SHA and Retrofit Slides

Lecture-1
Seismic Hazards
Earthquakes have varied effects, including changes in
geologic features, damage to man-made structures and
impact on human and animal life.
Earthquake/Seismic Hazards These effects due to earthquakes are Seismic Hazards
Earthquake Damage depends on many factors:
The size of the Earthquake
The distance from the focus of the earthquake
The properties of the materials at the site
The nature of the structures in the area
Tectonic hazards: earthquakes List of Major Historic Earthquakes

Year Location Deaths Magnitude
About 500,000 quakes occur every year. About 100
are potentially dangerous (in excess of Richter 1556 China 5,30,000 8.0
Magnitude 6) 1906 San Francisco 700 7.9

1960 S. Chile 2,230 9.5
On average there are about 2 major quakes occur
1964 Alaska 131 9.2
annually - in excess of magnitude 8
1976 China 7,00,000 7.8
Very large quakes occur perhaps once a decade - but 1985 Mexico City 9,500 8.1
release nearly all the Earths seismic energy 1989 California 62 7.1
Over 90% of the seismic energy released between 1995 Kobe 5,472 6.9
1900 & 1975 was released by 10 great quakes 2001 Gujarat, India 1,00,000 6.9
2004 Sumatra, Indonesia 2,30,210 9.3
2005 Pakistan 75000 7.6
2010 Haiti 46,000- 316,000 7.0
2011 Japan 15760 9.0
List of major historic earthquakes
Great (M > 8) Earthquakes Since 1900

9.6
9.4
9.2
9
Magnitude
8.8
8.6
8.4
Chile1906
8.2
7.8
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Tectonic hazards: earthquakes
Over 40 countries are under threat from major

destructive quakes
The biggest losses occur where major quakes coincide
with concentrations of people and structures
Kobe earthquake in the year 1999 resulted in
economic losses of US$ 200 bn
Gujarat earthquake in the year 2001 may have killed
over 100,000
Nepal-Bihar earthquake-1934, Kagar earthquake-
1988, Gorkha Earthquake-2015
Tectonic hazards: Critical issues
Where do earthquakes occur?
Seismic risk maps are not available for many regions
All earthquakes do not occur along plate boundaries
We have not reached a stage to predict the date and
location of earthquake
Vulnerability to earthquakes is increasing dramatically
Increasing urbanization is resulting in more damages
Source: wikipedia
What determines the destructiveness of a

Major Earthquake Hazards quake?
Ground Motion: Shakes the structures and damages them
or causes them to collapse Size of quake
Liquefaction: Happens in loose saturated cohesionless Distance from epicenter
soils in which the firm soil is converted into a fluid which
Depth of quake
has no shear strength and structures found on these soils
fail due to loss of bearing capacity of the ground Duration of shaking
Landslides: Vibrations during earthquake trigger large The local geology
slope failures Meteorological
Fire : Indirect result of earthquakes triggered by broken conditions
gas and power lines Construction
Tsunamis: large waves created by the instantaneous Building code Earthquake damage in downtown Port-au-
displacement of the sea floor during submarine enforcement Prince (Source: wikimedia)
earthquakes
11
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking
Collapse of Buildings
Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves.
High frequency body waves shake low buildings more.
Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more.
Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface material.
Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do.
Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on the
construction styles and materials
-Wood is more more flexible, holds up well
-Earthen materials, unreinforced concrete are very
vulnerable to shaking.
Image of Bachau in Kutch region of Gujarat after earthquake 14
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking
Building design: Buildings that are not designed for

earthquake loads suffer more
Causes failure of lifelines
Source: google images

Image of a collapsed building in Ahmedabad during Bhuj earthquake 15 16
Shaking of supermarket
Swaying of building
Earthquake Destruction: Landslides
Shidhupalchwok,
La
a Conchita
ta, California
ia-- landslide and debris flow in1995 Source: wikipedia sunkoshi river
19
sindhupalchwok Naikap
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Buildings founded on saturated cohesionless

Liquefaction
Occurs in loose, saturated sands soils are vulnerable Nigata, JAPAN 1964
Grain structure collapses
Pore pressure increases
Strength and stiffness decrease
Effective stress decreases
24
Source: http://www.ce.washington.edu
Flow failures of structures are caused by loss of strength of Sand Boil: Ground water rushing to the surface due to
underlying soil liquefaction
25
Nishinomia Bridge 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan
Sand boils in Gujarat earthquake
Lateral Spreading: Liquefaction related phenomenon
Source: wikipedia Source: wikipedia
Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Canterbury earthquake, New Zealand. Fissures caused by lateral spreading during Haiti earthquake
Lateral spreading in the soil beneath embankment causes the Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining
embankment to be pulled apart, producing the large crack down the walls,which can cause them to tilt or slide.
center of the road.
Cracked Highway, Alaska earthquake,

1964

Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Increased water pressure causes collapse of dams
liquification
Source: wikipedia
Earthquake Destruction: Fire Earthquake Destruction: Fire
Earthquakes sometimes cause

fire due to broken gas lines,
contributing to the loss of life Northridge, 1994
and economy.
The destruction of lifelines and

utilities make impossible for
firefighters to reach fires started and
make the situation worse
eg. 1989 Loma Prieta
1906 San Francisco
2011 Japan
Source: wikimedia 34
Source: International Business Times
What is a tsunami? Earthquake Destruction: Tsunami

soo-NAH-mee or Harbor Wave is a Japanese word: tsu means Tsunami Movement: ~600 mph in deep water
harbor & nami means wave ~250 mph in medium depth water
Definition: a gravity wave in ~35 mph in shallow water
the sea (or other body of
water) produced by sudden
displacement of the seafloor
and the water column above
it
Damaging tsunami waves
propagate much further than
damaging earthquake waves
Tsunami can cause Source: USGS public domain
simultaneous catastrophic
losses on opposite sides of
ocean basins
Earthquake Destruction: Volanoes Earthquake Destruction: Volanoes
At least 1500 (possibly

~3000) active volcanoes
Around 50 erupt annually
Over 82,000 people killed in
20th century
Two eruptions killed over
20,000
500 million people
threatened
Perhaps 150 volcanoes
monitored
Source: wikipedia
Etna (Sicily)37
Geomorphological Changes
References
Geomorphological changes are often caused by an
earthquake: e.g., movements--either vertical or horizontal--
along geological fault traces; the raising, lowering, and tilting of Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
the ground surface with related effects on the flow of Robert W. Day (2002) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering Handbook
groundwater; McGraw-Hill.
An earthquake produces a permanent displacement across http://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquake-
the fault. Hazards (Accessed on 27 March 2012)

http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/visualgeology/naturaldisasters/Chapters/Chapter7
Once a fault has been produced, it is a weakness within the
EarthquakeHazards.pdf (Accessed on 27 March 2012)
rock, and is the likely location for future earthquakes.
Timothy M. Kusky (2008). Earthquakes: Plate Tectonics and Earthquake
After many earthquakes, the total displacement on a large Hazards, Facts on file.
fault may build up to many kilometers, and the length of the
fault may propagate for hundreds of kilometers.
Lecture-2 Introduction
Seismology is the
e branch of Geophysics cconcerned
with the study and analysis of Earthquakes and the
science of energy propagation through the Earth's
crust.
Introduction to Seismology Engineering Seismology is concerned with the solution

of engineering problems connected with the
Part -I Earthquakes. Seismology is extremely important
because:
Study of earthquakes gives us important clues
about the earths interior
Understanding earthquakes allows us to minimize
the damage and loss of life
1 2
Seismology and Earths Interior Origin of our Universe

In recent years, the understanding of seismologists
about the interiors of Earth has been reformed from a Big Bang model - the
relatively homogeneous environment to one that is universe began with
highly dynamic and chemically diverse. an explosive
expansion of matter,
This new view of Earth's interior helped in relating the
which later became
events that happen deep inside the earth to what
what we know as
happens at its surface, like the movement of tectonic
stars, planets,
plates and earthquakes.
moons, etc. This
To understand the seismological features of the earth event is thought to
and to study the processes involved in seismic events, have occurred 10 -
it is very much essential to know about the formation 15 billion yrs ago.
of earth and its layers.
Source: wikipedia
3 4
Nebular
Hypothesis
Origin of Our Solar System
Nebular Hypothesis: Earth and the other bodies of our
solar system (Sun, moons, etc.) formed from a vast cloud of
dust and gases called a nebula.
The nebular cloud consisted of H and He, and a small
percentage of the heavier elements we find in the solar
system.
Within the rotating disk, the rocky material and gases began
to nucleate and accrete into protoplanets

5 6
Formation of Earths Layers Layers of the Earth
When Earth was formed, it was extremely hot from the Crust
bombardment of space debris, radioactive decay and high Continental crust (5-70 km)
internal pressures. These processes caused Earths interior to Oceanic crust (~6 km)
melt. Mantle
Molten Earth separated based on melting points and Upper mantle (650 km)
density into regions of chemical and physical differences as it
Lower mantle (2890 km)
cooled.
Core
Molten Iron & Nickel melted early and being more dense,
sunk to the center of the Earth. Solid Iron & Nickel formed Outer core: liquid (2260 km)
the Inner Core. Molten Iron & Nickel formed the Outer Core. Inner core: solid (1220 km)
Less dense solid material formed the Mantle. The least
dense rock at the surface cooled up completely as the Crust.
Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer
7 8
Layers of the Earth Layers of the Earth
The earth is divided
di id d into
i four
f main
i layers:
l Inner core, outer
core, mantle and crust.
The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the
outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner
core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.
Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed
of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000C, the mantle is
solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.
The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is
composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na)
aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is
Source: USGS public domain
rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
9 10
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by
the rapid release of accumulated energy in elastically
What is an earthquake? strained rocks
EEnergy
nergy released radiates
ra in all directions from its
source, the focus
Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves
SSensitive
ensit instruments around the world record the
event
11 12
What causes an earthquake?
Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic
plates that float on the fluid-like interior of
What causes an earthquake? the Earth. Earthquakes are usually caused by
the sudden movement of earth plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of weakness in the
surface of the Earth,sometimes the plate
boundary itself
13 14
Movement of Tectonic Plates Rupture of rocks along a fault
Source: http://www.topnews.in 15 16
Earthquake Terminology Release
R elease o
Sequenceoff A
Accumulated
ofccearthquake
umulated e
energy
nergy
events
Fault: Weakness in the rock
Fault Plane: Plane of weakness in rock
Rupture surface: The portion of the fault which slips when the
earthquake occurs
Hypocenter/Focus: The place located deep within the Earth
where rocks suddenly break, causing an earthquake, and from
where seismic waves propagate
Epicenter: The point of the earth's surface directly above the
focus of an earthquake
17 18
Release of accumulated energy

Earthquake Depth
Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the ground
surface. The depth can also be calculated from the seismographic
records
Earthquake foci are described as:
Shallow: less than 70 km depth
Intermediate: 70 - 300 km depth
Deep: 300 - 700 km depth
90% of earthquake foci are less than 100 km deep
Large earthquakes are mostly at < 60 km depth
No earthquakes occur deeper than 700 km
19 20
Continental drift
T
Theory
heory that continents and plates move on the surfa
surface of
the Earth was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915.
Theory of continental drift
Alfred Wegener
21
Alfred Wegener 22
Source: wikipedia
Theory of Continental drift Maps by Wegener (1915), showing continental drift

C
Continental similarities and fitting of the shapes of the contin
continents
was the bas
basis for the theory of continental drift proposed by
Wegener.
W
Wegener noticed that the eastern outline of SouthAmerica anda
western outline of Africa fit like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. He noticed
similar fits among the other continents.
W
Wegener theorized that a single supercontinent
inent called
d Pa
Pangaea
Pangaea
gaea
existed sometime during the late Paleozoic
eoz Era, 350 50 million
millio to 225
million years ago. He maintained that the e landmass
l s broke
brokee up and
that its pieces dispe
dispersed and drifted, eventually reaching their
present positions.
A
After several decades, Wegener
Wegenerss theory
eory led to thee revolutionary
revolutio
rev
theory of plate tectonics, which
hich cou
could explain
plain
n the o
observed evidence
for large scale motions of the Earth's lithosphere 23 24
Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
Theory of continental drift Theory of continental drift
Source: wikipedia
25 26
Evidence for continental drift

Evidence for continental drift
Matching coastlines
Matching mountains Matching
Matching rock types and rock ages coastlines
Matching glacier deposits
Matching fossils
27 Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com 28
Evidence for continental drift Evidence for continental drift
Matching
Matching
rock types
mountain
and ages
ranges
of rocks
29 30
Evidence for continental drift Evidence for continental drift
Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago Source: http://geology12-8.wikispaces.com
Fossils of of Mesosaurus
(aquatic reptile) found on
31
both sides of Atlantic 32
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics References
Earthquakes
h k are nott randomly
d l di distributed
t ib t d over th
the EEarth's
th' surface.
They are observed to be concentrated in specific zones. Volcanoes
and mountain ranges also found in these zones. Theory of plate Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
tectonics which combines many of the ideas about continental Udias, A. (1999): Principles of Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
drift explains the reasons for these seismological activities. Cambridge.
Shearer, P. M. (1999): Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Plate tectonics tells us that the Earth's rigid outer shell Cambridge.
(lithosphere) is broken into a mosaic of oceanic and continental
Ben Menahem, A. and Singh, S. J. (1980): Seismic Waves and Sources,
plates which can slide over the plastic aesthenosphere, which is
Springer-Verlag, New York.
the uppermost layer of the mantle. The plates are in constant
motion. Where they interact, along their margins, important Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. (1986): Plate Tectonics - How it Works, Palo Alto,
geological processes take place, such as the formation of mountain California, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 392 p.
belts, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
33 34
Lecture-2
Theory of Plate tectonics
T theory of Plate tectonics was proposed
The propose in 1960s
based on the theory of continental drift.
TThis is the Unifying theory that explains the
PLATE TECTONICS formation and deformation of the Earths surface.
According to this theory, continents
A nts are carried
carri
rried along
alo
Part -II on huge slabs (p
(plates) on the Earths outermost layer
(Lithosphere).
Earthss outermost layer is divided into 12 major
Earth ma
Tectonic Plates ((~80
80 km deep). These
ese plates
plat
lates move
movve
relative to each other a few centimeters per year.
1 2
Evidence for plate tectonic movements
Tectonic plates of Earth
Wegeners theory of continental drift was not accepted initially
because Wegener could not propose a mechanism which could
explain the motion of continents.
Today plate tectonics and continental drift are accepted as facts
because of following evidences.
Matching coastlines of the continents
Matching mountain ranges and rock types and age of
opposite shorelines
Matching glacier deposits and fossils of opposite shores
Ocean floor spreading
Source: http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu Geodetic measurements through satellites
3 4
Evidence for plate tectonic movements

Evidence for ocean floor spreading
When a magnetometer is suspended across the ocean, it
indicates that there are alternating zones of rock with either
normal or reversed polarity. Study of these magnetic
anomalies is called paleomagnetism.
Earths magnetic field flip-flops on average about every
250,000 years. North becomes south and south becomes
north. The rocks of the sea floor record these reversals. These
reversals can be seen as alternating bands on the sea floor,
proving that the sea floor was spreading apart as the earths
Source: wikipedia magnetic field reversed itself over long periods of geologic
time
Matching shapes, rock types, rock ages, mountains, glacier
deposits and fossils along the shorelines of continents
5 7
Earths magnetic field Evidence
nce for plate tectonic movem
movements:
Geodetic measurements
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of 24
Magnetic field of Earth satellites which is used for precise geodetic position
reverses on semi-regular measurements. Laser geodynamic satellites orbit the earth at an
basis. Minerals act like altitude of 3,700 miles. Laser beams are bounced from one point
compass needles and point on the earth, off the satellite, to a second point on the ground.
towards magnetic north. Scientists can then measure the distance between the two points
Hot rocks record the with great accuracy. Horizontal velocities, mostly due to motion of
direction of the magnetic the Earth's tectonic plates and deformation in plate boundary
field as they cool. zones, are recorded and maps are prepared with arrows
representing the movement of plates. These systems show
conclusively that the continents are still drifting at a rate of a few
centimeters a year.
Source: USGS public domain 8 9
Movement of global plate boundaries Types of plate boundaries

D
Divergent plate
pla boundaries
es:
s: where plates
move apart
p
Convergent Plate
C Pla boundaries
es:
s: where plates
come together
g
Transform plate boundaries
T boun es:
es
s: where plates
slide past each other
Source: wikipedia 10 11
Types of plate boundaries Examples of plate boundaries
DIVERGENT - Midatlantic Ridge, Iceland, Gulf Of
California, East African Rift
CONVERGENT - Pacific Northwest (Cascadia),

Alaska/Aleutians, Japan, Mexico, India
TRANSFORM - San Andreas, Dead sea, Turkey
12 13
Divergent Plate Boundary Convergent Plate Boundary

Plates move away from Plates move ttoward
each other (tension) each other
New lithosphere
litho is (compression)
formed Lithosphere is
Causes volcanism consumed
Not very explosive Mountain building
Explosive volcanism
Source: USGS public domain 14 Source: USGS public domain 15

Ocean
n- Continent convergent margin Ocean
n-
n-ocean convergent margin
Oceaaan-
Ocean n-continent
n continen
o
plates collide 2 oceanic plates collide
Ocean plate subducts
subdu One plate dives
below continent (subducts) beneath other
Forms a subduction Forms subduction zone
zone Earthquakes and
Earthquakes and volcanoes
volcanoes Source: USGS public domain
16 17
Himalayas:
alayas: Continen
Continent
nt-
n tt-continent
cont
co
Continent
nt-
t-continent convergent margin convergent margin
Millions of years ago India and an ancient
ocean called the Tethys were sat on a tectonic
T continental
Two continenta
plate. This plate was moving northwards
plates collide
p towards Asia at a rate of 10 centimeters per
Neither pl
plate wants to year. The Tethys oceanic crust was being
subduct subducted under the Asian Continent. The
ocean got progressively smaller until about 55
Collision zone forms
for milion years ago when India 'hit' Asia. Because
high
g mountains both these continental landmasses have about
Earthquakes, no
Earthquake the same rock density, one plate could not be
volcanoes subducted under the other. The pressure of
the impinging plates was relieved by the
formation of Himalayas

18 19
Himalayas:
alayas: Continen
Continent
nt-
n tt-continent
cont
co
convergent margin
Transform plate boundary
T plates slide
Two s past
each other
Lithosphere is neither
ne
consumed nor
no
destroyed.
Earthquakes, no
Earthquakes
volcanoes
Responsible for most
m of
the earthquakes
20 21
What drives plate movement?

