. Wainwright
S7 The Planning and Operation of Open Pit and Strip Mines
(1986)
Edited by J.P. Deetlefs
S8 GOLD 100: Proceedings of the International Conference on
Gold (1986)
Volume 1: Gold Mining Technology
Edited by H. Wagner and R.P. King
Volume 2: Extractive Metallurgy of Gold
Edited by e.E. Fivaz and R.P. King
Volume 3: Industrial Uses of Gold
Edited by G. Gafner and R.P. King
S9 APCOM 87: Proceedings of the Twentieth International
Symposium on the Application of Computers and
Mathematics in the Mineral Industries (1987)
Volume 1: Mining
Edited by L. Wade, R.W.O. Kersten and J.R. Cutland
Volume 2: Metallurgy
Edited by R.P. King and LJ. Barker
Volume 3: Geostatistics
Edited by Le. Lemmer, H. Schaum and F.A.G.M. Cami-
sani-Calzolari
 The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Monograph Series M7

The Extractive
f 1 in S

Edited by
G. G. Stanley

VOLUME 2

This book was commissioned by the Sub-Committee of Consulting

Metallurgists of the Chamber of Mines of South Africa

Johannesburg
1987
 Published by The South African Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy
Kelvin House, 2 Hollard Street, Johannesburg,
2001

The Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 1987

P.O. Box 809, Johannesburg, 2000

ISBN 0 620 10944 0 Volume 2

o 620 10109 1 Volume 1
o 620 10945 9 The Set
Typeset by Scientific and Technical Typesetting
Kelvin House, 2 Hollard Street, Johannesburg 2001

Printed in the Republic of South Africa

by National Book Printers, Goodwood
 Outline of Contents

VOLUME 1

page
Preface .......................................................................... . XXXI
Acknowledgements ........................................................... . xxxiii
Foreword by President, Chamber of Mines of South Africa ..... . xxxvii

Chapter 1 Geology and Mineralogy of the Principal Goldfields

in South Africa ............................................. . 1
Chapter 2 Sorting and Crushing ...................................... . 69
Chapter 3 Milling and Classification ................................ . 121
Chapter 4 Gravity Concentration .................................... . 219
Chapter 5 Flotation ...................................................... . 235
Chapter 6 Cyanidation ................................................... . 277
Chapter 7 Recovery of Gold from Solution by Cementation .. 331
Chapter 8 Pyrometallurgy of Gold .................................. . 345
Chapter 9 Application of Activated Carbon to Gold Recovery 379

VOLUME 2
Chapter 10 Refining of Gold at the Rand Refinery .............. . 615
Chapter 11 Disposal of Residues ...................................... . 655
Chapter 12 Retreatment of Residues and Waste Rock .......... . 707
Chapter 13 Process Evaluation ......................................... . 745
Chapter 14 Process Control ............................................. . 793
Chapter 15 The Chemistry of the Extraction of Gold ........... . 831
Chapter 16 Plant Design and Commissioning ...................... . 907
Chapter 17 Loss Control and Safety Management ............... . 971
Chapter 18 Laboratories and Pilot Plants ........................... . 1013

Tables and Formulae ......................................................... 1053

Index .............................................................................. 1073

vu
 Contents
VOLUME 2

page
Chapter 10 Refining of Gold at the Rand Refinery, by
K.G. Fisher ... ........ ........ .......................... 615
10.1 Introduction .......................................................... 615
10.2 Historical Development ... .............. ........................... 615
10.3 Function ............................................................... 616
10.4 Metallurgical Operations ......... ................................. 618
10.4.1 Summary description .................................. 618
10.4.2 Gold Refining Branch .... ............................. 618
10.4.2.1 Flow sheet 618; 10.4.2.2 Melting and
sampling 619; 10.4.2.3 Refining 621; 10.4.2.4
De-golding 626; 10.4.2.5 Electrolytic gold re-
fining 626; 10.4.2.6 Fume recovery and sweep
treatment 628
10.4.3 Silver Refining Branch ..... ..... ......... ... .......... 630
10.4.3.1 Flow sheet 630; 10.4.3.2 Leaching and
reduction 630; 10.4.3.3 Electrolytic silver refining
633
10.4.4 Coin blank production .. .............................. 637
10.4.4.1 Historical 637; 10.4.4.2 Process de-
scription 638
10.4.5 Smelter ...... ....... ............................... ........ 641
10.4.5.1 Flow sheet 641; 10.4.5.2 Sampling 641;
10.4.5.3 Blending and sintering 643; 10.4.5.4
Blast furnace smelting 644; 10.4.5.5 Cupellation
648; 10.4.5.6 Pan furnace smelting 649; 10.4.5.7
Fume collection 651
10.4.6 Assaying and chemical analysis..................... 652
10.5 Future Developments. .............................................. 652
10.6 References ............................................................. 653

Chapter 11 Disposal of Residues, by G.1. MacPhail and

J.C. Wagner ............................................ 655
11.1 Aim and Scope ...................................................... 655
11.2 Planning....... ......................................................... 656

ix
CONTENTS

Components of a residue disposal system ...... .

