Durability of Underground Concrete

Strength. Performance. Passion.
Durability of Underground Concrete

Underground Infrastructures: Challenges and Solutions
June 27, 2013, LTA, Singapore
Durability of Underground Concrete, Michael Romer, June 27, 2013 2013 Holcim Ltd
Agenda
Introduction
Durability of concrete
Degradation mechanisms
Durable concrete and its specification
Conclusions
Durability of Underground Concrete, Michael Romer, June 27, 2013 2013 Holcim Ltd 2
Introduction
Concrete the foundation of our

civilization
World population is growing and urbanization increasing
World population development [bn inhabitants]
70% urban
urban
60% urban
rural
47% urban
6.4
36% urban
5.0 World population projected to
3.3
grow significantly
2.9 3.2 2.8
2.4
1.3 Ongoing trend towards
urbanization, particularly in
1970 2000 2030 2050 emerging countries.
Both trends will significantly increase societys need

for construction materials
Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision (www.un.org)
Concrete the foundation of our civilization
Why is concrete the most widely used construction material ?
use of locally available materials (except cement)
Versatility
good strength properties
water resistant
thermal inertia
fire proof
non-toxic Cost
ability to shape construction elements

low cost solution
Durability
Durability relevance and trends
Avoid failure and collapse
Ensuring service life
Disruption associated with renewal and replacement
Sustainable construction
Significant efforts in R&D lead to

f a quite accurate knowledge of the main deterioration mechanisms
f models for the prediction of service life
f testing techniques to measure durability performance
Performance-based specifications
Key influencing factors
Factors influencing overall concrete performance
Materials Concrete Construction Design
Aggregates Mix design Element design Engineering

Type Proportions Cast in place Design
Grading Cement quality Precast Details
w/c ratio Reinforcement
Maximum water Crack control
Cement Admixtures cover
Type
Building practice
Fineness Formwork
Tolerances Architectural
Mixing
Reinforcing Design
Water Details
Quality Section/dimension
Cl- limit, etc. Fresh concrete Placing Surface finishes
Admixtures Environmental
Type Compaction
influences
Interaction/prop.
Completed
Curing
element
The relevance performance parameters depends on the
application
Workability, flowability
Setting time
Strength
Heat of hydration development
Shrinkage, creep, e-modulus
Resistance to chemical attack (sulfate, chloride, AAR, )
Resistance to physical attack (freeze-thaw, abrasion)
.
Durability of a concrete = ability to resist to weathering,
chemical attack, abrasion or other deterioration processes
Blending, mixing,
transportation
Quality of cement, aggregates,
water, admixtures
Placing, compacting,
finishing, curing
Structural design
and specification
Degradation
mechanisms
Most physical-chemical deterioration processes are strongly influenced by
the degree of saturation of the concrete pores
The most frequent deterioration process are related to:

Carbonation
Sulfate attack Attack caused by

Chloride attack external agents
Acid attack
Alkali-aggregate reactions
These processes lead to the decomposition of hydrated compounds of

cement paste and/or cracks
Degradation mechanisms
Carbonation
Chloride ingress
Sulfate attack (external, internal)
Acid attack
Deterioration related to seawater
Alkali aggregate reaction
Carbonation
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3
From From
cement the air
paste
This reaction decreases concrete pH favoring corrosion of reinforcement

Carbonation is accelerated at humidity between 50% and 70%
Carbonation does not happen when concrete is permanently dry or
wet
Carbonation cannot be avoided, but it can be retarded by reducing the

water/cement ratio and by ensuring adequate covercrete, compaction
and curing
Corrosion due to chloride ingress
Chloride ions react with iron from
reinforcement:
Fe2+ + 2Cl- FeCl2
FeCl2 + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Consequences of chloride attack

loss of reinforcement section, caused by the steel corrosion
cracks promoted by expansion
Chloride attack can be minimized by using low water/cement ratio,

cement with high amount of active MIC or cement with high C3A
content
Sulfate attack
There are 2 types of sulfate attack
f External: caused by sulfate from external sources, ex. from soil, polluted
water
f Internal: caused by sulfate present in cement
Most common internal sulfate attack is related to DEF (delay ettringite
formation)
External sulfate attack
Sulfates from external sources reacts with calcium aluminates and/or the
Ca(OH)2 produced during cement hydration
f The result is formation of ettringite, gypsum or
thaumasite
f Thaumasite occurs only at low temperature
Formation of ettringite or gypsum leads to expansion

and cracking
Sulfate attack can be prevent by using:

9 cements with low C3A (< 8%)
9 high content of active mineral components
9 low w/c
Internal sulfate attack: Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
Source of sulfate: cement
Root cause: concrete subject to high temperatures (>70oC) during early
hydration:
High initial concrete temperature (e.g. hot aggregates)
Massive concrete element (heat of hydration)
Damage is related to the formation of ettringite and cracking due to
expansion
DEF can be avoided by:

9 reducing fresh concrete temperature
9 using low heat cements
Acid attack
Hydrated cement compounds have low resistance to acids
In contact with acids concrete loses mass and strength and its permeability
increases
Acids have different origins
metabolism of micro-organisms
agricultural applications
industrial processes
Acid attack can be prevented/minimized by:

9 using low water/cement ratio
9 using composite cements
Alkali aggregate reaction
AAR are chemical reactions between
reactive aggregates and cement
AAR generates expansive products
leading to cracking
Main deleterious constituents:
volcanic glass
opal and chalcedony
deformed quartz
ASR can be prevented by

9 using inert aggregate
9 controlling the amount of soluble
alkalis in concrete
9 using composite cements
Deterioration related to sea water and marine exposure zones
Sea water composition
Mg2+: 1400 mg/l
SO42-: 2700 mg/l
Na+: 11000 mg/l
Cl-: 20000 mg/l
pH: 7.5 8.4 (average 8.2)
CO2
Marine exposure zones:

Atmospheric zone Splash zone Tidal zone Submerged zone
Corrosion of Corrosion of Corrosion of Chemical attack
reinforcement reinforcement reinforcement Biological attack
Frost damage Abrasion due to Abrasion
waves Chemical attack
Frost damage Biological attack
Frost damage
Mechanisms of concrete degradation
Most degradation mechanisms involve exchange with environment
Transformation of hydration products by ion exchange
f loss of cohesion and/or formation of expansive phases
Corrosion of steel reinforcement

f expansive corrosion products cracking, spalling
All aqueous environments are aggressive to cement-based materials (to

certain degree)
mobility of
water erosion
chloride
acid attack
highly sulfate
leaching ion-free
saline magnesium
Concept of service life and durability
Incubation Propagation
No visible Localized Generalized

damage damage damage
Damage
Critical damage level
Service Life
Time
Durable concrete and

its specification
Porosity
Permeability of concrete is paramount to assure water-tightness and
durability of underground structures
1 mm
Porosity and permeability key drivers for concrete
durability
Capillary pores start to be connected when w/c > 0.40
When w/c > 0.70 all capillary pores are connected
Concrete curing is key to get the benefit of low w/c
Muller, A.C.A. et al., J . Phys. Chem. C 117 (1), 2013

Influence of MIC on composition and microstructure of
cement paste (chemical and microstructural effects)
Pores of CSH gel Clinker + gypsum + H2O

Capillary Pores C-S-H + Ca(OH)2 + other hydrates
Pore volume
Slag Cement MIC + Ca(OH)2

CEM I
C-S-H
Pore diameter
Active MICs (blast furnace slag, fly ash, natural and artificial pozzolan)
promote refinement of pore structure of hardened cement paste.
Strategies for high durability concrete
Besides w/c and curing, the choice of concrete ingredients has an impact
on concrete durability.
Deterioration Process Clinker and cement Concrete
Sulfate attack Low C3A clinker