For many years, it was believed that mantle convection is the
main driving force for plate movement.
hot, less dense material rises along mid-ocean ridges, cools,
and subsides at subduction zones, and the plates "ride" these
convection cells
Recent modeling suggests that the force of convection is not
enough to push enormous lithospheric plates (e g. North
American plate). Geologists suggest that gravity is the main
driving force
cold, dense oceanic crust sinks at subduction zones, pulling
the rest of the plate with it. Magmatic intrusions at spreading
ridges are passive - the magma merely fills a hole created by
pulling two plates apart.
22 23
Earths internal heat References
The Earth convec

convects like a pot of water on a stove trying to
dissipate heat. Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Udias, A. (1999): Principles of Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Shearer, P. M. (1999): Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Springer-Verlag, New York.
Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. (1986): Plate Tectonics - How it Works, Palo Alto,
California, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 392 p.
24 25
Lecture-3 Fault
A fracture (crack) in the earth, where the two sides move past each other and the
relative motion is parallel to the fracture.
PLATE TECTONICS
Part
rtt -II
-
Source: wikipedia
GLS YHUWLFDOIDXOWSODQH
1 VWULNH QRUWKSDUDOOHOIDXOWSODQH 2
Different Fault Types
Surface Trace of a fault
n)
shear)
3 4
Normal Dip
p-
p-slip fault Reverse Dip
p-
p-slip fault
Hanging wall moves up
hanging wall moves down This is also called a Thrust Fault.
A Normal dip slip fault

A reverse dip-slip fault
5 6
Source: google images Source: google images
Strike
ke-
e-slip fault Strike
ke-
e-Slip Faultt Left Lateral
Displacement in horizontal direction
A strike-slip fault
7 8
Strike
ke-
e-Slip Faultt Right Lateral Oblique
e-
e-slip fault
Displacement in both vertical and

horizontal directions
An oblique-slip fault
9 10
Blind/Hidden faults Faults and Plate Boundaries
Normal faults are associated with divergent plate boundaries
Animation of divergent boundary
11 12
Faults and Plate Boundaries Faults and Plate Boundaries

Reverse faults are associated with convergent plate boundaries Strike-slip faults are associated with transform plate boundaries
Animation of transform boundary
Animation of convergent boundary Source: USGS public domain
13 14
Elastic Rebound Theory
Afterr the
t e gre
ggreat
eeatt 1906
1 6 San S n Fran FFrancisco
n
ncisco
earthquake, ke, H Harry
arry Fielding ng Re Reid
eid
examined edd the
t e dis displacement
d issplacemen enntt of
of the
t
ground surface
s rfaceacee aro aroundund d the San
Elastic Rebound Theory Andreas
Andr
ndrreass FFault
hee con
ault
cconcluded
nclude
lt.
t. FFrom
ded that
rom mh
thatt the
hiss ob
hi o
observations
bservations
thee earth
eearthquake
rth
hquauaake
mustt hahave
h avee been
b en n th tthe
hee result
r t ooff the
t
elasticc rreboun
rebound
und off pre previously
p evio ously
uslyy store
sstored
oreed
elasticc sstrainn ener
eenergy
errgyy in n tthehee rrocks
ockss o
o on
n
either side of the fault. fault lt. In an
lt
interseismic
interseis
eissmic period,, th thee Ea Earth's
arth s
platess move
m vee relatirrelative
tivee to o each
e h othero
exceptpt at most mostt plate latee boundaries
wheree theyy aree locked ed.
ed
15 16

The elastic rebound
rebo
ebo ound theory explains how energy is spread during
earthquakes.
earthquakes ss.. Ass plates on opposite sides of a fault are subjected
Fault
to force and shift, they accumulate energy and slowly deform.
When the stresses exceed the internal strength of the ro roc
rock, a
sudden movement occurs along the fault, releasing the Original alignment
accumulated de energy, and the rocks snap back to their original of points
undeformed d shape.
This theory was discovered by making
king measurements
emen nts at a
number of points across a fault. Priorr to
t an earthquake
hquake
hq ke it was Final alignment of
noted that the rocks adjacent to the fault weree bending.
ng. The
These
hes points
Alignment of points
bends disappeared after an earthquake suggestingg tthat the after accumulation of
energy stored in be
bending the rocks was suddenly released during elastic strain
the earthquake.
18 19
Elastic Rebound Sequence of elastic rebound: Stresses
The animated picture shows a road, a fence, and a line of trees crossing a
fault. As the rocks adjacent to the fault are deformed, stresses build up in
rock, rupture occurs when the shearing stresses induced in the rocks
exceed the shear strength of the rock, followed by sudden slip, releasing Source: USGS public domain
energy that causes destruction. 20 21
Sequence of elastic rebound: Bending Sequence of elastic rebound: Rupture

22 23
Sequence of elastic rebound: Rebound Sequence of Elastic Rebound
Tectonic plates move relative to each other
Elastic strain energy builds up in the rocks along fault planes
Since fault planes are not usually smooth, great amounts of
energy can be stored (if the rock is strong enough) as
movement is restricted due to interlock along the fault.
Stresses (force/area) are applied to a fault.
Strain (deformation) accumulates in the vicinity of friction-
locked faults.
When the shearing stresses induced in the rocks on the fault
planes exceed the shear strength of the rock, rupture occurs.
Rupture continues over some portion of the fault. Slip is the
distance of displacement along a fault.
24 25
Rock Deformation and Earthquakes References
Earthquakes result from motion along faults

Earthquakes represent the brittle failure of rock and hence Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
they occur in upper crust, where the temperature and Udias, A. (1999): Principles of Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
pressure are relatively low. Cambridge.
Not all motions on faults produce earthquakes. Rocks may Shearer, P. M. (1999): Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge University
also creep if the faults are too weak to store up the energy of
Press, Cambridge.
prolonged stress.
Elastic rebound theory explains deformation before and
during earthquakes as brittle failure following the Springer-Verlag, New York.
accumulation of elastic strain. Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. (1986): Plate Tectonics - How it Works, Palo Alto,
California, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 392 p.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html (Accessed on 25 September
2012)
26 27
Lecture-5 Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are traveling vibrations that transport ene
energy from
the earthquake source region throughout the Earth.
Seismic
ismic
c Wa
Waves
W av We distinguish between 4 types of waves, the
th body waves P and S,
and the surface waves, Love and Rayleigh.
Part
rt -II
Each wave travels with a characteristic
chara speed, and vibrates the
ground in a specific manner.
1 2
Probing Earths Interior Earth of Uniform Composition
Most of our knowledge of Earths

Earth s interior
inter comes
from the study of earthquake waves
T
Travel times of P ((compressional
co
ompressionaalal)) and
a S (shear)
(shear
waves through the Earth vary de depending on
the properties of the materials
V
Variations in the travel times
es correspond
ccorrespon
spon
ond to
changes in the materials encountered
3 4
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
Earth With Increasing Density Towards the Center Actual Earth is Compositionally Layered
5 6
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000 Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
Earths major boundaries Earths major boundaries

) The Moho Mohorovicic ) The core-mantle boundary
discontinuity
Boundary between the Boundary between the
crust and mantle mantle and core Gutenberg
mantle mantle Discontinuity
Discovered in 1914 by
Discovered in 1909 by core Beno Gutenberg core
Andrija Mohorovicic
Source: wikipedia Source: wikipedia
7 8
Earths major boundaries
) The inner core
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000
Boundary between the

outer liquid and solid Lehman
inner core mantle Discontinuity
Discovered in 1936 by Outer

Inge Lehman core
Inner core
Source: wikipedia
9 Shadow Zone
e - no earthquake waves 10
Refraction
T bending of seismic waves while

The
Reflections and Refractions
passing through
thro the Earth is called
refraction
11 12
reflections The nature of seismic waves
refractions
wwave paths are bent

ben when crossing from one
material into another
T T

wave paths are bent when going deeper in Earth
higher pressure = higher wave speed
T T
higher rigidity = higher wave speed
13 14
Behavior of Seismic Waves P-wave shadow zone

S
Seismic waves emerge from a focus and
a travel
through the Earth along bent paths
Eventually recorded by distant seismograph

stations
T character and travel times of seismic

The sm wavesaves
es
reveal important clues about the Earths interior
15 16
S-waves cannot travel
through the outer
S-wave shadow zone
core, confirming that it
is liquid
S-wave shadow
zone much larger
Core was discovered from a shadow zone

17 18
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000 Source: google images
Seismic Waves Can Also Reflect When Reaching

the Boundary Between Two Different Materials
19 20
Source: www.gly.fsu.edu/salters/GLY1000 Source: wikipedia
PP and SS waves reflected Variation of density in earths interior
at the surface without Density U kg/m3
reaching core 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 1400
0
PcP wave reflected off
mantle-core boundary
1000
km
PKP wave passes through
liquid outer core
2000
PKIKP wave traverses the core-mantle boundary

solid inner core 3000
4000
5000
6000
21 22
Source: wikipedia
Variation of P and S wave velocities within the earth

P & S Waves Locate Earthquakes
Epicenter is loc
located
cated by measuring the
difference in
n aarrival time between P
M-disc G-disc M-Disc : The Mohorovicic and S wavess
discontinuity At least 3 seismogramss are needed
G-disc: The Gutenberg
discontinuity
Source: wikipedia
Blue P waves followed by red S waves move

outward from the epicenter of an earthquake in
concentric circles
Source: Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
23 24
Lecture-6
References
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.

http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes
Locating Epicenter
/waves_and_interior.html (Accessed on 27 March 2012)
Richter, C.F. (1958) Elementary Seismology, W.H. Freeman, USA.
Stein, S. and Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology,
earthquakes, and earth structure, Blackwell Science.
Graff, K.F. (1991) Wave motion in elastic solids, Dover Publications
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm
(Accessed on 27 March 2012)
25 1
If average speeds for all these waves is known, use the S-P (S minus P)
Locating an Earthquakes Epicenter time formula: a method to compute the distance (D) between a recording
station and an event.
Seismic wave behavior
P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
Distance
After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a seismograph
Time
Velocity
station can be used to calculate the distance from the seismograph P wave has a velocity V P ; S wave has a velocity V S .
to the epicenter (D). VS is less than VP .
Both originate at the same place --the hypocenter.
They travel the same distance
but the S wave takes more time than the P wave.
D
Time for the S wave to travel a distance D: TS ;
VS
D
Time for the P wave to travel a distance D: TP .
VP
The time difference
1 1 V VS
TS TP
D D

VS VP
D D P
VS VP

VP VS
Now solve for the Distance D:
V V
D = P S TS TP
VP VS
2 3
Seismic
eismic Travel
Trave
el-
l-ttime
im
me Curve:
ve: IIf the speeds
p of the seismic waves arear
not known, use Travel el--Ti
Time
ime curve ffor that region to get the
Global Travel Time Curve distance
1. Measure time
between P and S
wave on
seismogram
2. Use travel-time
graph to get
distance to
epicenter

4 5
3-circle method: Steps:

Locating an Earthquakes Epicenter: Deep Source
1) Read S-P time from 3
seismograms.
north If you gather this information from three or more points, you can figure out
2) Compute distance for the location of the focus through the process of trilateration.
D1 each event/recording
D2 station pair (D1, D2, D3) Basically, you draw an imaginary sphere around each seismograph
location, with the point of measurement as the center and the measured
using S-P time formula.
distance (let's call it X) from that point to the focus as the radius. The
3) Draw each circle of surface of the circle describes all the points that are X miles away from the
radius Di on map. seismograph.
4) Overlapping point is The focus, then, must be somewhere along this sphere. If you come up
with two spheres, based on evidence from two different seismographs,
the event location.
you'll get a two-dimensional circle where they meet. Since the focus must
be along the surface of both spheres, all of the possible focus points are
D3
located on the circle formed by the intersection of these two spheres. A
Assumption: Source is third sphere will intersect only twice with this circle, giving you two possible
relatively shallow; focus points. And because the center of each sphere is on the earth's
epicenter is relatively surface, one of these possible points will be in the air, leaving only one
close to hypocenter. logical focus location.
6 7
Example Problem
Locating an Earthquakes Epicenter: Deep Source
1. Assuming P and S wave traveled through the crust at 6 km/sec and

3 km/sec respectively, estimate the epicentral location (latitude and
longitude) of the hypothetical earthquake whose characteristics are
given below:
Seismograph Arrival Time
Latitude Longitude P- wave S-wave
37q2230 121q5230 06:11:18.93 06:11:26.9
37q4500 122q2000 06:11:14.84 06:11:18.71
37q5233 121q4338 06:11:17.26 06:11:23.53
8 9
Diameter of earth = 12720 km

360o = S 12720
1o = 111 km (latitude) 38o
At latitude of 37.5o, longitude 1o = 111 cos 37.5 = 88 km
55.5 km
37.5o
Seismograph Difference Distance
in arrival from 55.5 km
time of P epicenter
and S waves
37o
Latitude Latitude Longitude Longitude 't (sec) D (km)
37q2230 37.375q 121q5230 121.875q 7.97 47.8 44 km 44 km
37q4500 37.75q 122q2000 122.333q 3.87 23.2
37q5233 37.876q 121q4338 121.7272q 6.27 37.6
122.5o 122o 121.5o
D = [(VpVs)/(Vp-Vs)] 't Longitude
Scale 1mm: 1 km
10 11
38o
19.99
2 3
55 mm 29.3 38 Distance of epicenter from 37.5o
41.36 latitude line = 28 mm
27.5
37.5o 111 mm = 1o
1 33
Latitude of epicenter
41.25
41.625
= 37.5+28/111 = 37.7522o
37o
37.5 = 37o 458
44 mm Distance of epicenter from 122o
longitude line = 8.5 mm
122.5o 122o 121.5o
88 mm = 1o
Scale 1mm: 1 km Longitude of epicenter
Seismograph 1 is at latitude 37.375o , 0.375o from 37o latitude line 37
= 122+8.5/88 =122.0966o
Seismograph 1 is at 0.375*111 = 41.625 km from 37o latitude line

= 122o548
122.5 122 121.5
Seismograph 1 is at longitude 121.875o , 0.375o from 121.5o longitude line