11.2.1 656
Sizing ..................................................... .
11.2.2 657
11.2.2.1 Depositional area requirements 657;
11.2.2.2 Allowances for services 659; 11.2.2.3
Return water system 660; 11.2.2.4 Total area 660
11.2.3 Site selection ............................................. 660
11.2.4 Site exploration ......................................... 663
11.2.5 Pollution control considerations.................... 665
11.3 Statutory Requirements........... .......... ... ..... ............... 665
11.3.1 Legal considerations ................................... 665
11.3.1.1 The Water Act 665; 11.3 .1.2 The Mines
and Works Act 666
11.3.2 Licensing ................................................. . 666
11.3.3 Environmental impact assessment ................. . 666
11.3.3.1 Methods of assessment 667; 11.3.3.2
Remedial measures 667; 11.3.3.3 Monitoring 667
11.4 Design, Specification and Construction ....................... 668
11.4.1 Operation... . .. .. . . . ... .. . .. . .. . ... . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. 668
11.4.1.1 General 668; 11.4.1.2 Method of for-
mation of tailings dam 669
11.4.2 Tailings delivery ....................................... . 675
11.4.2.1 Pulp concentration 675; 11.4.2.2
Pumping and piping systems 676; 11.4.2.3 Pump
and pipeline design 678; 11.4.2.4 Tailings distri-
bution 678
11.4.3 Return water management .......................... . 678
11.4.4 Stormwater management ............................ . 683
11.4.4.1 General 683; 11.4.4.2 Top surface of
dam 684; 11.4.4.3 Side slopes 684
11.4.5 Slope stability .......................................... . 685
11.4.5.1 Influence of foundation soils 685;
11.4.5.2 Influence of tailings product 685;
11.4.5.3 Influence of rate of rise 687; 11.4.5.4
Influence of phreatic surface 687; 11.4.5.5 In-
fluence of slope geometry 689; 11.4.5.6 Stability
analysis 690
11.4.6 Repair and reinstatement of operational and aban-
doned impoundments .................................. 691
11.4.6.1 Common problems with old and aban-
doned dams 691; Remedial measures 693
11.5 Observation and Control .......................................... 695
11.6 Closure Considerations ............................................ 698

x
 CONTENTS

11.6.1 General ................................................... . 698

11.6.2 Boundary fence ........................................ . 698
11.6.3 Access roadways ....................................... . 700
11.6.4 The underdrainage system .......................... .. 700
11.6.5 The solution or effluent trench .................... . 701
11.6.6 The slimes delivery pipeline ........................ .. 701
11.6.7 Surface drainage ....................................... . 701
11.6.8 Ground level catchment paddocks ................ . 701
11.6.9 Berms or step-backs ................................. .. 701
11.6.10 The dam surface ....................................... . 703
11.6.11 Return water dam ...................................... . 706
11.7 References............................................................. 706

Chapter 12 Retreatment of Residues and Waste Rock, by

D.W. Bosch ............................................ 707
12.1 Introduction .......................................................... 707
12.2 Origin of Residues .................................................. 707
12.2.1 Sand dumps and slimes dams ....................... 707
12.2.2 Rock dumps .............. ............................... 708
12.3 Sampling, Surveying and Valuation ............................ 709
12.3.1 Sampling .................................................. 709
12.3.1.1 Grab sampling 709; 12.3.1.2 Groove or
channel sampling 709; 12.3.1.3 Drilling 710
12.3.2 Surveying ................................................. 711
12.3.2.1 Tacheometric surveys 711; 12.3.2.2
Electronic distance measuring 712; 12.3.2.3
Photogrammetry 712
12.4 Sand/Slime Retreatment Operations ........................... 715
12.4.1 Slime reclamation at Blyvooruitzicht Gold Mine 716
12.4.1.1 The bucket-wheel excavator 716; 12.4.1.2
Repulper feed conveyor 719; 12.4.1.3 Repulper
719
12.4.2 Slime reclamation at ERGO ......................... 719
12.4.2.1 Location of pump stations 720; 12.4.2.2
Reclamation operations 720; 12.4.2.3 Processing
at ERGO 723
12.4.3 Sand and slime reclamation at Rand Mines and
Milling ..................................................... 724
12.4.3.1 Process development for sand treatment
724; 12.4.3.2 Reclamation operations 726;
12.4.3.3 Plant operations 727

Xl
CONTENTS

12.4.4 The Anglo American Corporation Joint Operating

Metallurgical Scheme .................................. 731
12.4.4.1 Historical overview 732; 12.4.4.2 Feed
sources 733; 12.4.4.3 Flotation plants 733;
12.4.4.4 Treatment of flotation tailings 734;
12.4.4.5 Treatment of pyrite concentrates 735;
12.4.4.6 Treatment of calcine 735
12.5 Waste Rock Recovery and Treatment ......................... 736
12.5.1 Development waste ..................................... 736
12.5.2 Waste rejected from ore setting .................... 737
12.5.3 Radiometric sorting of waste rock................. 738
12.5.4 Waste rock reclamation at the Blyvooruitzicht
Gold Mine ................................................ 738
12.6 Heap Leaching of Dumps ........ ................................ 740
12.7 Bacterial Leaching of Dumps and Slimes Dams ............ 741
12.7.1 Theoretical aspects ..................................... 741
12.7.2 Dump leaching by bacteria .......................... 742
12.7.3 Slimes dam leaching by bacteria ................... 743
12.8 References........................................................ ..... 743