Chloride attack High C3A clinker
Use of MIC
Alkali aggregate reaction Low alkali clinker
or SCM
Thermal cracks Low C3A and C3S clinker
Leaching Low C3S clinker
Performance of different cements
Example: chloride ingress
Source: VDZ Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (German Cement Works Association)
Penetrability and Thickness of the "covercrete are key for
durability prognosis and service life prediction
The Service Life of a Reinforced Concrete element depends to a large
extent on the Penetrability and Thickness of the Concrete Cover
The quality of the covercrete is determined, to a large extent, by:
f correct service life design and specifications
f good concrete mix design and production technology
f careful execution
f adequate supervision and controls
The Penetrability and Thickness of the covercrete can and should be

measured on site, resulting in the contribution of all the players in the
concrete construction chain
covercrete
Example: Port of Miami Tunnel - designed for 150 years
Service Life
cured for 3 days:

kTgm = 0.06 x 10-16m2
38 mm
curded for 1 day:

kTgm = 0.03 x 10-16m2
48 mm
Carbonation depth
modeled based on air
permeability (150 years)
Evaluation of Port of Miami Tunnel Segments (Carbonation and service life assessment made using on-
site air permeability tests), , R.J. Torrent, J. Armaghani and Y. Taibi, Concrete international, May 2013
How can be a service life of 50 or 100 year be ensured ?
There are basically two approaches
Prescriptive approach
f European standard (EN 206-1:2000 Part 1: Specification, performance,
production and conformity)

f Recommendations on concrete class, maximum w/c and minimum
cement content, to ensure service life of 50 years
Performance approach
f EN 206, Equivalent durability performance (EDP)
f Confirmation: durability of a candidate concrete is equal or better than a
reference concrete
f EDP is a first step towards performance specification for durability
f EDP covers only concrete as material and its lab-performance
f Service life design deals also with the durability of concrete in situ,
including thickness of cover
Example on the exposure condition:
Class XC - Carbonation-induced reinforcement corrosion
Class Description Implications for concrete mix design

Cover min min cement max w/c
thickness compressive content ratio
[mm] strength [MPa] [kg/m3] [-]
XC1 Permanently dry 20(30) C20/25 260 0.65
or wet
XC2 Wet, rarely dry 35(45) C25/30 280 0.60
XC3 Moderate humidity 35(45) C30/37 280 0.55
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry 40(50) C30/37 300 0.50
cnom = cmin +c permeability aspects + technical aspects

( ) pre-stressed concrete
From prescription to performance
The classical prescriptive approach specifies a durability Indicator (w/c) that:
f is increasingly questionable (composite binders)
f is very difficult to control in practice

f does not encourage innovation and is an obstacle for sustainable concrete
mix designs
f does not guarantee durability, as reality has confirmed
By checking the end product, a performance-oriented mindset is created in all

players:
f contractors: deliver the end product to be tested
f producers: develop most efficient design, produce and deliver the concrete
with the required performance

f raw material suppliers (cement, additions, admixtures): produce and deliver
their products to achieve the target performance in concrete application
Evolution from Prescriptive to Performance:
Example of Swiss Standards
Carbonation Chlorides
Year Exposure Class
XC1 XC2 XC3 XC4 XD1 XD2a XD2b XD3
Strength classmin C25 C25 C25 C30 C25 C25 C30 C30
[MPa] /30 /30 /30 /37 /30 /30 /37 /37
2003 C [kg/m] 280 280 280 300 300 300 320 320
min
w/cmax [-] 0.65 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.45
qw max [g/mh] --- --- --- 10 10 10 --- ---

2008
DCl max [10-12m/s] --- --- --- --- --- --- 10 10
2013 kTsmax [10-16 m] --- --- --- 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 0.5
Challenges with the performance concept
Durability test methods not accepted worldwide

Durability test
procedures
Test methods reflect real deterioration processes ?
Most tests are performed under standardized conditions serving
as indicators of relative performance rather than measures of
actual performance in service
Concrete resistance changes over time (hydration progression,