Seismograph 1 is at 0.375*88 = 33 km from 121.5o longitude line
12 13
Exercise Problems
1. Assuming P and S wave traveled through the crust at 6 km/sec and References
3 km/sec respectively, estimate the possible location of the epicenter
P of a shallow earthquake if P forms an equilateral triangle with two
points A (10,10) and B (35, 10) on the ground surface. What is the
difference in the arrival time of P and S waves at A and B? Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cN2FtHY3LyA (Demo video)
2. Two Seismographic stations A and B are located 200 km apart on
level ground. An earthquake occurred between these two stations http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UsIn3Czggpg
and the epicenter is located exactly on the line joining these two Activity:
stations. The difference in time between P and S wave arrivals was
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/geophysics/activities/25073.ht
10 seconds at A and 15 seconds at B. Determine the location of
epicenter from these two stations. ml (Accessed on 27 March, 2012)
14 15
Lecture-11
Magnitude and Intensity
Intensity
y
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Qualitative assessment of the kinds of damage done by
an earthquake
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude Depends on distance to earthquake & strength of
earthquake
Determined from the intensity of shaking and damage
from the earthquake
Magnitude
g
Related to Energy Release.
Quantitative measurement of the amount of energy
released by an earthquake
Depends on the size of the fault that breaks
1
Determined from Seismic Records 2
Measuring Earthquakes Intensity

Seismogram is visual record of arrival time and magnitude of
shaking associated with seismic wave. Analysis of seismogram How Strong
g Earthquake Feels to Observer
allows measurement of size of earthquake.
Depends On:
Mercallili Intensity scale
Measured by the amount of damage caused in human terms- I Distance to Quake
(low) to XII (high); drawback: inefficient in uninhabited area Geology
Type of Building
Richter Scale
e- (logarithmic scale) Observer!
Magnitude- based on amplitude of the waves
Related to earthquake total energy
3 4
Intensity Scales
The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by
Domenico Pignataro in the 1780s.
The first intensity scale in the modern sense of the word was drawn up
by Egen in 1828.
The first widely adopted intensity scale, the Rossi-Forel scale, was
introduced in the late 19th century. Since then numerous intensity scales
have been developed and are used in different parts of the world.
Among all the earthquake intensity scales, the Mercalli scale originated
with the widely used Rossi-Forel scale, which was revised by Italian
vulcanologist Giuseppe Mercalli in 1884 and 1906.
Unlike magnitude scales, intensity scales do not have a mathematical
basis. They are an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.
Most of seismic intensity scales have twelve degrees of intensity.
Source: wikipedia
5 6
Mercallis Intensity Map

Earthquake Magnitudes
Maximum m In
Intensity
tensity is used to
estimate the ssize of historical In the 1930s, Wadati in Japan and Richter
earthquakes in California noticed that although the peak
his method is not accurate
This amplitudes on seismograms from different
because it depen
depends
pends on depth
of earthquake
earthquake,ee,, po
population,
opulation, events differed, the peak amplitudes
construction practices, site decreased with distance in a similar
effects, regional geology, etc. manner for different quakes.
7 8
Seismogram Peak Amplitude Richter Scale
The magnitude of an earthquake is
determined from the logarithm of the
amplitude of waves recorded by
The peak amplitude is the size of the seismographs.
largest deflection from the zero line. Adjustments are included for the variation in
the distance between the various
seismographs and the epicenter of the
earthquakes.
On the Richter Scale, magnitude is
expressed in whole numbers and decimal
fractions. At first, the Richter Scale could be
applied only to the records from instruments Charles F. Richter
of identical manufacture. Now, instruments
are carefully calibrated with respect to each Source: wikipedia
other. Thus, magnitude can be computed
from the record of any calibrated
seismograph.
9 10
Richters Observations Richter Scale

Richter Scale (Charles F. Richter, 1935)
Amplitude scale is logarithmic (10-fold increase for
every whole number increase)
Earthquake Energy: Each whole number
represents a 33-fold increase in Energy; Energy
difference between 3 & 6 means ~1000 times
Drawbacks:
Based on Antiquated Wood-Anderson
Seismographs
Measurement Past Magnitude 7.0 ineffective
Requires Estimates
Source: Richter (1958)
11 12
Richters Local Magnitude
Logarithmic Scales
Richter used these observations to construct the first
magnitude scale, ML (Richters Local Magnitude for
Southern California). In a logarithmic scale such as magnitude
He based his formula for calculating the magnitude on

the astronomical brightness scale - which was A change in one magnitude unit means a
logarithmic. change of a factor of 10 in the amplitude of
ground shaking.
13 14
Richters Formula Local Magnitude of Earthquake
Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake,

He defined a reference value Ao based on seismogram independent of intensity
ML = logA - log Ao
Amplitude of the largest wave produced by an event is
A is the amplitude on the seismogram, Ao is corrected for distance and assigned a value on an open-
the amplitude observed for a reference ended logarithmic scale
event. The equation for Richter Magnitude is:
ML = log10A(mm) + (Distance correction factor)
For Southern California Here A is the amplitude, in millimeters, measured directly
ML = logA - 2.48 + 2.76 x log(distance) from the photographic paper record of the Wood-Anderson
The distance is in kilometers and this formula seismometer, a special type of instrument. The distance
works for southern California. factor comes from a table given by Richter (1958).
15 16
Wood-Anderson Seismometer Richters Magnitude Scale
Richter also tied his formula to a specific seismic instrument called Wood-
Anderson seismometer.
Only valid for Southern California
earthquakes
Only valid for one specific type of
seismometer
Has not been used by professional
seismologists in decades
Is much abused by the press today
17 18
Richters Local Magnitude Richter Scale: Related to intensity

Right side diagram (nomogram) M=1 to 3: Recorded on local seismographs, but
demonstrates how to use Richter's generally not felt
original method to measure a
seismogram for a magnitude
M= 3 to 4: Often felt, no damage
estimate After you measure the M=5: Felt widely, slight damage near epicenter
wave amplitude you have to take its
logarithm and scale it according to
M=6: Damage to poorly constructed buildings and
the distance of the seismometer
other structures within 10's km
from the earthquake, estimated by M=7: "Major" earthquake, causes serious damage
the S-P time difference. The S-P up to ~100 km (recent Gujarat earthquake).
time, in seconds, makes 't. The
M=8: "Great" earthquake, great destruction, loss
equation behind this nomogram,
of life over several 100 km
used by Richter in Southern
California, is: M=9: Rare great earthquake, major damage over
a large region over 1000 km
ML = log10A(mm) +3 log10[8 't (sec)]-2.93 19 20
Richter Scale: Related to intensity
Earthquake Magnitude
Severity Scale ML - Local (Richter) magnitude
Mercalli Richter
Mild I-III 0-4.3 MW - Seismic Moment magnitude
Moderate IV-V 4.3-4.8
MS - Surface wave magnitude
Intermediate VI-VII 4.8-6.2
Severe VIII-X 6.2-7.3 MB- Body wave magnitude
Catastrophic XI-XII 7.3-8.9
21 22
Body Wave Magnitude Surface Wave Magnitude

For deep focus earthquakes, reliable measurement of amplitude of Richters local magnitude does not distinguish between different types
surface waves is difficult.(distortion of seismic wave before it reaches to of waves.( surface wave and shear wave)
earth surface)
At large distances from epicenter, ground motion is dominated by
Amplitudes of P-waves are not strongly affected by focal depth. surface waves.
Gutenberg (1945) developed a magnitude scale based on the
Gutenberg and Richter (1936) developed a magnitude scale based on
amplitude of the first few cycles of P- waves, which is useful for
the amplitude of Rayleigh waves.
measuring the size of deep earthquakes.
Surface wave magnitude Ms = log10A + 1.66 log10' +2
Body wave magnitude Mb = log10A log10T +0.01 ' + 5.9
A = Maximum ground displacement in micrometers
A = Amplitude of P-waves in micrometers
'= Distance of seismograph from the epicenter, in degrees.
T = Period of P wave
Surface wave magnitude is used for shallow earthquakes
'= Distance of seismograph from the epicenter, in degrees.
23 24
Magnitude Saturation
Magnitude saturation, is a general
phenomenon for approximately Mb > 6.2
and Ms > 8.3.
As Mb approaches 6.2 or MS approaches

8.3, there is an abrupt change in the rate
at which frequency of occurrence
decreases with magnitude.
Though the rupture area on the fault is

large, the predictions will saturate at
these magnitudes.
Because of this magnitude saturation,

estimation of magnitude for large
earthquakes through Mb and Ms becomes
erroneous.
25 26
Seismicc - Moment Magnitude An Earthquake

A Seismograph Mea
Measures
as Ground Motion at
One Instant Butt
A Really Great Earthquake Lasts Minutes

Releases Energy over Hundreds of Kilometers
Need to Sum Energy of Entire Record
Moment magnitude scale based on seismic moment After
(Kanamori, 1977) and doesnt depend upon ground Before
shaking levels.
Its the only magnitude scale efficient for any size of < 1 Sec
earthquake because magnitude saturation does not
affect the results.

27 28
Measuring the earthquake Factors Contributing To Energy Release
An estimate of the energy of an earthquake is called

Length the Seismic Moment (Mo). Typically given in units of
Newton-meters (Nm)
What factors contribute to the amount of energy released by an

Slip earthquake?
S = Surface Area of Fault (m2) (Fault length x Fault depth)
D = Displacement or slip (m)
Depth = Rigidity of rock along the fault (N/m2)
Mo = A*D*

29 30
Rigidity
ityy - th
tthe
he physical property of b
being
stiff and resisting bending
Moment Magnitude
Standard Rigidity of the Earths crust = 3x1010N/m2
The moment magnitude scale is a way of representing the seismic
moment of an earthquake with a simple, logarithmic numerical scale.
The scale is designed to dovetail with the original Richter magnitude
scale that was designed for smaller earthquakes .
Mw = 2/3 log10 Mo - 10.7
31 32
Moment Magnitude
Moment-Magnitude Scale
Seismic Moment = Strength of Rock x Fault Area x Total amount of
Slip along Rupture
M0 = P A D
Moment Magnitude Mw = 2/3 x [log10M0]10.7
Where M0 is seismic moment in dyne-cm.
Measurement Analysis requires Time
33 34
35 36
Seismic Energy Local Magnitude
e - Seismic Energy correlation
Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to the
amount of energy that is radiated by an earthquake. Gutenberg
and Richter (1956) developed a relationship between magnitude
and energy. Their relationship is:
Gujarat (2001)
logES = 11.8 + 1.5Ms
Energy ES in ergs from the surface wave magnitude Ms. ES is not

the total ``intrinsic'' energy of the earthquake, transferred from
sources such as gravitational energy or to sinks such as heat Source: USGS public domain
energy. It is only the amount radiated from the earthquake as
Size of an earthquake using the Richters Local Magnitude Scale is shown on the left hand
seismic waves, which ought to be a small fraction of the total
side of the figure above. The larger the number, the bigger the earthquake. The scale on the
energy transferred during the earthquake process. right hand side of the figure represents the amount of high explosive required to produce
37 the energy released by the earthquake. This figure was produced in cooperation with the US Geological
38
Survey, and the University of Memphis private foundations
Frequency of earthquakes Frequency of earthquakes
No. of earthquake vs.

magnitude
39 40
First Seismograph
The first
irst sei
seismograph
ism
mograph
g p called dD
Dii-Do
Di-Dong
Do
on
ng-
g-Di(pot of dragons)
s)) was invented by Example Problem
Chengg Hengg (132 A.D.) of China
n .
na
An earthquake causes an average of 2.5 m strike-slip
displacement over an 80 km long, 23 km deep portion
of a transform fault. Assuming that the rock along the
fault had an average rupture strength of 175 kPa,
estimate the seismic moment and moment magnitude
of the earthquake.
Source: wikipedia
41 42
Exercise Problems
Solution:
1. On December 16, 1920, an earthquake measuring 8.6 on the
Mo = A*D* Richter scale hit Gansu, a province in China. Twelve years later, an
earthquake measuring 7.6 hit Gansu. How much stronger was the
Mo = (80 x 103) x (23 x 103) x (2.5) x (175 x 103) 1920 earthquake? How much more energy did the 1920
= 8.05 x 1014 N-m earthquake release compared with the second earthquake?
= 8.05 x 1021 dyne-cm
Mw = 2/3 log10 Mo - 10.7

2. In 1906, an earthquake occurred in San Francisco that measured
= 2/3 log10 (8.05 x 1021 ) 10.7 8.3 on the Richter scale. In 1994, an earthquake occurred in
= 3.9 Northridge, California, that measured 6.7 on the Richter scale. How
much stronger was the San Francisco earthquake? How much
more energy did the San Francisco earthquake release?
43 44
Lecture-12
References
Richter, C.F. (1936) An instrumental earthquake magnitude scale,

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 25, 1-32.
Richter, C.F. (1956) Elementary Seismology, W. H. Freeman and Co.,

San Francisco. Ground Motion
Hanks, T. C. and H. Kanamori (1979) Moment magnitude scale, Journal
of Geophysical Research, 84, B5, 2348
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/measure.php . (Accessed on 30
March 2012)
http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes
/earthquake_size.html (Accessed on 30 March 2012)
45 1
Strong Ground Motion Components of Ground Motion

Evaluation of the effects of earthquakes requires the
study of ground motion
The ground motions
Engineering Seismology deals with vibrations related produced by earthquakes at
to earthquakes, which are strong enough to cause any particular point have 3
damage to people and environment translational and 3 rotational
components.
In practice, generally
translational components of
ground motion are measured
and the rotational
components are ignored.
Time (sec)
2 3
Measuring ground motion Seismogram interpretation
Seismographs are used to measure the Seismograms can provide
ground motion. Seismogram is the information on
output from the seismograph. It is a location of epicenter
p
record of the ground motion at a magnitude of
measuring station as a function of time. earthquake
q
Seismograms typically record motions source p properties
p
in three cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
Most seismograms rec record
with the z axis perpendicular to the P,, S & surface waves
Earth's surface and the x- and y- axes
First arrival is P wave - surface waves follow and may
parallel to the surface. Three inertial continue for tens of seconds
seismometers are commonly used in After a pause of several
seconds/10s of seconds - surface waves are slower but
one instrument housing to measure the higher amplitude
amp S persist to greater distances than
up-down, east-west, north-south wave arrives P & S waves
motions simultaneously. 4 5
Ground Motion Recording

Wave terminology
Wave amplitude Seismometers are instruments that measure motions of the ground.
displacement, y
height
heig
eigghtt of
of a wave
w e above Early seismometers used optical levers or mechanical linkages to amplify
itss zeroo position T= 1/f
the small motions involved, recording on photographic paper.
Wave period
A Modern instruments use electronic sensors, amplifiers, and recording
time taken to complete
complet
time, t devices. Most are broadband covering a wide range of frequencies. These
one cycle of motion
seismometers can measure motions with frequencies from 500 Hz to
Frequency 1/850 Hz.
number of cycles per
Seismometers spaced in an array can also be used to precisely locate, in
second (Hertz)
three dimensions, the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for
human ear can detect
frequencies
freq
req
equuencies in range A= amplitude seismic waves to propagate away from the hypocenter, the initiating
15-
155-20000 Hz point of fault rupture
T= Period
felt shaking during
quake has frequencies
frequencie f = frequency
from 20 down to 1
Hertz
6 7
Vertical Benioff Seismometer Ground Motion Recording
The actual ground motion at a given
Consists of Black aluminium location is derived from instrumentally
cylinder cover: Diameter 26 cm; recorded motions. The most commonly
Height 49.5 cm. used instruments for engineering
The outside case is latched to purposes are strong motion
prevent air currents . accelerographs/ accelerometers. These
instruments record the acceleration time
Internal mass is supported on a history of ground motion at a site, called
central spring. an accelerogram.
Works on the principle of magnet- Digital strong motion accelerograph
coil relative motion to generate
electric current used to displace a
galvanometer (ink or light source) By proper analysis of a recorded accelerogram to account for instrument
writing to a drum recorder for distortion and base line correction, the resulting corrected acceleration record can
earthquake recording (in the be used by engineers to obtain ground velocity and ground displacement by
traditional way) or digitized to a file appropriate integration.
today.
8 9
Types of Accelerometers Servo

o-
o-controlled Accelerometer
Types of Accelerometers:
Electronic : transducers produce voltage output