Chapter 13 Process Evaluation, by H.E. Bartlett and

D.M. Hawkins ......................................... 745
13.1Introduction........................................................ .. 745
13.2Process Evaluation ............................................ ...... 745
13.3Statistical Concepts ... .................... .......................... 746
13.3.1 Population, sample, increment and composite
samples .................................................... 746
13.3.2 Accuracy and precision ............................... 746
13.3.3 Standard deviation, variance, coefficient of varia-
tion ......................................................... 746
13.3.4 Properties of variances and standard deviations 747
13.3.5 Normal and log-normal distribution .............. 748
13.4 Sampling Theory .................................................... 751
13.4.1 Calculation of the precision of sampling ......... 751
13.4.2 Theoretical calculation of sampling precision using
Gy's formulae ...................................... ..... 751
13.4.3 Gy's '50-piece' experiment ........................... 753
13.4.4 Precision of sampling using geostatistical methods 756
13.4.4.1 The semi-variogram 756; l3.4.4.2 Nug-
get effect 757; l3.4.4.3 Estimates of variance
from semi-variograms 757
13.5 Sampling Practice ................................................... 759
13.5.1 Run-of-mine ore feed - stop-belt sampling .... 761
 CONTENTS

13.5.1.1 Calculation of precision of manual stop-

belt sampling 762; 13.5.1.2 The effect of com-
positing increments into shift and daily samples
763; 13.5.1.3 Accuracy of the sampling proce-
dures 765; 13.5.1.4 Crushing of the sample be-
fore sub-division 765
13.5.2 Automatic sampling of run-of-mine ore ........ . 766
13.5.2.1 Testing for bias in automatic sampling
766; 13.5.2.2 Examples of t-tests 768
13.5.3 Crusher product sampling .......................... .. 770
13.5.4 Sampling of pulps .................................... .. 771
13.5.4.1 Cross-stream cutters 771; 13.5.4.2
Rotary samplers 773; 13.5.4.3 Precision of
sampling with cross-stream cutters 774
13.5.5 Other sampling equipment of pulps .............. . 775
13.5.5.1 Pipe sampler 776; 13.5.5.2 Projector
sampler 777
13.5.6 Sampling of loaded carbon, slag, flue dust and
other secondary materials at Rand Refinery ... . 777
13.5.7 Sampling of bullion .................................. .. 778
13.5.8 Sampling of liquids .................................. .. 778
13.6 Sampling Preparation .............................................. 778
13.6.1 Sample preparation equipment and practice .... 778
13.6.1.1 Pulps 778; 13.6.1.2 High grade mate-
rials 778; 13.6.1.3 Run-of-mine ore 780
13 .6.2 Statistical methods to quantify bias in sub-
sampling .................................................. 780
13.7 Mass Measurement ................................................. 780
13 .7.1 Truck and train weighbridges ....................... 781
13.7.2 Electromechanical belt massmeters ................ 782
13.7.3 Nuclear belt massmeters .............................. 785
13.7.4 Moisture determination for mass measurement 785
13.7.5 Batch mass determination of pulps ................ 786
13.7.6 Batch tanks on load cells............................. 786
13.7.7 Mass of pulps using flow and density meters... 786
13.8 Chemical Analysis .................................................. 787
13.9 Metallurgical Accounting ......................................... 787
13.9.1 Call system ............................................... 788
13.9.2 Check-in/ check-out system .......................... 789
13.10 Further Developments ............................................. 790
13.11 References ............................................................. 791

Xlll
CONTENTS

Chapter 14 Process Control by I.M. MacLeod and H.E.

Bartlett ................................................... 793
14.1 Introduction .......................................................... 793
14.2 Historical Background ............................................. 794
14.3 Principles of Continuous Process Control................... 795
14.3.1 Control objectives ...................................... 795
14.3.2 Classification of process variables ................. 796
14.3.3 Control system structuring ........................... 797
14.3.4 The standard three-term industrial controller .. , 800
14.4 Process Measurements ................. ............................ 801
14.4.1 Introduction .............................................. 801
14.4.2 Terminology of instrumentation systems ......... 802
14.4.3 The primary sensing element ........................ 803
14.4.4 Accuracy and calibration ............................. 803
14.4.5 Basic physical measurements ........................ 804
14.4.5.1 Flow rate of solids 804; 14.4.5.2 Flow
rate of liquids 804; 14.4.5.3 Liquid level in a
vessel 806; 14.4.5.4 The water content of a pulp
807; 14.4.5.5 One-line particle size measurement
807; 14.4.5.6 Basic chemical measurements 810;
14.4.5.7 Carbon and resin concentration meter
815; 14.4.5.8 Carbon activity meter 815
14.5 Actuators and Final Control Elements ........................ 817
14.5.1 Introduction ............................................. . 817
14.5.2 Control valves .......................................... . 817
14.5.3 Material feeders ........................................ . 819
14.5.4 Variable-speed drives ................................. . 819
14.6 Process Control System Design Philosophies and Architec-
tures .................................................................... 819
14.6.1 Introduction.............................................. 819
14.6.2 Manual control versus fully automatic control. 820
14.6.3 Hard-wired analogue control systems ............. 821
14.6.4 Centralized computer control systems ............ 822
14.6.5 Distributed computer control systems............. 823
14.6.6 Examples of current practice ........................ 824
14.7 References ............................................................. 829