Ageing effects evolution of microstructure)
With respect to durability the changes can be positive or negative:
Interaction with sea water may result in a surface layer that
increasingly inhibits penetration of chloride ions

Carbonation may release chloride ions bound by cement
hydrates, carbonation may lead to densification of the concrete

surface
Benefits of the performance concept
Accidental or deliberate changes of the specified w/cmax by RMX

Discourages concrete producers
bad practice
Uncontrolled addition of water to the ready-mixed concrete trucks
after leaving the batching point
Incorrect placing and compaction practices
Poor finishing techniques of floors and pavements
Insufficient or total absence of moist curing
More efficient curing compounds and/or self-curing concretes

Encourages
innovation SCC which creates a more compact and uniform concrete cover
than conventional vibrated concrete
Permeable formwork liners
High Performance Concretes
Ultra-high Performance Composites (selectively)
Low or no Shrinkage Concretes (ShCC)
Conclusions
Conclusions - Durability of Underground Concrete
Service life is not about the average quality of the concrete used, but the
weakest element in the structure.
Execution of underground construction is asking for robust solutions with
changing requirements:
f use of local materials
f placement at variable distances

f difficult ambient conditions
Concrete is optimized to resist aggressive conditions by achieving low

permeability and by increasing its chemical resistance.
Specifiers and suppliers face a challenge in translating the long-term
durability requirements into specifications for laboratory testing.
The collaboration between owners, specifiers, suppliers and contractors is
most important for success in underground construction.
On-site performance testing can assess the real achievement in execution
and can supplement traditional quality control.

Durability of Underground Concrete

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Strength. Performance. Passion.

Durability of Underground Concrete

Concrete the foundation of our

Both trends will significantly increase societys need

use of locally available materials (except cement)

ability to shape construction elements

Significant efforts in R&D lead to

f models for the prediction of service life

f testing techniques to measure durability performance

Key influencing factors

Aggregates Mix design Element design Engineering

The most frequent deterioration process are related to:

 Sulfate attack Attack caused by

These processes lead to the decomposition of hydrated compounds of

This reaction decreases concrete pH favoring corrosion of reinforcement

Carbonation cannot be avoided, but it can be retarded by reducing the

Consequences of chloride attack

 cracks promoted by expansion

Chloride attack can be minimized by using low water/cement ratio,

Formation of ettringite or gypsum leads to expansion

Sulfate attack can be prevent by using:

DEF can be avoided by:

Acid attack can be prevented/minimized by:

ASR can be prevented by

Marine exposure zones:

Corrosion of steel reinforcement

All aqueous environments are aggressive to cement-based materials (to

No visible Localized Generalized

Durable concrete and

Muller, A.C.A. et al., J . Phys. Chem. C 117 (1), 2013

Pores of CSH gel Clinker + gypsum + H2O

Slag Cement MIC + Ca(OH)2

Deterioration Process Clinker and cement Concrete

Sulfate attack Low C3A clinker

Source: VDZ Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (German Cement Works Association)

The Penetrability and Thickness of the covercrete can and should be

cured for 3 days:

curded for 1 day:

production and conformity)

f Confirmation: durability of a candidate concrete is equal or better than a

f EDP covers only concrete as material and its lab-performance

including thickness of cover

Class Description Implications for concrete mix design

cnom = cmin +c permeability aspects + technical aspects

f is very difficult to control in practice

By checking the end product, a performance-oriented mindset is created in all

with the required performance

qw max [g/mh] --- --- --- 10 10 10 --- ---

Durability test methods not accepted worldwide

Concrete resistance changes over time (hydration progression,

increasingly inhibits penetration of chloride ions

hydrates, carbonation may lead to densification of the concrete

Accidental or deliberate changes of the specified w/cmax by RMX

More efficient curing compounds and/or self-curing concretes

f placement at variable distances

Concrete is optimized to resist aggressive conditions by achieving low

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