Servo controlled: use suspended mass with
displacement transducer
Piezoelectric: Mass attached to a piezoelectric Principle: An acceleration a will cause the mass to
material, which develops electric charge on surface. be displaced by ma/k
or alternatively, if we observe a displacement of x,
Generally accelerometers are placed in three orthogonal
we know that the mass has undergone an
directions to measure accelerations in three directions at any
acceleration of kx/m.
time. Sometimes geophones (velocity transducers) are
attached to accelerometers to measure the seismic wave
velocities. 10 11
Piezoelectric Accelerometer Electronic Accelerometer
Three-direction electronic accelerometer uses the latest
integrated accelerometer chip. It features small volume,
low power consumption, zero fine toning, continuous,
stable and reliable operation
Principle: piezoelectric accelerometers convert one form of energy into

another and provide an electrical signal in response to a quantity that is
being measured. Acceleration acts upon a seismic mass that is restrained by a
spring or suspended on a cantilever beam, and converts a physical force into
an electrical signal. Before the acceleration can be converted into an
electrical quantity it must first be converted into either a force or
displacement. This conversion is done via the mass spring system shown in
the figure. 12 13
Geophone Geophone
Geophones (velocity transducers) are used to measure the Traditional geophones consist of a magnetized mass fixed to
seismic wave velocities. They transform the mechanical wave the container and a surrounding coil suspended by springs.
energy to electrical voltage and the response is captured with Natural frequency is controlled by the mass and spring
time to obtain the velocity of seismic waves constant.
Response curve is the plot of the electric voltage output from
g with different wave frequencies.
a geophone as it changes q
14 15
Micro Electronic
nic Mechanical
Mechan Systems
Array of Geophones (MEMS)
Micro Electronic Mechanical Systems (MEMS) are a recently
developed device providing Broad-Band Sensing. MEMS are
micro fabricated non-laser passive components. These are about
1 to 10 microns in size, which is smaller than the width of a human
hair. Most of the traditional moving coil type geophones are now
being replaced by MEMS.
Vertical component geophones Velocity Sensitive
Take-out points where a Coil

geophone can be connected to
the pair of conductors MEMS
An array of geophones connected to conductors are used for

seismic surveying Acceleration sensitive
16 17
Hydrophones Broadband Seismometer

Instead of recording displacement, hydrophones record changes Broadband seismometers can detect motion over a wide range
in pressure. A piezo-electric crystal senses the pressure change (or band) of frequencies and usually over a large range of
and creates a voltage. This sensor is used for ocean floor seismic amplitudes (the dynamic range). Broadband sensors respond to
sensing. most frequencies from 0.01 Hz to 50 Hz. For regional seismology,
the frequency range of interest is from 0.05 to 20 Hz therefore;
broadband sensors are most useful for recording regional
earthquakes .
18 19
20 21
References
Strong motion seismographs
http://www.iris.edu/stations/seisWorkshop04/iris_sensor_ws_9.19.05.pdf
Havskov, J. (2006) Instrumentation in earthquake seismology, Springer
John M Reynolds (2011). An Introduction to Applied and Environmental

Geophysics. Wiley Blackwell.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer (Accessed on 30 March 2012)
Norton, Harry N.(1989). Handbook of Transducers. Prentice Hall.
The Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is a 150+ station, globally distributed, Patrick, Walter L. (2006)The History of the Accelerometer 1920s-1996
state-of-the-art digital seismic network providing free, realtime, open access. The Prologue and Epilogue, Available at
map above shows the distribution of the current 150 station network with respect http://www.sandv.com/downloads/0701walt.pdf (Accessed on 30 March
to network operations. 2012)
22 23
Lecture-13
Ground Motion Parameters
An earthquake history can be described using Amplitude, Frequency
content, and Duration.
Ground Motion
nP Pa
Parameters
a Amplitude: The most common measures of amplitude are
PGA: Peak ground acceleration (Horizontal- PHA & Vertical- PVA)
Part
rt -I EPA: Effective peak acceleration
PGV: Peak ground velocity ( PHV & PVV)
EPV: Effective peak velocity
PGD: Peak ground displacement
Frequency Content: The frequency content of an earthquake history is often

described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra and response spectra.
Duration: The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on

the magnitude of the earthquake.
1 2
Ground Motion Parameters Measurement of ground acceleration

A seismograph can be illustrated by a mass-spring-dashpot
single degree of freedom system.
PGA: The absolute value of the largest horizontal

acceleration at a location.
It is the most important strong motion parameter. In a The response of such system for shaking is given by
stiff structure, the maximum value of the induced w 2u wu
m 2 c k u m ug 0
force is equal to PGA u Mass wt wt
Where u is the trace displacement (relative displacement
between seismograph and ground), ug is the ground
displacement, c is the damping coefficient, k is the stiffness
3 4
coefficient.
Measurement of ground acceleration Amplitude Parameters
If the ground displacement is simple harmonic at a circular
frequency Zg , the ground acceleration amplitude is
calculated from the trace displacement amplitude using
the equation: u 1
w ug
2
Z 2
0 1 E
2 2
4[ 2 E 2
wt 2
Where Z0 is the undamped natural circular frequency
Source: Kramer (1996)
E is tuning ratio, given by Zg/ Z0 From the time histories of acceleration, velocity and
[ Is damping ratio, given by c displacement are obtained by integrating the acceleration
2 km records. All other amplitude parameters are calculated from
these time histories.
5 6
Amplitude Parameters Strong ground motion record of Bhuj earthquake
PGA = 0.106 g
PGA = 0.08 g
PGA = 0.07 g

Strong motion accelerograms recorded on the ground floor of the Passport Office
7
Building at Ahmedabad during 2001 Bhuj earthquake. 8
Design ground motion parameters
Amplitude Parameters
Complete reliance on peak ground acceleration for design
proved to give wrong results.
Effective Acceleration: The acceleration which is effective
in causing structural damage. This depends on size of This is because, more often the peak acceleration
loaded area, weight, damping and stiffness properties of corresponds to very high frequencies which are out of the
structure and its location with respect to epicenter. range of the natural frequencies of most structures.
Therefore, large values of peak ground acceleration alone can
seldom initiate either resonance in the elastic range or be
Sustained Maximum Acceleration: The absolute values of responsible for large scale damage in the inelastic range.
highest accelerations that sustained for 3 and 5 cycles in
Therefore, different parameters are required to characterize
acceleration time history are defined as 3-cycle sustained
the severity and the damage potential of the earthquake
and 5-cycle sustained accelerations respectively.
ground motion. In general, these parameters are frequency
and duration of strong ground motion
9 10
Frequency Content Parameters Frequency Content Parameters

The frequency content The frequency content of an earthquake history is
describes clearly how the often described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra
amplitude of ground motion is and response spectra.
distributed among different
Fourier Spectra
frequencies. The frequency
content of a ground motion A periodic function (for which an earthquake history
can be obtained by is an approximation) can be written as
transforming the ground
motion from time domain to a f
frequency domain through a
x(t ) c0 cn sin(Z n t In )
n 1
Fourier transform.
where cn and In are the amplitude and phase angle

respectively of the nth harmonic in the Fourier series.
11 12
Fourier Spectra Fourier Spectra
A spectrum is, first of all, a function of frequency.
The Fourier amplitude spectrum is a plot of cn versus
For our purposes, it is determined from a single time Zn
series, such as a record of the ground motion.
Shows how the amplitude of the motion varies
The spectrum in general shows some frequency- with frequency.
dependent characteristic of the ground motion.
Expresses the frequency content of a motion
The Fourier phase spectrum is a plot of In versus Zn
Phase angles control the times at which the
peaks of harmonic motion occur.
Fourier phase spectrum is influenced by the
variation of ground motion with time.
13 14
Fourier Amplitude Spectrum Fourier Amplitude Spectrum

The Fourier amplitude spectra of
actual earthquakes are often
Fourier Amplitude (log)

plotted on logarithmic scales, so
that their characteristic shapes can
be clearly distinguished from the
smoothed curves.
Two frequencies that mark the
fc fmax
range of frequencies for largest
Fourier acceleration amplitude are Frequency (log)

corner frequency (fc) and cutoff
frequency (fmax)
Fourier amplitude spectra for Gilroy No. 1 and Gilroy No.
fc is a very important parameter because it is inversely
2 strong motion records in Gilroy, California during 1989
proportional to the cube root of seismic moment, thus indicating
Loma Preita Earthquake
15
that large earthquakes produce greater low-frequency motions.16
Frequency Content Parameters Response Spectra
Power Spectra
A response spectrum is used to provide
The power spectrum is a plot of G(Z) versus Z n . The the most descriptive representation of the
power spectrum density (PSD) function is defined by influence of a given earthquake on a
the following equation and is closely related to the structure or machine.
Fourier amplitude spectrum: Response spectra are widely used in
earthquake engineering.
1 2
G (Z ) cn A response spectrum is a plot of the
Td maximum response amplitude
(displacement, velocity or acceleration)
where G(Z ) is the PSD, Td is the duration of the versus time period of a system to a given
ground motion, and cn is the amplitude of the nth component of ground motion.
harmonic in the Fourier series. PSD function is used to Using the response spectrum, peak
characterize an earthquake history as a random response of buildings to earthquakes can
process. be assessed and their natural frequency
17 can be determined. 18
Response Spectra Predominant Period

The response spectrum
Fourier Amplitude
Predominant Period (Tp): Period of GM1
describes the maximum
response of a structure or a vibration corresponding to the maximum GM2
machine to a particular input value of the Fourier amplitude spectrum.
motion as a function of This parameter represents the frequency
frequency and damping ratio.
content of the motion.
Tp
The seismic response spectra
from two sites (one rock and The predominant period for two Period
the other soil) for the same different ground motions (GM1 & GM2) Tp is same for the two
earthquake motion are with different frequency contents can be ground motions, though
shown in figure. From the same, making the estimation of the frequency content is
figure, it is very clear that the different
response of soil and rock is
frequency content crude.
quite different for the same Source: Kramer (1996)
vibration.
Response spectra with 5% damping
19 20
Predominant Period Duration
Duration of an earthquake
thquake is very important
importa parameter that
influences the amount of damage due to earthquake. A strong
motion of very high amplitude of short duration may not cause
as much damage to a structure as a motion with moderate
amplitude with long duration can cause. This is because the
ground motion with long duration causes more load reversals,
which is important in the degradation of stiffness of the
structures and in building up pore pressures in loose saturated
soils.

Duration represents the time required for the release of
accumulated strain energy along a fault, thus increases with
Variation Of Predominant Period At Rock Outcrops With increase in magnitude of earthquake.
Magnitude And Distance
Relative duration does not depend on the peak values. It is
the time interval between the points at which 0.05% and
21 22
0.95% of the total energy has been recorded.
Duration Duration
The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on
the magnitude of the earthquake. Figure below shows Bracketed duration is the measure of time between the first
accelerograms from six earthquakes off the Pacific coast of Mexico. and last exceedence of a threshold acceleration 0.05 g.
The epicentral distance was the same for all six earthquakes.
23 24
Bracketed Duration References
Stein, S. and Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology,

earthquakes, and earth structure, Blackwell Science.
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
Variation of Bracketed Duration (0.05 G Threshold) With Magnitude Download free software for the estimation of ground motion parameters :
And Epicentral Distance: (A) Rock Sites; (B) Soil Sites
http://www.seismosoft.com/en/SeismoSignal.aspx
25 26
Lecture-14
Other Spectral Parameters
RMS acceleration : This is the parameter that includes the effects of
amplitude and frequency, defined as
Ground Motion
on
nP Parameters
a arms
1 Td
>a t @ dt
2
Td 0
Part
rt -II Where a(t) is the acceleration over the time domain and Td is the duration of
strong motion
AI - The Arias Intensity is a measure of the total energy at the recording
station and is proportional to the sum of the squared acceleration. It is
defined as
S 2
>at @
f
AI dt
2g 0
1 2
Other Spectral Parameters Other Spectral Parameters
Bandwidth
d id h BW - off the
h ddominant
i ffrequency; measured
d where
h the
h amplitude
li d
SI - The Spectrum Intensity is defined as the integral of the psuedo-Spectral
falls to 0.707 (1 /2) of the amplitude of the dominant frequency. Again, this is
velocity curve (also known as the velocity response spectrum), integrated
based on a smoothed amplitude spectrum.
between periods of 0.1 - 2.5 seconds. These quantities are motivated by the
need to examine the response of structures to ground motion, as many
structures have fundamental periods between 0.1 and 2.5 sec. The SI can be
calculated for any structural damping ratio.
Dominant frequency of ground motion (F_d) is defined as the frequency
corresponding to the peak value in the amplitude spectrum. Thus, F_d indicates Amax
Fourier Amplitude
the frequency for which the ground motion has the most energy. The amplitude
spectrum has to be smoothed before determining F_d.
(1/2) Amax
Band
Period
3 4
Spatial variability of ground motions Ground Motion Parameters

One of the most important decisions in carrying out proper design is to select
sele a
The ground motion parameters at any site depend upon the magnitude of design earthquake that adequately represents the ground motion expected at a
earthquake and the distance of the site from epicenter. particular site and in particular the motion that would drive the structure to its
The ground motion parameters measured at a site have been used to develop critical response, resulting in the highest damage potential.
empirical relationships to predict the parameters as functions of earthquake The quantification of such ground motion is not easy. It requires a good
magnitude and source-to-site distance. But these predictions are not accurate. understanding of the ground motion parameters that characterize the severity
For structures that extend over considerable distance (such as bridges and and the damage potential of the earthquake ground motion and the
pipelines), the ground motion parameters will be different at different part of the seismological, geological, and topographic factors that affect them.
structure, causing differential movement of the supports. Local variation of
ground motion parameters need to be considered for the design of such
structures.
5 6
Why is PHA important? Why vertical accelerations are not very
important?
PHA is the most important strong motion Structures have gravity acting against vertical
parameter. accelerations due to earthquake. Static forced
induced due to gravity provide adequate resistance
In a stiff structure, the maximum value of to dynamic forces induced due to vertical
the induced force is equal to PHA u Mass accelerations during earthquake.
PVA | 2/3 PHA
Earthquake force is directly related to the PVA > 2/3 PHA near epicenter
magnitude and intensity.
PVA < 2/3 PHA at distances far from epicenter
7 8
Why high peak

k acceleratio
accelerations cause little Why cant peak amplitude
amplitudes quantify
damage? destruction?
Although peak amplitude is a very useful parameter, it provides no
information on the frequency content or duration. Sometimes
Many times, very high peak accelerations occur at acceleration time histories are characterized by single cycle peak
high frequencies If these frequencies are higher amplitudes, that are much greater than amplitudes of other cycles
than the natural frequency of the structure, then

the damage to the structure is little.
time time
Ground motion 1 Ground motion 2

9 10
Peak acceleration
celeration and e
effective
acceleration Effective acceleration
Peak accelerations correspond to the highest acceleration value

recorded during earthquake at a specific location. Effective acceleration is a function of size of
Effective acceleration is the acceleration which is most effective in loaded area, frequency content, weight,
causing damage to structure. embedment, damping characteristics of the
Peak acceleration is independent of structural response. Effective structure and its foundation
acceleration is based on structural response
In a free field, effective and peak accelerations are equal
Near the structure, effective acceleration is generally less than
the peak acceleration.
11 12
PHA and PHV

PHA and earthquake Intensity
Peak acceleration and peak velocity do not occur at same frequencies Peak
accelerations are associated with higher frequencies and peak velocities are
associated with intermediate frequencies.
Many researchers tried to correlate PHA to Since PHA (amax) and PHV (vmax) are associated with motions of different
earthquake intensity and magnitude frequencies, the frequency content of earthquake can be related to the quantity
Vmax/amax
Though this procedure is not accurate, many times,
these relations are useful to obtain PHA from
Mercallis intensity, especially for earthquakes
which have occurred prior to strong motion
instruments were available.
13 14
Vmax/amax Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters
Ground motion parameters are usually estimated through predictive
Vmax/amax = T/2 p relationships. These relationships express ground motion parameter in
terms of the quantities that affect it strongly.
Time Period T = 2 p Vmax/amax Predictive relationships play important role in seismic hazard analysis.
This is the period of vibration of equivalent The functional form of the predictive relationship is usually selected to
reflect the mechanism of the ground motion process as closely as
harmonic wave. It produces information about possible
which periods of the ground motions are more
This minimizes the number of empirical coefficients and allows to apply
significant. Hence T is called predominant the relationship with greater confidence to ground conditions that are
period poorly represented in the database.
Site Vmax/amax T Predictive relationships are often arrived at by the regression analysis of
the available strong motion data
Rock 0.056 0.35
These relationships have to be updated time to time after major
Stiff soil 0.112 0.7 earthquakes in the region.
Soft soil 0.2 1.25 15 16
Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters Typical Predictive relationship