Chapter 15 The Chemistry of the Extraction of Gold, by

M.J. Nicol, C.A. Fleming and R.L. Paul...... 831
15.1 General Principles ................................................... 831
15.1.1 The chemistry of gold compounds ................. 831
15.1.2 An equilibrium approach to the hydrometallurgy
of gold .................................................... 836

xi'v
 CONTENTS

15.1. 3
Electrochemical aspects ............................... 843
15.1.3.1 Anodic reactions of gold 843; 15.1.3.2
Anodic reactions of zinc 848; 15.1.3.3 Cathodic
processes 849
15.2 The Dissolution of Gold .......................................... 854
15.2.1 The mechanism of cyanidation ..................... 854
15.2.2 The effect of other constituents of the pulp .... 857
15.2.2.1 Iron sulphide minerals 858; 15.2.2.2
Copper sulphide minerals 859; 15.2.2.3 Arsenic
sulphide minerals 860; 15.2.2.4 Antimony sul-
phide minerals 860; 15.2.2.5 Anions containing
sulphur 861; 15.2.2.6 Cyanide complexes of
various base metals 861; 15.2.2.7 Calcium ions
862; 15.2.2.8 Carbonaceous material 862;
15.2.2.9 Flotation reagents and other surface ac-
tive reagents 863
15.2.3 Other leaching processes .............................. 863
15.2.3.1 Thiosulphate 864; 15.2.3.2 Thiourea
864; 15.2.3.3 Thiocyanate 865; 15.2.3.4 Chlo-
ride 866
15.3 The Recovery of Gold from Solution ........... .............. 866
15.3.1 Cementation ................... , . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . 866
15.3.2 Extraction by activated carbon, ion-exchange
resins or organic solvents ............................. 869
15.3.2.1 The activated-carbon process 870;
15.3.2.2 The ion-exchange process 877; 15.3.2.3
The solvent-extraction process 885
15.3.3 Chemical precipitation ............................... . 889
15.3.4 Electrowinning ......................................... . 890
15.3.4.1 Cell design 890; 15.3.4.2 Electrode reac-
tions 893
15.4 Clean-up, Calcination and Smelting ........................... 894
15.4.1 Acid treatment .......................................... 895
15.4.2 Calcination............................................... 896
15.4.3 Smelting ................................................... 896
15.5 Acknowledgement ................................... , ............. " 899
15.6 References............................................................. 899

Chapter 16 Plant Design and Commissioning, by G.G.

Stanley ..... ......... ..... ....... ....... ..... ............. 907
16.1 The Importance of Good Plant Design and Punctual Com-
missioning ............................................................. 907
16.2 The Design and Construction Organization .................. 907

xv
CONTENTS

16.3 Status, Responsibilities and Qualities of the Design Metal-

lurgist ................................................................... 908
16.4 General Procedure for Plant Design ........................... 908
16.4.1 The procedural plan ................................... 908
16.4.2 Ore testing ................................................ 909
16.4.2.1 Obtaining the sample 909; 16.4.2.2
Mineralogical examination 911; 16.4.2.3 Sample
preparation 912; 16.4.2.4 Laboratory testing 913;
16.4.2.5 Pilot plant testing 917
16.4.3 Process design ...................................... ..... 917
16.4.3.1 Process design criteria 917; 16.4.3.2
Flowsheet design 917; 16.4.3.3 Quantified flow-
sheet 918; 16.4.3.4 Equipment sizing and selec-
tion 924; 16.4.3.5 Flowsheet evaluation and
selection 926; 16.4.3.6 The conclusion of the pro-
cess design phase 933
16.4.4 General arrangement .................................. 933
16.4.4.1 Site selection 934; 16.4.4.2 Elements of
good layout 935; 16.4.4.3 Minimizing transpor-
tation requirements 935; 16.4.4.4 Maximizing
ease of operation 937; 16.4.4.5 Maximizing ease
of maintenance 938; 16.4.4.6 Maximizing ease of
supervision 938; 16.4.4.7 Maximizing security
939; 16.4.4.8 Maximizing safety 940; 16.4.4.9
Provision for expansion 940; 16.4.4.10 The use
of CAD and models 941
16.4.5 Detailed design .......................................... 941
16.4.5.1 Plant layout and design details 941;
16.4.5.2 Construction details 953; 16.4.5.3
Piping and instrumentation diagrams 957; 16.4.5.4
The definitive and revised cost estimates 957
16.5 Plant Construction and Commissioning .............. ........ 957
16.5.1 Metallurgical involvement in the construction
phase ....................................................... 957
16.5.2 Preparation for commissioning ..................... 958
16.5.3 Commissioning .......................................... 958
16.5.3.1 Personnel 958; 16.5.3.2 Cold commis-
sioning 958; 16.5.3.3 Hot commissioning 959;
16.5.3.4 Some practical commissioning tips 960;
16.5.3.5 Acceptance runs 961
16.6 Conclusion ............................................................ 961
16.7 References ............................................................. 961
Appendix 16.1 Pipeline Design............................................ 963
Appendix 16.2 Pump Selection ............................................ 967