Common forms of predictive relations are based on the following Campbell (1981) used worldwide data to obtain a relationship for the
observations: mean PHA for sites within 50 km of fault rupture in magnitude 5.0 to 7.7
1. Peak values of strong motion parameters are usually lognormally earthquakes as:
distributed. ln PHA (gals) = -4.141 + 0.868 M 1.09 ln [R+ 0.0606 exp (0.7 M)]
2. Earthquake magnitude M is typically defined as the logarithm of some peak
Note 1 gal = 981 cm/sec2
ground motion parameter Y. Thus M proportional to ln Y
3. The spreading of stress waves as they travel away from the earthquake Where M is the local magnitude for magnitude less than 6 or surface
source attenuates the body wave and surface wave amplitudes wave magnitude for magnitude less than 7 and R is the closest distance
to the fault rupture in kilometers.
4. The area over which the fault rupture occurs, increases with increase in the
earthquake magnitude. Thus the effective distance R increases with the Several other predictive relationships are available in literature, which
earthquake magnitude are developed for different regions
5. The material damping decreases the ground motion amplitudes with
distance exponentially
6. Ground motion parameters may be influenced by source characteristics like
type of fault or the site characteristics like the type of soil and topography
of the region.
17 18
Estimation of Ground Motion Parameters Predictive relationships for India
A typical ground motion predictive relationship has the form: The following generalized predictive relationship has been proposed for
peninsular India by Iyengar and Raghukanth (2004)
ln Y = C1 + C2 M + C3 M C4 + C5 ln [ R + C6 exp (C7M)] + C8R + f(source) +
f(site)
ln Y = C1 + C2 (M-6) + C3 (M-6)2 ln R C4 R + ln H
VlnY = C9
where Y, M, and R refer to PGA(g), moment magnitude, and hypocentral
Some predictive relationships use all these terms and more and some
distance, respectively
may not use all.
VlnY describes the uncertainty involved in the prediction. Koyna-Warna Region:
C1 = 1.7615; C2 = 0.9325; C3 =-0.0706; C4 = 0.0086; V(ln H) = 0.3292
The parameters M and R should be carefully defined and used to reduce
the errors associated with the prediction. Western-central Region:
Predictive relationships are developed through regression analysis of C1 = 1.7236 ; C2 = 0.9453; C3 =-0.0740; C4 = 0.0064; V(ln H) = 0.3439
the data for a particular region. Using them for other regions requires
checking their relevance to the region of interest in order to obtain Southern Region:
reasonably accurate predictions. C1 = 1.7816; C2 = 0.9205; C3 =-0.0673; C4 = 0.0035; V(ln H) = 0.3136
19 20
Predictive relationships for India Example Problem

The strong motion data of an earthquake recorded for 3 seconds near epicenter with a
The following predictive relationship has been proposed for Himalayan
sampling interval of 0.1 sec is given in table. Plot acceleration-time history of the
Region of India by Sharma (2000). earthquake. Find out PHA, PVA, vmax, maximum displacement, bracketed duration,
predominant period, sustained maximum acceleration (peaks need not be successive)
log (A) = -2.87 + 0.634 M 1.16 log (X + e0.62M) and local magnitude of the earthquake [ML = log10 A (A in micrometers)]. Comment on the
intensity of this earthquake and expected hazards.
where A, M, and X refer to PGA(g), moment magnitude, and hypocentral
distance, respectively No. Acceleration Velocity Displacement No. Acceleration Velocity Displacement
(g) (cm/sec) (cm) (g) (cm/sec) (cm)
1 -0.01 0.00 0.00 17 -0.26 -8.60 -18.52
The database consisting of 66 peak ground vertical accelerations from 2
3
-0.02
0.01
-15.59
-19.08
-0.05 18
-0.21 19
-0.01
0.03
-14.63
-16.49
-18.23
-17.49
five earthquakes recorded by Strong Motion Arrays in India have been 4
5
-0.05
0.03
-21.44
-22.48
-0.52 20
-0.99 21
-0.20
-0.16
-31.36
-48.31
-16.79
-17.20
used to develop the relationship. 6
7
0.02
-0.01
-23.57
-19.73
-1.63 22
-2.44 23
0.49
-0.33
-27.86
-3.09
-18.59
-19.61
8 0.18 -9.83 -3.42 24 -0.02 -4.11 -20.08
9 0.08 -0.01 -4.65 25 0.12 -16.42 -20.52
10 0.02 3.48 -6.14 26 0.12 -17.17 -21.97
11 -0.02 10.43 -7.90 27 -0.11 -12.13 -23.64
12 -0.14 1.63 -9.84 28 -0.06 -5.24 -25.83
13 -0.16 -10.44 -12.11 29 0.01 -0.12 -29.81
14 0.04 -12.78 -14.37 30 0.01 1.25 -34.22
15 0.10 -5.41 -16.48 31 -0.04 4.66 -35.04
16 0.01 -6.36 -18.14
21 22
Solution Exercise Problems
0.60
PHA = 0.49 g 1. If an earthquake is recorded at four equally spaced locations along a
PVA = 2/3 PHA = 0.327 g
0.50 Bracketed duration = 2.7-0.3 = 2.4 sec straight line, show the variation of all the following parameters along
vmax = 48.31cm/sec
predominant period = 2 S vmax/amax = 0.63 sec the straight line if the epicenter lies on the straight line, dividing it into
(amax = 0.49 g = 480.69 cm/sec2)
0.40
sustained max. acceleration ( 3cycle) = 0.2 g (3rd two equal parts
highest)
maximum displacement = 35.04 cm
0.30
(a) Magnitude (b) PHA (c) Duration (d) Predominant period
0.20
2. Obtain the time-acceleration response for any earthquake.
0.10
Determine the bracketed duration, predominant period and Arias
0.05 g intensity
0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.05 g 3.5
3. Download the software Seismosignal, which is a freeware. Analyze
-0.10 any earthquake record in the program and obtain all possible ground
2nd exceedence of
-0.20
1st exceedence of
motion parameters.
-0.30 2
1 cycle
-0.40
3
23 24
Lecture-15
References
Iyengar, R.N. and Raghu kanth, S.T.G. (2004) Attenuation of Strong Ground
Motion in Peninsular India. Seismological Research Letters, 75(4), 530-540
Sharma, M. L. (2000) Attenuation relationship for estimation of peak ground
vertical acceleration using data from strong motion arrays in India. 12th World Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis
conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, 1964/ 4 / A, pp1-8.
Stein, S. and Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology, earthquakes,
and earth structure, Blackwell Science.
http://webshaker.ucsd.edu/homework/Ground_motion_parameters.pdf
Download free software for the estimation of ground motion parameters :
http://www.seismosoft.com/en/SeismoSignal.aspx
25 1
Seismic Hazard Analysis Seismic Hazard Analysis
Seismic hazard analysis is concerned with getting an estimate of the strong- DSHA
motion parameters at a site for the purpose of earthquake resistant In the deterministic approach, the strong-motion parameters are
design or seismic safety assessment. estimated for the maximum credible earthquake, assumed to occur
For generalized applications, seismic hazard analysis can also be used to at the closest possible distance from the site of interest, without
prepare macro or micro zoning maps of an area by estimating the strong- considering the likelihood of its occurrence during a specified
motion parameters for a closely spaced grid of sites. exposure period.
Seismic hazard analysis can be done in two ways PSHA
1. Deterministic seismic hazard Analysis (DSHA) Probabilistic approach integrates the effects of all the earthquakes
expected to occur at different locations during a specified life period,
2. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) with the associated uncertainties and randomness taken into
account.
2 3
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis Identification of Earthquake Sources

Geologic evidence
Fault Activity
Tectonic Evidence
The DSHA approach uses the known seismic sources sufficiently Historical seismicity
near the site and available historical seismic and geological data to
Instrumental Seismicity
generate discrete, single-valued events or models of ground motion at DSHA
the site. Typically one or more earthquakes are specified by magnitude Earliest approach taken to seismic hazard analysis
and location with respect to the site. Usually the earthquakes are Originated in nuclear power industry applications
assumed to occur on the portion of the site closest to the site. The site
Still used for some significant structures
Nuclear power plants
ground motions are estimated deterministically, given the magnitude,
Large dams
source-to-site distance, and site condition.
Large bridges
Hazardous waste containment facilities
4
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
DSHA produces scenario earthquake for design

Seismic Sources
DSHA is based on worst-case scenario
Identification Geologic
DSHA provides no information about how likely design earthquake is to evidence
occur during life of structure Field reconnaissance
Design earthquakes may occur every 200 yrs in some places, every 10,000 Trench logging Test pits,
yrs in others borings
DSHA may require subjective opinions on some input parameters Airphoto interpretation
Remote sensing Geophysics
Variability in effects not rationally accounted Historical seismicity
Instrumental Seismicity
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis

Seismic Sources
Source zones
May consist of mapped fault (known fault geometry, e.g. California )
DSHA consists of four primary steps(Reiter,1990):
Areas of high seismicity
Areas of shallow or outcropping bedrock 1. Identification and characterization of all sources
Areas of sparse surficial vegetation 2. Selection of source-site distance parameter
3. Selection of controlling earthquake
May consist of diffuse zone (unknown fault geometry, e.g. Washington) 4. Definition of hazard using controlling earthquake
Areas of low seismicity
Areas with significant sediment cover
Areas with dense vegetation cover
9
Deterministic seismic hazard analysis Deterministic seismic hazard analysis
Identification and characterization of all

Identification and characterization of all sources
sources Characterize geometry
Source
Identification
Point source
All sources capable of producing significant ground motion at the site Site
Constant source-site distance
Large sources at long distances
Volcanoes, distant short faults
Small sources at short distances
Linear source
Characterization Source
One parameter controls distance
Definition of source geometry
Shallow, distant fault
Establishment of earthquake potential
Site
10 11
Identification and characterization of all Identification and characterization of all

sources sources
Characterize geometry Which sources are capable of producing significant motion at the site of
interest?
Three-dimensional Source
What is significant motion?
Three parameters control distance
Parametric definition
Close sources of large dimensions
Peak acceleration - usually ~0.05g
Insufficient data for accurately determining the source geometry
Spectral acceleration - at fundamental period, if known
Other parameters
Use predictive (attenuation) relationship to determine distance of interest
Site
Source 12 13
Determination of source-site distance Determination of source-site distance

Typically assume shortest source-site distance (worst case scenario)
Which distance to consider?
14 15
Selection of controlling earthquake

Determination of source-site
distance Establish earthquake potential - typically Mmax
Empirical correlations
Rupture length correlations
Rupture area correlations
M1 M3 Maximum surface displacement correlations

Theoretical determination
Slip rate correlations
M2
16 17
Active Fault
The definition of active fault requires:

Movement at or near the ground surface at least once within the past 35,000 Permanent
yrs or movement of a recurring nature within the past 500,000 yrs structures should
not be
Instrumentally determined Macroseismicity showing a direct relationship with constructed
the fault; within 500m
or from active
faults
A structural relationship to a capable fault, such that movement on one could
reasonably be expected to be accompanied by movement on the other
18
Magnitude Indicators Magnitude Indicators

Empirical relationships between Mw, Surface rupture length L (km),
Magnitude of past earthquakes can be estimated by correlating observed rupture area A (km2) and maximum surface displacement D (m)
deformation characteristics with the known magnitudes of recorded
earthquakes.
Faults do not rupture over their entire lengths. Individual fault segments with
physically controlled boundaries rupture repeatedly.
Rupture length, area and displacement can be estimated by post earthquake
field geological investigations.
Correlating earthquake magnitude with rupture parameters involves regression
on limited data sets and consequently produces an estimate of expected value
of earthquake magnitude.
20 21
Magnitude Indicators Magnitude Indicators
Scatter inherent in databases used by Wells and Coppersmith (1994) in Comparison of several empirical relationships used to find the maximum
developing the correlations. magnitude from
(a) the fault rupture length and (b) the fault rupture area
22 Source: Kramer (1996) 23
Tectonic Evidence Historic Seismicity

Ruff and Kanamori (1984) related earthquake magnitude to rate of
convergence of moving slabs and the age of the subducted slab
Mw = -0.0089T +0.34V +7.96
T = age in millions of years

V= rate of convergence in
cm/year
Diagonal lines in figure correspond to the equation. Data points represent actual
Major tectonic features and the distribution of epicenters of available data
earthquakes 24 25
on past earthquakes in a typical segment of the Himalayan region
Theoretical Determination of Mmax Theoretical Determination of Mmax
Slip rate approach Slip rate approach

Seismic moment Mo = A D Mo = A S T (S is the slip rate)
where and the moment rate can be defined as
= shear modulus of rock; A = rupture area; Mr = Mo/T = A S
D = average displacement over rupture area Knowing the slip rate and knowing (assuming) values of P, A, and T, the
moment rate can be used to estimate the seismic moment as
If average displacement D relieves stress/strain built up by movement
of the plates over some period, T, then Mo = Mr T
D=SxT Then Mw = log Mo/1.5 - 10.7
where S is the slip rate
26 27

Decision should be based on ground motion parameters of greatest interest
Consider all sources
Assume Mmax occurs at Rmin for each source
R3
Compute ground motion parameter(s) based on Mmax and Rmin R1
M1 M3
Determine critical value(s) of ground motion parameter(s)
R2
M2
28 29
Selection of controlling earthquake Selection of controlling earthquake
Estimate maximum magnitude that could be produced by any source in

vicinity of site.
Predictive relationships are used to estimate the ground motion
Find value of Rmax - corresponds to Mmax at threshold value of parameter of parameter (Y).
interest, Ymin. (Y is ground motion parameter)
Most commonly used ground motion parameter is PHA
Typical predictive relationship for PHA
ln PHA (gals) = 6.74 + 0.859 M 1.80 ln (R+25) (R in km)
Cornell at al (1979)
Plot the variation of Y with R for known magnitude M
Plot these variations for all the sources
Mark the distances from the sources
Measure Y for the distance for different sources from the plots
30 31
Selection of controlling earthquake source Hazard Estimation from Mmax and R
Use M and R to determine such parameters as:

Select the controlling source for which the combination of
magnitude and distance produces highest value of Y.
Peak acceleration
Spectral accelerations
Duration
32 33
Steps in DSHA: Summary
Theoretical Determination of Mmax for
R3 Himalayas
R1 From west to east, the entire Himalaya has a length of about 2500 km,
M3 M1 M3 and the width of the associated seismic source is about 100 km.
M1
The source of major earthquakes along the Himalaya has been
R2
postulated as a gently dipping detachment plane, north of the main
boundary fault (MBF), at a depth of about 20 to 30 km.
M2 M2 Thus, the total rupture plane of the Himalaya has an area A of about
2.5 x 105 km2.
The shear modulus, for the Himalayan rocks can be taken as 3.4 x
(i) 1011 dyne/cm2.
(ii)
Y1
Y
2
Y .
.

Yn
34 35
(iii) (iv)
Theoretical Determination of Mmax for Himalayas Comments

DSHA produces scenario earthquake for design (design
earthquake)
After accounting for the trans-Himalayan deformations, the long- As commonly used, produces worst-case scenario
term average of the slip rate, s , along the Himalayan detachment DSHA provides no indication of how likely design earthquake is to
plane is corroborated to be about 15 mm/year. occur during life of structure
Design earthquakes may occur every 200 yrs in some places,
every 10,000 yrs in others
This gives the moment rate DSHA can require subjective opinions on some input parameters
Mr = A s = 1.275 x 1027dyne-cm/year. Variability in effects not rationally accounted for DSHA
calculations are relatively simple, but
implementation of procedure in practice involves numerous difficult
Assuming that the recurrence period (T)for largest earthquakes judgments. The lack of explicit consideration of uncertainties should
with magnitude 8(+) anywhere in the Himalaya is about 40 years, not be taken to imply that those uncertainties do not exist.
M0 = Mr T = 5.1 x 1028 dyne-cm
Mmax = log M0/1.5 10.7 = 8.4
36
Example Problem Solution
The site show in Figure below is located near four active faults. Fault A is a 1. There are total 6 fault segments to be considered. Fault B has three
normal fault, faults B ad C are strike-slips faults and fault D is a reverse segments (B1, B2 and B3)
fault. The coordinates of the site and faults given in the figure are in km.
2. The closest distance of the fault segment from the site (R) is computed.
Assuming that only linear segment can rupture in an individual event,
determine the anticipated peak acceleration at the site. 3. Length of each fault segment is calculated
4. Maximum magnitude associated with each fault is obtained from the
empirical relationships given by wells and coppersmith (1994) for the
particular fault type given in the problem.
5. Peak acceleration is obtained by predictive relationship of Cornell et al.
(1979)
ln PHA (gals) = 6.74 + 0.859 M 1.80 ln (R+25) (R in km)
Calculations are shown.
Solution Exercise Problem

Using DSHA compute the PHA for the site below. Use the following
Fault Distance Length Mmax PHA attenuation relationship.
to site (g) ln PHA (gals) = 6.74 + 0.859 M 1.8 ln (R+25)
R (km) (note :R in km)
A 33.0 70.7 7.3 0.305
B1 42.7 22.4 6.7 0.138
Source 3, Mmax= 6
B2 18.0 30.0 6.8 0.340 Source 2, Mmax= 6.5
B3 17.5 22.4 6.7 0.319