xvi
 CONTENTS

Chapter 17 Loss Control and Safety Management, by

F.K. Vice and D.l. Nel ................ .............. 971
17.1 Introduction...... ........ ............................................ 971
17 .2 Loss Control Department ......................................... 971
17.3 Physical Condition Rating Programme ....................... 973
17.4 The Manager's Policy.............................................. 974
17.5 Training................................................................ 974
17.6 Planned Inspections ................................................ 974
17.6.1 The general inspection ................................ 974
17.6.2 Critical parts inspections ............................. 975
17.6.2.1 Pre-use inspection of equipment 975
17.7 Accident/Incident Investigation and Analysis ............... 975
17.7.1 The investigation ....................................... 977
17.7.2 Analysis.............................................. ..... 977
17.7.2.1 Statistical data 977
17.7.3 Benefits derived from accident investigations and
analysis .................................................... 982
17.8 Communications....... ......................................... ..... 982
17.8.1 Group meetings ......................................... 982
17.8.2 Personal communication ............................. 983
17.9 Emergency Preparedness .......................................... 983
17.9.1 Care of the injured and ill ........................... 985
17.9.2 Hazardous chemicals .................................. 985
17.9.3 Fires........................................................ 985
17.9.4 Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
17 .1 0 Physical Examination of Employees ........................... 987
17.10.1 Medical examinations ................................. 987
17.10.2 Eyesight examinations ................................. 987
17.10.3 Audiometric testing ...... .............................. 989
17.11 Personal Protective Equipment .................................. 991
17.12 Task Analysis and Procedures................................... 993
17.12.1 Identification of critical tasks ....................... 993
17.12.1.1 Severity 994; 17.12.1.2 Repetitiveness
994; 17.12.1.3 Probability 995; 17.12.1.4 Iden-
tification of tasks requiring procedures, standards
or rules 995; 17.12.1.5 Task analysis 996;
17.12.1.6 Critical task inventory summary 996
17.13 Planned Task Observations ...................................... 999
17.14 Engineering and Purchasing Controls ......................... 1001
17.15 References............................................................. 1001
Appendix 17.1 Checklist for General Planned Inspection and Physi-
cal Condition Ratings .............................................. 1002

XVll
CONTENTS

Chapter 18 Laboratories and Pilot Plants, by C. W.A. Muir 1013

18.1Introduction .......................................................... 1013
18.2Characteristics of Metallurgical Laboratories of the Gold
Mining Industry.................. ............................... .... 1015
18.2.1 On-mine laboratories ................................... 1015
18.2.1.1 Layout 1015; 18.2.1.2 Equipment 1017;
18.2.1.3 Functions 1019; 18.2.1.4 Staffing 1019;
18.2.1.5 Comment 1020
18.2.2 Group laboratories ..................................... 1020
18.2.2.1 Layout 1022; 18.2.2.2 Equipment 1022;
18.2.2.3 Functions 1023; 18.2.2.4 Staffing 1025
18.3 Mintek 1026
18.3.1 Introduction .............................................. 1026
18.3.2 Categories of sponsorship and conditions pertain-
ing to them ............................................... 1027
18.3.3 The facilities at Mintek ............................... 1028
18.4 Pilot Plants ........................................................... 1029
18.4.1 Reasons for piloting ................................... 1029
18.4.2 Types of pilot plants .................................. 1030
18.4.3 Scale-up factors ......................................... 1030
18.4.4 Design of pilot plants ................................. 1031
18.4.5 Operation of pilot plants ............................. 1031
18.4.6 Pilot plant location .................................... 1031
18.4.7 Type of investigation carried out in pilot plants 1032
18.5 References.. . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. ... . . ... . . . . .. . . .... . . . . ... .. ... . . . . .. ... . 1033
Appendix 18.1 Determination of Relative Grindability using a Labcr
ratory Batch Rod Mill ............................................. 1034
Appendix 18.2 Standard Procedure for Routine Size Analysis of
Finish-ground Products ............................................ 1036
Appendix 18.3 Determination of Thickener Area .................... 1041
Appendix 18.4 Filtration Rate Determination .............. ....... .... 1044
Appendix 18.5 Cyanidation Tests using Rolling Bottle Method.. 1047
Appendix 18.6 Muffle Roasting of Sulphide Concentrates ........ 1049
Appendix 18.7 Determination of Activated Carbon Parameters. 1050

Tables and Formulae, by W.R. Flook ........................... 1053

Note on conversion tables ........................................ 1054
Table 1 Conversion table: length ............................. 1055
Table 2 Conversion table: area ................................ 1056
Table 3 Conversion table: volume ............................ 1057
Table 4 Conversion table: velocity................ ........... 1058
Table 5 Conversion table: rate of flow...................... 1058
Table 6 Conversion table: mass ............................... 1059

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 CONTENTS

Table 7 Conversion table: pressure........................... 1060

Table 8 Conversion table: energy ............................. 1060
Table 9 Conversion table: power ............................. 1061
Table 10 Conversion table: density ............................ 1061
Table 11 Some fundamental constants ........................ 1062
Table 12 Moisture content, density, etc. of pulps ......... 1062
Table 13 Formulae ................................................. 1064
Table 14 Base units of the International System ........... 1067
Table 15 Derived units of the International System ....... 1067
Table 16 S I prefixes ..... ......... .... ........... ......... ......... 1068
Table 17 Critical speed of mills ................................. 1068
Table 18 Te~ting-sieve series ............... ......... ...... ... .... 1069
Table 19 The periodic table .. .... ...... ............... ........... 1071
Table 20 The Greek alphabet .................................... 1072

Index ...................................................................... 1073

VOLUME 1

Note: These contents have been abbreviated by omission of the third level
of subheading.