C 5.0 12.0 6.4 0.467 site
40 km
D 20.5 31.6 6.8 0.260 Source 1, Mmax= 7.5
40 km
Calculations indicate that the peak acceleration site is 0.647 g produced by
an earthquake of magnitude 6.4 at site C.
Lecture-16
References
Reiter, L. (1990) Earthquake Hazard Analysis: Issues and insights,

Columbia university press.
Kramer (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard
Anderson, J.G. and J.N. Brune (1999). Probabilistic hazard analysis without the
ergodic assumption, Seism. Res. Lett. 70, 19-23.
Analysis (PSHA) Part I
Cornell, C.A. (1968). Engineering seismic risk analysis, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 58,
1583-1606.
http://geo.cv.nctu.edu.tw/prob/download/SeismicHazardAnalysis.pdf
http://www.nibs.org/client/.../Topic05a-SeismicHazardAnalysisNotes.pdf
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
DSHA PSHA
Why PSHA?
Assumes single scenario Assumes many scenarios
Because there is lot of
Selects single magnitude for each Considers all magnitudes associated
uncertainty involved in the
seismic source with all seismic sources
time of occurrence, magnitude
Selects the closest distance between Considers all possible distances and size of the earthquakes
the source and site between source and site
Assumes effects due to magnitude Considers all effects
and distance
Assumes many scenarios

Considers all magnitudes associated
with all seismic sources
Considers all possible distances
between source and site
Considers all effects
PSHA consists of four primary steps:

1. Identification and characterization of all sources
PSHA characterizes uncertainties in the 2. Characterization of seismicity of each source
location, size, frequency and effects of 3. Determination of ground motions from each source
earthquake and combines all of them to 4. Probabilistic calculations
compute the probability of different
levels of ground shaking
Uncertainty in source to site distance: Uncertainty in source to site distance:

Where on fault is the rupture most likely to occur? Where on fault is the rupture most likely to occur? Lot of possibilities
Source Source
Site Site
Source to site distance Source to site distance

depends on where rupture depends on where rupture
occurs occurs
Probability Distribution Function Probability Distribution Function
l l
rmin dl Lf rmin
r source r dl Lf source
For linear source shown, the probability
r+dr r+dr
of earthquake to occur on the small site fL(l) dl = fR (r) dr site
segment of the fault between L=l and
L=l+dl is same as the probability that it fR(r) = f L (l) dl/dr
occurs between R=r and R=r+dr If earthquakes are assumed to
fL(l) dl = fR (r) dr uniformly distributed over the length of
the fault
fR(r) f L (l) = l/Lf fR(r)
Where fL (l) and fR (r) are the probability
distribution functions for the variables L l2 = r2 rmin 2
and R. fR(r) = ?
r r
rmin rmax rmin rmax
8 9
Probability Distribution Function Probability Distribution Function
Uncertainty in source to site distance: Uncertainty in source to site distance:

Two practical ways to determine fR(r) Two practical ways to determine fR(r)
Draw series of concentric Divide entire fault into

rmin circles with equal radius rmin equal length segments
increment
Compute the distance of
Measure length of Li site to center for each
between each pair of segment
concentric circles
Create histogram of
rmax Assign weight equal to Li/L rmax source to site distance.
to each corresponding Accuracy increases with
distance increasing number of
segments
Probability Distribution Probability Histogram
For example if we roll a single die, the probability we roll a 2 = 1/6 For the number of heads in a toss of two coins, the probability histogram
is:
We usually write this in "short-hand" as Pr (2) = 1/6
So, Pr (even number) = 3/6 or 1/2
If we toss a single coin, Pr(heads) = 1/2 1/2
If we toss two coins, Pr (exactly 2 heads) = 1/4

For any event like this, we can draw a probability histogram, which 1/4
is simply a picture that shows all the possible outcomes and their
corresponding probabilities.
For a single roll of a die, the probability histogram looks like:
1/6 No heads 0 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 13
Probability Histogram Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis

Uncertainty in source to site distance: Uncertainty in earthquake magnitude:
Determination of Mmax is same as for DSHA

Empirical Correlations
Rupture length correlations
Divide source into equal
Rupture area correlations
volume increments
Maximum surface displacement correlations
Compute the distance of
site to center for each Theoretical determination using slip rate correlations
element
Create histogram of
source to site distance. Knowledge of the distribution of magnitude is important
Accuracy increases with
increasing number of
segments
14
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes Distribution of earthquake magnitudes
NM log N M log OM
Mean annual rate of

Exceedance
M = NM/T
M M M

log OM log OM
10 a
0.01 100 years

b
0.001 1000 years

Return period log TR Gutenberg-Ritcher log TR
(recurrence interval) Recurrence Law 0
M
M
TR=1/M log M = a-bM
Gutenbergg Ritcherr Recurrence Law For worldwide data (Circumpacific belt)

logg M = a-bM
a-
a logm= 7.93-0.96M
Implies that earthquake magnitudes are M=6 m=148/yr TR=0.0067yr
exponentially distributed (exponential
al pdf
df)
df M=7 m=16.2/yr TR=0.062yr
Can also be written as M=8 m=1.78/yr TR=0.562yr
n M = M
llln
M=12 m=0.437/yr TR=2.29yr

M>12 every two years?
Gutenberg-Richter Recurrence Law, log 0 = a -

bM where M is the mean annual rate of Gutenberg Ritcher Recurrence Law
exceedance of magnitude M, 10a is the mean log M = a - bM
\HDUO\QXPEHURIHDUWKTXDNHVRIPDJQLWXGH If a lower threshold value is sent of the Magnitude as m0,
and b represents the relative likelihood of large Probability of an earthquake of magnitude <m and >m0 is
and small earthquake. It implies that earthquake given as O O
1 e E ( m m0 )
m0 m
magnitudes are exponentially distributed P[M m | M ! m 0 ]
Om
(exponential pdf) Can also be written as, ln 0 = 0
- 0
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Neglecting events below minimum magnitude, mo Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Om = Qexp[- E(m - mo)] for m > mo (McGuire and Arabasz, 1990)
where Q= exp[D- Emo].
FM (m) = P[M<m| M>m0] = (Om0 Om)/ Om0 = 1-exp (-E(m-m0)) Bounded G-R
Then,The resulting probability distribution of magnitude for the Gutenberg-Richter law logm Recurrence Law
with lower bound can be expressed in terms of the cumulative distribution function (CDF):
fM(m) = d/dm (FM(m)) = Ee-Em-mo)
Every source has some maximum magnitude

Distribution must be modified to account for Mmax
Bounded G-R recurrence law
exp[ E (m m0 )] exp[ E (mmax m0 )]
Om v Mmax M
1 exp[ E (mmax m0 )]
Where Q = exp [D E m0) and D a ln (10 )and E b ln (10 ) 24

Distribution of earthquake magnitudes
Characteristic Earthquake Recurrence Law
Paleoseismicc investigations
Show similar displacements in each earthquake
Individual faults produce characteristic earthquakes
Characteristic earthquake occur at or near r Mmax

Could be caused by geologic constraints
More research, field observations needed
27
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis Predictive relationships
Distribution of earthquake magnitudes Standard error use to evaluate conditional probability
Characteristic Earthquake Recurrence Law
Seismicity data ln Y
P[Y > Y*l M=M*, R=R*]

Y=Y*
lnY
M=M*
Geologic data
Mmax M
R=R* log R
29

Predictive relationships References
Standard error use to evaluate conditional probability
ln Y
P[Y > Y*l M=M*, R=R*] ergodic assumption, Seism. Res. Lett. 70, 19-23.
lnY
Y=Y* 1583-1606.
M=M* http://geo.cv.nctu.edu.tw/prob/download/SeismicHazardAnalysis.pdf
R=R* log R
30
Lecture-17 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
Temporal uncertainty
Poisson process- describes number of occurrences of an event
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard during a given time interval or spatial region.
1. The number of occurrences in one time interval are
Analysis (PSHA) Part II independent of the number that occur in any other time
interval.
2. Probability of occurrence in a very short time interval is
proportional to length of interval.
3. Probability of more than one occurrence in a very short
time interval is negligible.
1 2
Temporal uncertainty Temporal uncertainty

Poisson process Poisson process
P neP Letting = t
P[N n]
n!
where n is the number of occurrences and is the average
number of occurrences in the time interval of interest.
=1- P[N=0]
=1- e-t
3
Temporal uncertainty Temporal uncertainty

Poisson process What is the probability it will occur at least once in a 1,000 yr
P = 1 e-t period?
Consider a event that occurs, on average, every 1,000 yrs.
What is the probability it will occur at least once in a 100yr P = 1 exp[-(0.001)(1000)] = 0.632
period?
Solving for ,
=1/1000 = 0.001
P = 1-exp[-(0.001)(100)] = 0.0952 ln(1 P )
O
t
5 6
Temporal uncertainty Summary of uncertainties

Then, the annual rate of exceedance for an event with a 10%
probability of exceedance in 50 yrs is Location fR(r) Source-site distance pdf
ln(1 0.1) Size fM(m) Magnitude pdf

O 0.0021
50 Attenuation
Effects P[Y>Y* l M=M*, R=R*] relationship
including standard
The corresponding return period is TR= 1/ = 475 yrs. error
For 2% in 50 yrs, = 0.000404/yr TR = 2475 yrs. Timing P=1-e-t
Poisson model
7 8
Combining uncertainties probability computations

Combining uncertainties probability computations
Total Probability theorem:
Applying total probability theorem,
P[A] = P[AB1] + P[A B2] +.+ P[A BN]
P[Y > y*] = P[Y > y*| X] P[X] = P [Y >y*|X] fx (X)dx

P[A] = P[A|B1]P[B1] + P[A|B2] P[B2] +.+ P[A|BN] P[BN]
where X is a vector of parameters.
We assume that M and R are the most important parameters

B3 Total Probability
B1
B2
Theorem
and that they are independent. Then,
A BB
B5
B4 P[Y > y*] = P [Y >y*|m, r] fM (m)fR (r)dmdr
9 10
Combining uncertainties-probability computations Combining uncertainties-probability computations

P[Y > y*] = P [Y >y*|m, r] fM (m)fR (r)dmdr
If the site of interest is subjected to shaking from more than
one site (say Ns sites), then
Above equation gives the probability that y* will be
exceeded if an earthquake occurs. Can convert probability to Ns
annual rate of exceedance by multiplying probability by Oy * v P [Y ! y* | m, r] f

i 1
i Mi (m)f Ri (r)dmdr
annual rate of occurrence of earthquakes.
For realistic cases, pdfs for M and Rare too complicated to
y* =v P [Y >y*|m, r] fM (m)fR (r)dmdr integrate analytically. Therefore, we do it numerically.
where v = exp[- m0]
11 12
Combining uncertainties-probability computations Combining uncertainties-probability computations

What does it mean?
Dividing the range of possible magnitudes and distances into
All possible distances are
NM and NR increments, respectively considered- contribution
of each is weighted by its
Ns N M N R

probability of occurrence
Oy * vi P [Y ! y* | m , r ] f
j k Mi (m j )f Ri (rk )'m'r
Ns N M N R
i 1 j 1 k 1
Oy * vi P [Y ! y* | m , r ] P[M
j k m j ]P[R rk ]
This expression can be written, equivalently as i 1 j 1 k 1
Ns N M N R All sites are All possible magnitudes are

Oy *
i 1 j 1 k 1
vi P [Y ! y* | m j , rk ] P[M m j ]P[R rk ] considered
All possible effects are considered- contribution of
each is weighted by its
considered- each weighted
by its conditional probability of occurrence
probability of occurrence
13 14
Combining uncertainties-probability computations

Compute conditional probability for each element on grid
Enter in matrix (spreadsheet cell)
P[Y>Y*| M=m2, R=r1]

ln Y
P[Y>Y*| M=m2, R=r2]
P[Y>Y*| M=m2, R=r3]
Y = Y*
ln Y
r1 r2 log R
r3
rN
15 16
17 18
END
19 20
21 22

Using seismic hazard curves
Combining uncertainties- Seismic hazard curve shows the Combining uncertainties-
probability computations mean annual rate of exceedance probability computations Contribution of sources
of a particular ground motion Can break values down into
parameter. A seismic hazard contributions from each source.
curve is the ultimate result of a Plot seismic hazard curves for
PSHA. each source and total seismic
Total hazard curve (equal to sum of
source curves)
log amax
log TR
log TR
log amax
2 Curves may not be parallel, may

cross
1
Shows which source(s) most
3
important.
amax amax
23 24
Using seismic hazard curves Contribution of sources Using seismic hazard curves Contribution of sources
Combining uncertainties- Can develop seismic hazard Can develop seismic hazard
b b l computations
probability curves for different ground curves for different ground
motion parameters motion parameters
Peak acceleration Peak acceleration
Total
Special accelerations Special accelerations
log amax
log amax
Other
log TR
log TR
Other
Choose desired value Choose desired value
Read corresponding parameter Read corresponding parameter
values from seismic hazard curves values from seismic hazard curves
amax, Sa amax, Sa
25 26

Disaggregation (De-aggregation)
Disaggregation (De-aggregation)
Common question: Common question
What magnitude & distance does that amax value
What magnitude & distance does that amax value correspond to?
correspond to?
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 Total hazard
25km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 includes Total hazard includes
25km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01
contributions from contributions from all
50km 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
all combinations of 50km 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
combinations of M & R.
75km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.06 M&R Break hazard down into
0.05 0.02 75km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.02 contributions to see
100km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.02 100km 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.02
where hazard is coming
from.
125km 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 125km 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 M=7.0 at R=75km
150km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.00 150km 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.00
175km 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 175km 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
200km 0.00 0.00 0.00 200km 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
27 28
Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude
m Model Distribution Mmax
Logic tree methods
Not all uncertainty can be described by probability distributions 7.0 (0.2)
G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
Most appropriate model may not be clear BJF
7.0 (0.2)
Attenuation relationship (0.5) Char 7.2 (0.6)
Magnitude distribution (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
etc 7.0 (0.2)

G-R
Experts may disagree on model parameters 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
Fault segmentation A&S
7.0 (0.2)
Maximum magnitude (0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6)
etc (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
29 30

Logic tree methods Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude Attenuation Magnitude
m Model Distribution Mmax m Model Distribution Mmax
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2)

Sum of weighing factors G-R G-R
7.2 (0.6) 7.2 (0.6)
coming out of each
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2) (0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
node must equal 1.0
BJF BJF
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2)
(0.5)
(0 5) Char (0.5) Char
7.2 (0.6) 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2) (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2)

G-R 7.2 (0.6) G-R 7.2 (0.6)
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2) (0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
A&S A&S 0.5x0.7x0.2 = 0.07
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2)
(0.5) (0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6) Char 7.2 (0.6)
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2) (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
31 32
Logic tree methods Logic tree methods
Attenuation Magnitude Attenuation Magnitude

W
m
Model Distribution Mmax m Model Distribution Mmax
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2) 0.07

G-R 7.2 (0.6) G-R 7.2 (0.6) 0.21
(0.7) 7.5 (0.2) (0.7) 7.5 (0.2)
BJF BJF 0.07
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2) 0.03
(0.5) Char (0.5) Char
7.2 (0.6) 7.2 (0.6)
0.09
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2) (0.3) 7.5 (0.2) 0.03
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2) 0.07

G-R 7.2 (0.6) G-R 7.2 (0.6) 0.21
(0.7) Final value of Y is (0.7)
7.5 (0.2) 0.5x0.7x0.2 = 0.07 7.5 (0.2) 0.07
A&S obtained as weighted A&S
7.0 (0.2) 7.0 (0.2) 0.03
(0.5) average of all values (0.5)
Char 7.2 (0.6) Char 7.2 (0.6)
given by terminal 0.09
(0.3) 7.5 (0.2) (0.3) 7.5 (0.2)
branches of logic tree. 0.03
33 34

Logic tree methods
Recent PSHA logic tree included:
Crustal areal source zones

7 source zones
2 attenuation relationships
3 maximum magnitudes
2 recurrence models
3 source depths
252 terminal branches
Total PSHA required analysis of 612 combinations
35 36
37 38
Lecture-18
Recommended Reading

Exercise Problems in PSHA
ergodic assumption, Seism. Res. Lett. 70, 19-23.
1583-1606.
http://geo.cv.nctu.edu.tw/prob/download/SeismicHazardAnalysis.pdf
39 1
Solution
Example Problem 1
Site B
The hypothetical vertical fault segment shown in Fig.1 is represented as a quarter- 12km
circle. On the same graph, plot histograms of expected epicentral distance for
Fault
motions at site A and site B assuming:
(a) Earthquakes are equally likely to occur at any point on the fault segment. N
30km
(b) Earthquakes are twice as likely to occur at the midpoint of the fault segment as
at either end and the likelihood is linearly distributed between the midpoint
and the ends.
Site A
30km 12km
Site B
12km
(a)Uniform distribution
Fault
Fig 1 N P
30km
1/90
Area =1
0 90
Site A
30km 12km
2 3
Solution Solution
Site B Histogram
Uniform distribution
Frequency
(b)Non-uniform distribution
P
2/135 30km 45km