Chapter 1 Geology and Mineralogy of the Principal

Goldfields in South Africa, by C.R. Anhaeusser,
C.E. Feather, W.R. Liebenberg, G. Smits and
l.A. Snegg ............................................. .
1.1 Historical Background ............................................. 1
1.2 Gold in the Sediments of the Witwatersrand Triad ........ 5
1.2.1 Geological aspects ...................................... 5
1.2.2 Macroscopic description of the placers ........ ... 13
1.2.3 Mineral composition of the placers ..... ...... ..... 15
1.2.4 Nature and mode of occurrence of the gold .... 16
1.2.5 Distribution of gold and heavy minerals ......... 26
1.2.6 Chemical composition of the gold ................. 28
1.2.7 Gold in residues ......................................... 30
1.2.8 Other minerals of economic interest .............. 33
1.3 Gold in the Barberton Mountain Land ....................... 35
1.3.1 Introduction.............................................. 35
1.3.2 General geology......................................... 37
1.3.3 Gold distribution in the Barberton Mountain Land 41

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CONTENTS

1.3.4 Mineralogical aspects of the Barberton gold ores 49

1.3.5 Refractory ores and their treatment .............. . 58
1.3.6 Origin of the Barberton gold deposits ........... . 60
1.4 References........................................................... .. 60

Chapter 2 S0I1ing and Crushing, by G. G. Stanley ......... 69

2.1 Introduction .......................................................... 69
2.1.1 Mining methods ......................................... 69
2.1.2 Underground waste sorting .......................... 70
2.1.3 The nature of the run-of-mine ore ................. 70
2.1.4 The operations carried out in the sorting and
crushing plant ........................................... 72
2.2 Ore Transport to the Treatment Plant ........................ 75
2.2.1 Skip transport ........................................... 75
2.2.2 Endless rope haulages .................... ............. 75
2.2.3 Rail transport............................................ 75
2.2.4 Road transport ........ .................................. 76
2.2.5 Overhead ropeways .... ................................ 76
2.2.6 Belt conveyors........................................... 76
2.3 Ore Storage, Feeding and In-Plant Conveying .............. 76
2.3.1 Ore storage ............................................... 76
2.3.2 Feeders .................................................... 80
2.3.3 In-plant conveying ..................................... 85
2.4 Washing ............................................................... 91
2.4.1 Washing in chutes ...................................... 92
2.4.2 Washing on conveyor belts .......................... 92
2.4.3 Washing on grizzlies ................................... 92
2.4.4 Washing in trommels .................................. 92
2.4.5 Washing on vibrating screens ....................... 93
2.4.6 Dealing with washings ................................. 94
2.5 Sizing ................................................................... 94
2.5.1 Grizzlies ................................................... 94
2.5.2 Vibrating screens .............................. ......... 95
2.6 Crushing ............................................................... 98
2.6.1 Types of crusher ........................................ 98
2.7 Waste Sorting and Reef Picking ................................ 107
2.7.1 Definition of waste sorting .......................... 107
2.7.2 Manual sorting .......................................... 107
2.7.3 Mechanized sorting .................................... 108
2.7.4 Reef picking ............................................. 111
2.7.5 Disposal of reject rock ................................ 111
2.7.6 Economics of waste sorting .......................... 113

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2.8 Selection
of Grinding Media for Pebble Milling............ 114
2.8.1 Manual pebble selection .............................. 114
2.8.2 Pebble selection by grizzley or vibrating screen 114
2.8.3 Pebble selection by deflection of the entire ore
stream . ..................... ............... ......... ....... 115
2.8.4 Pebble storage and transport........................ 115
2.9 Mass Measurement, Sampling and Control.... .............. 115
2.9.1 Mass measurement ..................... ...... .......... 115
2.9.2 Sampling ....... .......... ...... ....................... .... 116
2.9.3 Control .................................................... 116
2.10 Safety and Health ................................................... 117
2.10.1 Regulations ............................................... 117
2.10.2 Dust suppression........................................ 117
2.10.3 Noise suppression ...................................... 119
2.11 References............................................................. 119

Chapter 3 Milling and Classification, by G. G. Stanley ... 121

3.1 Evolution of the Milling Techniques Used in the Treatment
of South African Gold Ores ..................................... 121
3.2 Theory of Milling ................................................... 125
3.2.1 Terminology and definition.......................... 125
3.2.2 The reasons for grinding ............................. 125
3.2.3 The boundary between crushing and grinding.. 127
3.2.4 The process of brittle fracture resulting from com-
pression ............................. , .................... . 128
3.2.5 The particle size distribution resulting from brittle
fracture ................................................... . 129
3.2.6 The determination and reporting of size distribu-
tion ........................................................ . 129
3.2.7 Mathematical descriptions of size distributions 131
3.2.8 Mechanisms of size reduction and transport within
tumbling mills .......................................... . 135
3.2.9 Energy requirements of comminution ............ . 139
3.2.10 Stage grinding ......................................... .. 143
3.2.11 Closed circuiting ....................................... . 147
3.2.12 Summary of basic milling theory ................ .. 152
3.3 Types of Tumbling Mill and their Characteristics .......... 152
3.3.1 General description .................................... 152
3.3.2 Rod mills ................................................. 157
3.3.3 Ball mills.................................................. 158
3.3.4 Autogenous mills ....................................... 160
3.3.5 Milling combinations .................................. 162
3.4 Mill Feeders .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 163
3 .4.1 Scoop feeders ............................................ 163