Distance
1/135 Area =1
Site B Histogram
0 90
Site A Histogram Non-uniform distribution
Frequency
Frequency
Uniform/Non-uniform
distribution
30km 45km
30km Distance
Distance 4 5
Example Problem 2 Solution
In a hypothetical seismically active region, earthquakes have been recorded over Mw N

an 80-year period. Part of the record is instrumental, but part is not. Combining all 3-4 1800
available data, it appears that the earthquakes have been distributed as follows:
4-5 150
5-6 11
MOMENT MAGNITUDE NUMBER OF EARTHQUAKES >6 1
3-4 1800
t= 80 years
4-5 150
Mw>3, Nm = 1962, m=24.525/year
5-6 11
log m = 1.390
>6 1
Mw>4, Nm = 162, m=2.025/year

(a) Estimate the Gutenberg-Richter parameters for the region. log m= 0.307
(b) Neglecting earthquakes of magnitude less than 3, compute the probability that
an earthquake in the region will have a moment magnitude between 5.5 and 6.5. Mw>5, Nm = 12, m= 0.151/year
(c) Repeat Part (b) assuming that paleoseismic evidence indicates that the region is log m= -0.824
not capable of producing earthquakes of moment magnitude greater than 6.5.
Mw>6, Nm = 1, m= 0.0125/year
6 log m = -1.886 7
Solution Solution
logM=4.6782-1.096x logM=4.6782-1.096x
logM
logM
M M
(b ) P [5.5 d M d 6.7]M ! M 0
(a) From the plot of M vs log OM, Gutenberg-Richter
parameters for the region are: P [ M d 6.5 | M ! M 0 ] P [ M d 5.5 | M ! M 0 ]
F orM 0 3
a = 4.6782 P [5.5 d M d 6.5 | M ! 3]
b = 1.096 P [ M d 6.5 | M ! M 0 ] P [ M d 5.5 | M ! M 0 ]
[1 e 2 .303 u 1 .096 u ( 6 .5 3 ) ] [1 e 2.303 u 1.096 u ( 5.5 3 ) ]
0.00167 %
8 9
Solution Example Problem 3
The seismicity of a particular region is described by the Gutenberg-Ritcher
recurrence law:
log m=4.0-0.7M
logM=4.6782-1.096x
logM
(a) What is the probability that at least one earthquake of magnitude
greater than 7.0 will occur in a 10-year period? In a 250-year period?
(b) What is the probability that exactly one earthquake of magnitude

greater than 7.0 will occur in a 10-year period? In a 50 year period? In a
250-year period?
(c ) P [5.5 d M d 6.5 | 3 d M 6.5] (c)Determine the earthquake magitude that would have a 10% probability
2.303 u 1.096 u ( 6.5 3 ) 2.303 u 1.096 u ( 5.5 3 )
[1 e ] [1 e ] of being exceeded at least once in a 50-year period?
0.0017
10 11
Solution Solution
(b) P[N=1]= t e-t
log m =4.0- 0.7M T=10years, P = 0.357
(a) P[N n]
Ot n Ot
e T=50years, P= 0.012
n! T=250years, P=7x10-13
P [ N t 1] 1 P [ N 0] (c) P=1- e-mt

Om t
1e
ln(1 - P)
For M 7, O m 10 40 0.7 u 7 0.1259 Om
t
ln(0.9)
T=10years, P = 0.716 50
0.002107
T=50years, P= 0.998 4 log(0.002107 )
M 9.5
0.7
T=250years, P= 1
12 13
Using given seismic hazard curve, estimate the probability of exceeding Combining uncertainties-probability computations
amax = 0.3g in a 50 year period and in 500 years period
Combining
b uncertainties-
Combining
b uncertainties-
probability computations
In a 50 year period
P = 1- e-t
= 1- exp[-(0.001)(50)]
log TR R
log T
log amax
= 0.049
log TR
log amax
= 4.9%
0.00 In a 500 yr period

0.001
0.001 1
P= 0.393= 39.3%
amax
amax =0.30g
amax =0.30g
14 15

Using seismic hazard curve, estimate the peak acceleration that has 10%
probability of being exceeded in a 50 yr period. Combining
b uncertainties-
Combining
b uncertainties- 10% in 50 yrs: = 0.0021
or
TR = 475 yrs
log amax
log TR
Use seismic hazard curve to find
log amax
log TR
amax value corresponding to

0.0021 475 yrs
= 0.0021
0.0021
amax =0.21g
amax =0.21g
16 17
Way of applying horizontal load
1. Simply apply a single concentrated 3. Apply lateral forces in proportion to the product ofstory
horizontal force at the top ofthe structure. masses andfirst mode shape of the elastic model of the structure
(i.e., F, = [wxlf>x/Lwxt/Jx]V). The capacity
(Would generally only apply to a one-story curve is generally constructed to represent the first mode
building.) response ofthe structure based on the assumption that the
(2.) Apply lateral forces to each story in fundamental mode of vibration is the predominant response of
the structure. This is generally valid for buildings with
proportion to the standard code procedure fundamental periods of vibration up to about one second.
without the concentrated F, at the top (i.e., 4. Same as Level 3 until first yielding, For each increment beyond
F, = [wrhx/Lwxhx]V). yielding, adjust the forces to be consistent with the changing
deflected shape.
5.Similar to 3 and 4 above, but include the effects of the higher

modes of vibration in determining yielding in individual
structural elements while plotting the capacity curve for the
building in terms of first mode lateral forces and
displacements. The higher mode effects may be determined by
doing higher mode pushover analyses (i.e., loads may be
progressively applied in proportion to a mode shape other than
the fundamental mode shape to determine its inelastic
behavior.) For the higher modes the structure is being both
pushed and pulled concurrently to maintain the mode shape.
Refer-chapter-8(8-12)
Conversion of the Capacity Curve to the

Capacity Spectrum
To use the capacity spectrum method it is necessary to convert the capacity curve,
which is in terms of base shear and roof displacement to what is called a capacity
spectrum, which is a representation of the capacity curve in Acceleration-
Displacement Response Spectra (ADRS) format (i.e., Saversus Sa). The required
equations to make the transformation are:
Per ATC 40
V=Base shear
W=building dead weight+llikely live load
roof= roof displacement (V and roof makde up points on the capacity
curve)
1= modal mass coefficient for the first natural mode
PF1=modal participation factor for the first natural mode.
Refer-ATC-40(pg 8-14)
Use of Pushover Curve (FEMA-273)
Estimation of Target Displacement
C0 Relates spectral to roof displacement

C1 Modifier for inelastic displacement
C2 Modifier for hysteresis loop shape
C3 Modifier for second order effects
Refer FEMA 273(3-12)
Use of Pushover Curve (ATC-40) Use of Pushover Curve (FEMA-273)

Estimation of Effective Elastic Period, Te Calculation of C0
Relates spectral to roof displacement
Vy DKe = Ks
- use modal participation factor for control
.6Vy
Estimate Te using Ke node from first mode
Base Shear
Estimate Elastic Spectral Displacement

- or use modal participation factor for control
Ke
Ki node from deflected shape at the target
Te Ti displacement
Ke
Roof Displacement - or use tables based on number of stories
and varies from 1 to 1.5
Refer FEMA 273(3-12)
Calculation of C1
Calculation of C2
Modifier for inelastic displacement
Modifier for hysteresis loop shape
- from Tables
C1 = [1 +(R-1)T0/Te]/R - depends on Framing Type
R is elastic strength (degrading strength)
demand to yield strength
Acceleration
C1 = 1
- depends on Performance Level
Spectral
- depends on Effective Period

T0
- varies from 1.0 to 1.5
Time Period
Use of Pushover Curve (FEMA-273) Use of Pushover Curve (FEMA-273)

Calculation of C3 Verification of Acceptance
Modifier for dynamic second order effects
Target Displacement (or
corresponding deformation)
C3 = 1 if post yield slope, D is positive for given Earthquake
Force Measure
else
C3 = 1 +[ |D|(R-1)3/2 ]/Te Performance Limits
(IO, LS, CP)
Deformation Measure
SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options
Use of Pushover Curve
SAP2000 released September, 1998
Do these methods work?
Full 3D implementation
Comparisons with: Single model for
- Nonlinear time history analysis - linear static analysis
- Single degree of freedom systems - linear response spectrum analysis
- Multi-degree of freedom systems - linear time history analysis
- Observed damage - nonlinear time history analysis
How do they compare with each other? - nonlinear static pushover analysis
- steel and concrete design

Generally follows ATC-40 & FEMA 273 SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options
Available Pushover Element Types Force-Deformation Relationship
- 3D truss (axial hinge)
- 3D beam (moment and shear hinges) C D
- 3D column (P-M-M and shear hinges) B
Force
- Shells, Solids, etc. considered linear
- Panel zone (later)
E F
- 3D column (Fiber hinge) (later) A
- Shear wall (plasticity model) (later) Deformation
- Nonlinear springs (later)

SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options Strength - deformation and P-M-M curves can
Three dimensional Beam Element be calculated by program for:
- steel beams (FEMA 273)
- steel columns (FEMA 273)
Flexible Span Loads - shear hinges in EBF Links (FEMA 273)
Connection Shear Hinge
- concrete beams (ATC-40)
- concrete columns (ATC-40)
- shear hinges in coupling beams (ATC-40)
Plastic Hinge Rigid Zone
SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options SAP2000/ETABS Pushover Options

Gravity Load Analysis
Available Results for each step of loading
- Nodal Loads
- Element Loads - Base Shear
- Load controlled Analysis - Element Forces
Pushover analysis - Section Forces
- Starts from gravity loads - Joint Displacements
- Nodal Load Patterns (user, modal, mass) - Drifts
- Multi-step Displacement or Drift controlled - Element Hinge Deformations
- Limit Points (acceptance criteria) reached
Pushover Curve Postprocessing (ATC-40) Visual Display for each step
- Conversion to Capacity Spectrum - Deformed Shape
- Member Force Diagrams
- Calculation of Effective Period (per step) - Hinge Locations and Stages
- Calculation of Effective Damping (per step)
- Calculation of Demand Spectrum (per step) Graphs
- Base Shear vs Roof Displacement
- Location of Performance Point - Capacity Curve
- Limit Points (acceptance criteria) reached - Demand Curve
- Demand Spectra at different dampings
- Effective period lines
THE END
SEISMIC STRENGTHENING STRATEGY AND SEISMIC RETROFITTING
Preliminary Evaluation OPTIONS
Basic issues that might raise while retrofitting the buildings are:
Configuration Related check Socio-cultural issues
Strength-related Checks Heritage sites
Economic issues
Evaluation statements Cost of demolition & rubble removal
Cost of reconstruction
Condition Assessment of Building(NDT and Real state
Built-up area vs. carpet area
DT) Technical issues
Type of structural system
Construction materials
Site
Damage intensity level
Legal issues
Retrofit Strategies: 1. Shear wall into an existing concrete structure

A retrofit strategy is a basic approach adopted to improve the probable seismic
performance of a building or otherwise reduce the existing risk to an
The introduction of shear walls into an existing
acceptable level. Strategies relate to modification or control of the basic
parameters that affect a buildings earthquake performance. These include
concrete structure is one of the most
the buildings stiffness, strength, deformation capacity, and ability to commonly employed approaches to seismic
dissipate energy, as well as the strength and character of ground motion
transmitted to the building. Strategies can also include combinations of upgrading. It is an extremely effective method
these approaches. For example, the addition of shear walls or braced frames
to increase stiffness and strength, the use of confinement jackets to enhance of increasing both building strength and
deformability. There is wide range of retrofit strategies available for reducing
the seismic risk inherent in an existing building. These strategies include:
stiffness. A shear wall system is often
a. System Strengthening and Stiffening: economical and tends to be readily
System strengthening and stiffening are the most common seismic
performance improvement strategies adopted for buildings with inadequate
compatible with most existing concrete
lateral force resisting systems. Introduction of new structural elements to
the building system can improve the performance of the building. This can
structures.
be achieved by introducing:
2.Buttresses perpendicular to an external wall
of the structure
Buttresses are braced frames or shear walls installed
perpendicular to an exterior wall of the structure to
provide supplemental stiffness and strength. This system
is often a convenient one to use when a building must
remain occupied during construction, as most of the
construction work can be performed on the building
exterior, minimizing the convenience to building
occupants.
Moment resisting frames 3. Infill walls

Moment-resisting frames can be an effective
system to add strength to a building without
substantially increasing the buildings stiffness.
Moment frames have the advantage of being
relatively open and therefore can be installed
Building with retrofit infill windows
with relatively minimal impact on floor space.
4. Trusses and Diagonal Braces Angle or channel steel profile can be used for the purpose of adding steel braces.
Braces should be arranged so that their center line passes through the centers of
Braced steel frames are another common method of enhancing an
the beam-column joints. Likewise, eliminating or reducing structural irregularities
existing buildings stiffness and strength. Typically, braced frames provide
can also improve the performance of the building in earthquake such as,
lower levels of stiffness and strength than do shear walls, but they add far
-Vertical Irregularities
less mass to the structure than do shear walls, can be constructed with
-Filling of openings in walls
less disruption of the building, result in less loss of light, and have a
smaller effect on traffic patterns within the building. -Pounding effect of the buildings
-Improving diaphragm in the presence of large openings by provision of horizontal
bracing.
5. Diaphragm Strengthening
Most of the concrete buildings have adequate diaphragms
except when there occur large openings. Methods of
enhancing diaphragms include the provision of topping slabs,
metal plates laminated onto the top surface of the slab, or
horizontal braced diaphragms beneath the concrete slabs.
b. Strengthening of original structural elements:
Strengthening of reinforced concrete structural

elements is one method to increase the earthquake
resistance of damaged or undamaged buildings. Repair
of reinforced concrete elements is often required after
a damaging earthquake to replace lost strength.
Establishing sound bond between the old and the new
concrete is of great importance. It can be provided by
chipping away the concrete cover of the original
member and roughening its surface, by preparing the
surface with glues (as epoxy prior concreting), by
additional welding of bent reinforcement bars or by
formation of reinforced concrete or steel dowels.
Strengthening of original structural elements includes strengthening of:

1.Columns
The damage of reinforced concrete columns without a structural collapse
will vary, such as a slight crack (horizontal or diagonal) without crushing in
concrete or damage in reinforcement, superficial damage in the concrete
without damage in reinforcement, crushing of the concrete, bucking of
reinforcement, or rupture of ties.
Based on the degree of damage, techniques such as injections, removal
and replaced or jacketing can be provided. Column jacketing can be
reinforced concrete jacketing, steel profile jacketing, steel encasement.
The main purpose of column retrofitting is to increase column flexure and
shear strength, improving ductility and rearrangement of the column
stiffness.
2. Beams
The aim of strengthening of beams is to provide adequate strength and stiffness of
damaged or undamaged beam which are deficit to resist gravity and seismic loads.
It is very important that the rehabilitation procedure chosen provides proper
strength and stiffness of the beams in relation to adjacent columns in order to
avoid creating structures of the strong beam weak column type which tend to
force seismic hinging and distress into the column, which must also support major
gravity loads.
Fig. Reinforced concrete jacketing of beam