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CONTENTS

3.4.2 Drum feeders ........................................... . 164

3.4.3 Spout feeders .......................................... .. 164
3.4.4 Hopper feeders ......................................... . 165
3.5 Mill Liners ............................................................ 166
3.5.1 Trunnion liners ........................................ .. 166
3.5.2 Inlet end liners ......................................... . 167
3.5.3 Outlet end liners ...................................... .. 167
3.5.4 Shell liners .............................................. .. 170
3.5.5 Summary of South African liner practice ...... .. 175
3.5.6 Relining methods ..................................... .. 175
3.6 Grinding Media ...................................................... 178
3.6.1 Rods ....................................................... 178
3.6.2 Balls........................................................ 179
3.6.3 Pebbles.................................................... 179
3.6.4 Grinding medium size for given ore feed size.. 179
3.6.5 Nature of grinding medium wear .................. 181
3.6.6 The ball-wear theories of Davis and Prentice ... 182
3.6.7 Ball rationing ............................................ 183
3.7 Ancillary Equipment ............................................... 184
3 .7.1 Feeders. .. . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. 184
3.7.2 Massmeters ............................................... 187
3.7.3 Pumps ..................................................... 187
3.7.4 Pipes ....................................................... 188
3.7.5 Valves ...................................................... 188
3.7.6 Distributors .............................................. 188
3.7.7 Water reticulation ...................................... 189
3.8 Principles of Mill Operation .... ................................. 189
3.8.1 Basic objectives ......................................... 189
3.8.2 Maximizing energy availability...................... 189
3.8.3 The effect of feed size distribution in ROM and
SAG mills ................................................ 195
3.8.4 Maximizing utilization of the available power.. 196
3.8.5 Automatic control...................................... 199
3.9 References............................................................. 201
Appendix 3.1 Hydrocyclone classifier theory, modelling and design 204
Appendix 3.2 Classification formulae ................................... 209
Appendix 3.3 Pebble competence testing and autogenous grindabili-
ty determination.. ................................................... 210
Appendix 3.4 Mill design methods ....................................... 212
Appendix 3.5 Determining grinding energy requirements for
materials that are already finer than the feed size (3350 j-tm)
specified for the Bond Grindability Test .. ................... 216
Appendix 3.6 Derivation of Equation 3.22 relating ball mass in load,
daily ball feed rate, new ball diameter and daily ball wear
rate ...................................................................... 217

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 CONTENTS

Chapter 4 Gravity Concentration, by D.W. Penman ...... 219

4.1 Introduction ......... , . . . .. . . .. . .... . .. . . .. . . ... . . .. . . .. . . ... . . ... .... 219
4.1.1 Historical................................................. 219
4.1.2 The rationale of concentration ...................... 219
4.1.3 Historical background ................................. 220
4.1.4 Present philosophy and practice .................... 221
4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gravity Concentration 221
4.3 Equipment ............................................................ 223
4.3.1 Corduroy blankets ..................................... 223
4.3.2 Johnson drum concentrator ......................... 224
4.3.3 Plane table ............................................... 225
4.3.4 Jigs ......................................................... 226
4.3.5 Endless riffle belts .................................. .... 226
4.3.6 Shaking tables ........................................... 227
4.3.7 Mill liners ............................................. .... 228
4.4 Concentrate Treatment ............................................ 228
4.4.1 Re-dressing and smelting ............................. 228
4.4.2 Roasting and cyanidation ............................ 228
4.4.3 Amalgamation ........................................... 229
4.4.4 Intensive cyanidation ...................... ............ 230
4.4.5 Iron removal............................................. 230
4.5 Gravity Concentration Circuits .................................. 231
4.5.1 President Steyn gravity circuit ...................... 231
4.5.2 Gravity concentration at Sheba ..................... 232
4.6 Development .......................................................... 233
4.7 References ............................................................. 234

Chapter 5 Flotation, by B.R. Broekman, L.A.C. Carter and

R. C. Dunne ............................................. 235
5.1 Introduction ...................... , . .. . . .. . ... . ... .... . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . 235
5.2 Flotation Processing ................................................ 236
5.2.1 Mineralogical aspects .................................. 236
5.2.2 Process aspects .............. ............................ 238
5.2.3 Flotation plant practice ............................... 251
5.3 Current Flotation Trends ......................................... 260
5.3.1 Equipment ............................................... . 260
5.3.2 Design ................................................... .. 261
5.3.3 Control ................................................... . 265
5.3.4 Trouble-shooting methods .......................... . 266
5.3.5 New flotation applications .......................... . 272
5.4 References

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Chapter 6 Cyanidation, by G.J.C. Young .................... 277

6.1 Introduction .......................................................... 277
6.2 Thickening .... ..... ..... ...... .............. ..... ..... ........... ..... 277
6.2.1 Batch thickeners or collectors ....................... 277
6.2.2 Continuous thickeners. ....... ..... ..... ...... .... ..... 278
6.2.3 High-rate thickeners ......... ..... ..... ... ... .... ...... 290
6.3 Leaching ....... .... ... .............. ....... ...... .... .......... ........ 291
6.3.1 Leaching reagents ...................................... 291
6.3.2 Batch and continuous leaching ..................... 295
6.3.3 Leaching vessels ......................................... 301
6.3.4 Leaching conditions .................................... 303
6.3.5 Gold losses ............................................... 304
6.4 Liquid-solid Separation ............................................ 305
6.4.1 Filtration .................................................. 305
6.4.2 Filter practice........ ...... .............................. 312
6.4.3 Maintenance ............................................. 316
6.4.4 Capacities ................................................. 317
6.5 Clarification .......................................................... 317
6.5.1 Clarifier types .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 318
6.6 References ............................................................. 323
Appendix 6.1 Thickener design calculations ........................... 324
Appendix 6.2 Leaching design calculations ............ ................ 326
Appendix 6.3 A note on the development of an on-stream analyser
for cyanide concentration, pH and alkalinity ............... 328
Appendix 6.4 The determination of nett dissolved gold loss (DO
Nett) .................................................................... 328

Chapter 7 Recovery of Gold from Solution by Cementation,

by D. Bosley ........................................... 331
7.1 Introduction.......................................................... 331
7.1.1 Characteristics of gold bearing solutions......... 331
7.1.2 Recovery methods ...................................... 331
7.2 Zinc Dust Precipitation............................ ................ 333
7.2.1 Solution preparation ................................... 333
7.2.2 Precipitation practice .................................. 337
7.3 References....................... ...................................... 343

Chapter 8 pyrometallurgy of Gold, by 0.1. Gossman.... 345

8.1 Introduction.......................................................... 345
8.2 Roasting of Concentrates ......................................... 345
8.2.1 Introduction.............................................. 345
8.2.2 Basic chemistry of the roasting process .......... 346

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 CONTENTS

8.2.3 Roasting furnaces ...................................... 348

8.2.4 Roaster gas treatment ................................. 350
8.2.5 Status of roasting in South African gold metallurgy 351
8.3 Retorting of Gold Amalgam ........ ............................. 352
8.3.1 Introduction .............................................. 352
8.3.2 The retort furnace ...................................... 352
8.3.3 Mercury hazard ......................................... 353
8.3.3.1 Precautions when handling mercury 354
8.4 Calcining of Zinc-Gold Precipitate ............................. 354
8.4.1 Introduction .................................. ........ .... 354
8.4.2 Clean-up of zinc-gold precipitate................... 355
8.4.3 Acid treatment of zinc-gold precipitate ........... 356
8.4.4 Dewatering of gold slime. ........................ ..... 357
8.4.5 Calcining of gold slime ............................... 361
8.5 Smelting gold bearing Material.................................. 363
8.5.1 Introduction .............................................. 363
8.5.2 Fusion furnaces ......................................... 363
8.5.3 Direct smelting of gold concentrates .............. 369
8.5.4 Melting of sponge gold ............................... 369
8.5.5 Smelting of calcined slime ........................... 370
8.5.6 Smelting of steelwool cathodes ..................... 372
8.5.7 Cleaning and sampling gold bars ........ .......... 373
8.5.8 Slag handling ............................................ 375
8.5.9 Safety hazards in the smelthouse ................... 375
8.6 Dust and Fume Extraction .................................. ..... 376
8.7 Precautions against Gold Theft ................................. 376
8.8 Record Keeping ................................ ...................... 377

Chapter 9 Application of Activated Carbon to Gold

Recovery, by P.R. Bailey...................... ..... 379
9.1 Introduction............................................ . ........... .. 379
9.1.1 Historical ................................................. 379
9.1.2 Gold recovery ........................................... 379
9.1.3 Process route comparisons ........................... 382
9.2 Activated Carbon .............................................. ..... 383
9.2.1 Physical and chemical properties .................. . 384
9.2.2 Gold absorbing properties ........................... . 387
9.3 Absorption ............................................................ 393
9.3.1 Modelling ................................................. 393
9.3.2 Stage, loading and barren values ................... 399
9.3.3 Equilibrium effects ..................................... 417
9.3.4 Carbon activity .......................................... 429
9.3.5 Physical effects .................... ...................... 439

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9.3.6 Operating considerations ............................ . 443

9.3.7 Carbon-in-leach operations ........................ .. 449
9.3.8 Other feed stocks ...................................... . 455
9.3.9 Equipment ............................................... . 457
9.4 Elution 481
9.4.1 Introduction ............................................. . 481
9.4.2 Physical and chemical effects ...................... . 483
9.4.3 Kinetics of elution .................................... .. 489
9.4.4 Anglo American Research Laboratory (AARL)
elution .................................................... . 492
9.4.5 Zadra elution ........................................... . 503
9.4.6 Equipment ............................................... . 511
9.5 Regeneration .......................................................... 530
9.5.1 Introduction .............................................. 530
9.5.2 Thermal regeneration .................................. 530
9.5.3 Rotary kilns .............................................. 541
9.5.4 Rintoul kiln regeneration ............................. 547
9.6 Electrowinning ....................................................... 550
9.6.1 Electrochemical reactions ............................. 551
9.6.2 Cell design ................................................ 552
9.6.3 Electrowinning cells .................................... 554
9.6.4 Mintek cell - operational data .................... 561
9.7 Acid Treatment ...................................................... 570
9.7.1 Acid treatment conditions ............................ 571
9.8 Carbon Breakage .................................................... 575
9.8.1 Breakage by pumps .................................... 575
9.8.2 Breakage by eductors .................................. 581
9.8.3 Breakage by mixing .................................... 583
9.8.4 Breakage during regeneration ....................... 583
9.8.5 Plant carbon loss ....................................... 584
9.9 Carbon in Solution ................................................. 585
9.9.1 Adsorption systems .................................... 585
9.9.2 Design considerations ................................. 599
9.10 References ............................................................. 608

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