4. Concrete Shear wall
3. Beam-Column Joints
Shear wall possess great stiffness and lateral strength which
The most critical region of a moment resisting frame for seismic provides most significant part of the earthquake resistance of
loading, the beam to the column joint, is undoubtedly the most the building. Therefore, a severely damaged or a poorly
difficult to strengthen because of the great number of elements designed shear wall must be repaired or strengthened in
assembled at this place and the high stresses this region is order that the structures strength for seismic force can be
subjected to in an earthquake. Under earthquake loading joints significantly improved.
suffer shear and/or bond failures. The retrofitting at the beam
column joint can be done using methods like, reinforced
concrete jacketing and steel plate reinforcement.
Fig. Example of Shear Wall Retrofit
Fig. Example of beam column joint
Slabs
Primarily, slabs of floor structures have to carry vertical gravity loads. 5. Infill Partition wall
However, they must also provide diaphragm action and be compatible with
all lateral resistant element of the structure. Therefore, slab must possess Generally, infilled partition walls in concrete framed buildings
the necessary strength and stiffness. Damages in slabs generally occur due are unreinforced although it is highly desirable to be reinforced
to large openings, insufficient strength and stiffness, poor detailing, etc. in seismic region like Nepal. Infilled partition walls in concrete
Strengthening of slab can be done by thickening of slabs in cases of framed buildings often sustain considerable damage in an
insufficient strength or stiffness. For local repairs, injections should be
earthquake as they are relatively stiff and resist lateral forces,
applied for repair of cracks. Epoxy or cement grout can be used.
often they were not designed to resit, until they crack or fail.
Damage may consist of small to large cracks, loose bricks or
blocks or an infill leaning sideways. Damage may also result in
Section 2
the concrete frame members and joints which surrounds the
Section 1 infilled wall.
The effect of strengthening an infilled wall must be considered
Fig: Increasing Slab Thickness by analysis on the surrounding elements of the structure.
Infilled walls are extremely stiff and effective in resisting lateral
forces, but all forces must be transferred through the concrete
elements surrounding the infilled walls.
6. Foundation
Retrofitting of foundation is often required when the strength of foundation is
insufficient to resist the vertical load of the structure. Strengthening of
foundations are difficult and expensive construction procedure. It should be
performed in the following cases:
Excessive settlement of the foundations due to poor soil conditions. Damage in
the foundation structure caused by seismic overloading. Increasing the dead load
as a result of the strengthening operations. Increasing the seismic loading due to
changes in code provisions or the strengthening operations. Necessity of
additional foundation structure for added floors.
Fig. Example of Foundation Retrofit
1. Base Isolation
c. Reducing Earthquake Demands This approach requires the insertion of compliant bearing within a single level of
Rather than modifying the capacity of the building to withstand the buildings vertical load carrying system, typically near its base. The bearings are
earthquake-induced forces and deformations, this strategy involves designed to have relatively low stiffness, extensive lateral deformation capacity
modification of the response of the structure such that the and may also have superior energy dissipation characteristics. Installation of an
demand forces and deformations are reduced. Irregularities related isolation system results in a substantial increase in the buildings fundamental
to distribution of strength, stiffness and mass result poor seismic response period and, potentially, its effective damping. Since the isolation bearings
performance. The methods for achieving this strategy include have much greater lateral compliance than does the structure itself, lateral
reductions in the buildings mass and the installation of systems for deformation demands produced by the earthquake tend to concentrate in the
base isolation and/or energy dissipation. The installation of these bearings themselves. Together these effects result in greatly reduced lateral
special protective systems within a building typically entails a demands on the portion of the building located above the isolation bearings.
significantly larger investment than do more- conventional
approaches. However, these special systems do have the added
benefit of providing for reduced demands on building contents.
2. Energy Dissipation Systems
Energy dissipation systems directly increase the ability of the structure to dampen 3.0 Mass Reduction
earthquake response in a benign manner, through either viscous or hysteretic damping.
The performance of some buildings can be greatly improved by reducing the
This approach requires the installation of energy dissipation units (EDUs) within the
lateral force resisting system. The EDUs dissipate energy and in the process reduce the
building mass. Building mass reductions reduce the buildings natural
displacement demands on the structure. The installation of EDUs often requires the period, the amount of inertial forces that develops during its response,
installation of vertical braced frames to serve as a mounting platform for the units and and the total displacement demand on the
therefore, typically results in a simultaneous increase in system stiffness. Energy structure. Mass can be reduced by removing heavy nonstructural
dissipation systems typically have greater cost than conventional systems for stiffening elements such as cladding, water
tanks, storage, heavy antenna, etc. In the extreme, mass reduction can be
attained by removing one or more building stories.
The End
1. Principle of Retrofitting
a.CONCEPT OF RETROFITTING:
Retrofitting is technical interventions in structural system of a building that
improve the resistance to earthquake by optimizing the strength, ductility and
earthquake loads.
Strength of the building is generated from the structural dimensions,
materials, shape, and number of structural elements, etc.
Ductility of the building is generated from good detailing, materials used,
degree of seismic resistant, etc.
Earthquake load is generated from the site seismicity, mass of the structures,
important of buildings, degree of seismic resistant, etc.
Due to the variety of structural condition of building, it is hard to develop
typical rules for retrofitting. Each building has different approaches
depending on the structural deficiencies. Hence, engineers are needed to
prepare and design the retrofitting approaches.
In the design of retrofitting approach, the engineer must comply with the
building codes. The results generated by the adopted retrofitting techniques
must fulfill the minimum requirements on the buildings codes, such as
deformation, detailing, strength, etc.
b. Decision for Retrofitting
Some factors that should be considered in order to decide
Retrofitting is needed when the assessment of structural capacity results in
whether to retrofit or not are:
insufficient capacity to resist the forces of expected intensity and acceptable
limit of damages. a) Technical aspect
It is not merely poor quality of materials and damage of structural elements The technical aspects include the testing of materials and
serves as the reasons to retrofit a building. structural analysis. These measures are important to
Change of the buildings function, change of environmental conditions, and understand the condition of the structures related to the
change of valid building codes could also be the reasons for retrofitting. recent building codes.
Retrofitting must be conducted by experts from each field. In most b) Cost intervention
retrofitting process, an engineer plays the main role. An engineer must assess
Cost and benefit analysis must be conducted before the
and analyze the structural capacity.
decision is made.
An engineer must also design the best retrofitting techniques to strengthen
the structural deficiencies. c) Importance of building
The role of the novice is restricted to identify the possibility of insufficiency of Each building is built for its own purpose. Some old
building capacity. buildings have extra values, such as historical values, that
will strongly affect the final decision.
c. Cost-Benefit of Retrofitting:
Cost-Benefit analysis is sometimes conducted to determine whether retrofit or
rebuild the building is more feasible. Most studies imply that retrofitting of an
d) Availability of adequate technology existing structure is more feasible than to build a new building. Retrofitting is a
also a favorable approach to strengthen the building capacity to the external
Some of retrofitting techniques need a modern technology loads, e.g. earthquake.
to implement it. A decision of retrofitting must consider
whether the region provides such technology. The advantages of adopting retrofitting approach, despite of reconstructing the
building, can be listed as follows:
e) Skilled workmanship to implement the proposed measures
a. When retrofitting approach is adopted, retrofitted building can still be operated.
Some of retrofitting techniques need unusual construction
b. Retrofitting will take relatively less construction cost with the same structural
method to implement it. A skilled workmanship must be
performance
provided to implement the proposed measures.
achievement.
f) Duration of works
c. Retrofitting will involve relatively less resources, either human resources or
Some of retrofitting works will consume less time to finish it, natural resources.
but others take more time to complete. Hence, it is
important to take into the consideration the duration of d. Retrofitting will not significantly change the building configuration and shape. It
works. is preferable when the retrofitted building has historical values.
e. Retrofitting the building will produce less debris than reconstructing the building.
Besides the advantages, retrofitting also has several d. Retrofitting Process:
The retrofitting of a structure involves improving its performance under
disadvantages as follows: earthquake loadings through one or more of these following measures:
a. The skill of the worker must comply with the 1) Increasing its strength and/or stiffness
adopted retrofitting approaches. 2) Increasing its ductility
3) Reducing the seismic forces.
b. Limited access of the construction site since the The measures can be done through modification to one or more of the
building could be still in function. following parameters:
1) Columns
c. It is important to note that the analysis must 2) Beams
consider all parameters that can affect the 3) Bracings
decision. 4) Walls
5) Foundation
d. All costs and savings (including casualties and 6) Horizontal diaphragms
serviceability period) over a long period of time 7) Joints between structural elements
8) Masses
should also be taken into account. 9) Period of vibrations
When implementing these measures to buildings, it

is importance that:
1) The buildings provide the required degree of
seismic resistance
2) The chosen approaches are simple and
economical to implement in general.
The retrofitting process can be categorized into 3
categories as follows:
1. Assessment and Analysis
2. Design of Retrofitting Techniques/Approach
3. Construction/Implementation of Retrofitting
2. Vulnerability Assessment
a. Vulnerability Assessment for Novice (Teacher and Community)
Seismic retrofitting becomes an important issue because it includes
Before conducting the assessment, basic knowledge on the types of structural
protecting life and property in future earthquake as well as protecting
elements is a compulsory. Following is an illustration to describe the structural
investments, lengthening buildings usable life, reducing demands on
post earthquake rescue resources, protecting historic structures, elements of building.
shortening business interruption, and reducing relocation
needs/demands. Based on the large scope of the impacts of seismic
retrofitting, all parameters regarding the impacts should be
considered in the decision making.
Vulnerability assessment plays an important role in decision-making

measures. The purpose of carrying out a vulnerability assessment
analysis of an existing building is to determine the level of risk
associated with loss of serviceability and severe damage or collapse.
With the risk quantified, rational decisions can be made as to
whether the buildings should be retrofitted or replaced.
It should be noted that the vulnerability assessment for novice is restricted in
identifying the possibility hazard of the buildings. Indeed, a consultation to the
structural engineer is needed for designing the further vulnerability assessment and
retrofitting approach.
In general, the criteria of an earthquake resistant building are described as follows:

1) Simple and symmetrical building layout 2) Proper site area
Simple and symmetrical layout will give a good performance of the building
Some of the areas are prohibited for construction of building. Areas located on a
when subjected to earthquake loads. Rectangular or square building layout is
slope and coastal areas are very vulnerable to natural disasters. It is also
categorized as a simple and symmetrical building layout. When the layout is not
suggested not to construct a building on the sandy soil with thickness of more
symmetric, dilatation should be provided to separate the building. The
than 1 m, to prevent up raisal of building.
following illustration describes typical building layout and their performance to
earthquake forces.
The vulnerability assessment is usually conducted in 3
3) Proper connection of structural elements
Experience shows that most of the damages due to earthquakes occurred in
stages:
the connection area, such as beam column connection, roof trusses-beam 1) Visual investigation.
connection, column-foundation connection. It should be noted that all of
the elements must be properly tied up together to provide the structural 2) Structural investigation.
integrity when earthquake occurs.
3) Detailed structural analysis.
Common weaknesses found in masonry buildings are as follows:
Inadequate structural layout (unsymmetrical)
Insufficient load-bearing capacity of the walls
Inadequate connection between the walls.
Poor quality materials or work methods in the construction.
2) Structural investigation.
1) Visual investigation.
The structural investigation can be divided into structural investigation for
This assessment is to determine the existing structural condition, based on the
upper structure and structural investigation for sub-structure.
age of the buildings, environment condition, structural type, site of seismicity,
a) Structural investigation for upper structure
etc. The visual assessment is usually conducted together with structural
There are many methods/techniques available for upper structure structural
investigation. The results of the investigation will assist in conducting detailed
investigation.
structural analysis.
In general, the methods are divided into 2 categories, non-destructive test
In general, the visual investigation measures can be listed as follows:
(NDT) and semi-destructive/destructive test (DT).
Mapping the site condition
Non Destructive Test is conducted to assess the upper structure condition, and
Sketching of the overall layout, include the structural system, dimension and
suggested to be conducted as much as possible to give proper description and
geometry of elements, spacing, loading system, etc.
evaluation on material properties. Some of the commonly used NDT are
Mapping of the detail structural damage, e.g. spalling, pops-out, cracking and
Schmidt Hammer Test and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV). Schmidt
its pattern, corrosion, discoloration, etc.
Hammer Test is not intended to get the concrete strength directly, and a
Observation of deflection and displacement on the structural elements
correlation formula should be used to obtain the compressive strength. The
Observation of the deterioration of materials.
procedure of Schmidt hammer test refers to ASTM C 805.
It is suggested that the investigation is documented by either camera or video
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV) is intended to check crack depths by
camera for further evaluation and analysis.
measuring the concrete density. The procedure of UPV test refers to ASTM C
597.
On many occasions, semi-destructive/destructive test b) Structural investigation for sub-structure
((S)-DT) is also conducted. The most common (S)-DT is Structural investigation for sub-structure includes the
Core Drill Test. The purpose of this test is to get the investigation for soil properties and foundation.
concretes strength by drilling the existing concrete on There are many techniques for investigating soil
site and testing it at the laboratory. Semi properties. The most common used techniques for
destructive/destructive test should be conducted single story structure are hand boring and soil
carefully to prevent the excessive deterioration of penetration test.
structural elements. To get a good result of structural
Investigation of the foundation can be carried out by
testing, it is suggested to combine both non-destructive digging the soil to check the existence of the
test and destructive test. foundation, including the dimensions and the
bearing area.
c. Vulnerability Assessment for People in Charge.

Seismic Retrofitting decision-making may become a complex problem since many
aspects(management, societal, environment, technical, etc) should be considered prior
to retrofit. Some of the aspects that should be considered by the people in charge in
deciding to retrofit or not are:
3) Detailed structural analysis. E
Detailed structural analysis is conducted to estimate the structural The number of affected buildings will give the description of the scope of retrofitting
behavior when subjected to applicable loads. Results from works.
structural investigations should be used for the detailed structural Acceptable level of risk defined by the selected rehabilitation performance objectives
analysis. The results of structural analysis will be used for
designing of retrofitting approaches/strategy. The duration of retrofitting process and the possibility of the building to operate while
retrofitting must be considered in decision-making.
E
The number of residents will determine the decision of retrofitting. The larger number of
residents in the buildings, the greater possibilities of the building to be retrofitted.

All cost and benefit of all possible alternatives should be known for conducting the cost
benefit analyses
^
Society awareness, protection on the historic buildings, structures or areas that
represent unique community, loss of employment, priority of building to be retrofitted
are some of societal issues that should be considered
Politics
In some cases, political intervention could strongly affect the decision of
retrofitting.

Loss of revenue, loss of trading place, and loss of investment are some of
economical issues that should be considered.

Amount of debris generated and environmental impact from Non-
strengthened should be considered when assessing the environmental
impacts.
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
An analysis of the building, including retrofitting measures, is
conducted to determine the forces and deformations induced in
THE END
components of the building by ground motion corresponding to the
selected Earthquake Hazard Level, or by other seismic geologic site
hazards.
The analysis procedure can be taken as linear and non-linear
analysis. :
Linear procedures are suitable for buildings which do not have an
irregularity defined in earthquake resistant building design codes.
For buildings that have one or more of the irregularities, linear
procedures shall not be used unless the earthquake demands on the
building comply with the demand capacity ratio (DCR) requirements.
The results of the linear procedures can be very inaccurate when
applied to buildings with highly irregular structural systems, unless
the building is capable of responding to the design earthquake(s) in
a nearly elastic manner.

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Lecture-1

Tectonic hazards: earthquakes List of Major Historic Earthquakes

Magnitude 6) 1906 San Francisco 700 7.9

Great (M > 8) Earthquakes Since 1900

Tectonic hazards: earthquakes

Over 40 countries are under threat from major

What determines the destructiveness of a

Image of Bachau in Kutch region of Gujarat after earthquake 14

Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking

Building design: Buildings that are not designed for

Source: google images

Earthquake Destruction: Landslides

Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Buildings founded on saturated cohesionless

Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Lateral Spreading: Liquefaction related phenomenon

Source: wikipedia Source: wikipedia

Cracked Highway, Alaska earthquake,

Source: google images

Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Increased water pressure causes collapse of dams

Earthquakes sometimes cause

The destruction of lifelines and

What is a tsunami? Earthquake Destruction: Tsunami

At least 1500 (possibly

An earthquake produces a permanent displacement across http://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquake-

the fault. Hazards (Accessed on 27 March 2012)

Introduction to Seismology Engineering Seismology is concerned with the solution

Seismology and Earths Interior Origin of our Universe

Source: google images

Formation of Earths Layers Layers of the Earth

Movement of Tectonic Plates Rupture of rocks along a fault

Source: USGS public domain

Release of accumulated energy

Theory of continental drift

Theory of Continental drift Maps by Wegener (1915), showing continental drift

Evidence for continental drift

Evidence for continental drift Evidence for continental drift

Evidence for plate tectonic movements

Source: USGS public domain 8 9

Movement of global plate boundaries Types of plate boundaries

CONVERGENT - Pacific Northwest (Cascadia),

TRANSFORM - San Andreas, Dead sea, Turkey

Divergent Plate Boundary Convergent Plate Boundary

Source: USGS public domain 14 Source: USGS public domain 15

Source: USGS public domain

What drives plate movement?

The Earth convec

Source: USGS public domain

Source: USGS public domain

A Normal dip slip fault

Displacement in horizontal direction

Source: google images

Displacement in both vertical and

Source: google images

Animation of divergent boundary

Source: USGS public domain

Faults and Plate Boundaries Faults and Plate Boundaries

Animation of transform boundary

Animation of convergent boundary Source: USGS public domain

Source: USGS public domain

Elastic Rebound Theory

energy that causes destruction. 20 21

Sequence of elastic rebound: Bending Sequence of elastic rebound: Rupture