384 INDEX ved mambers, 184, 195-187 Wis, 250-251 Sleepers, 254 Sleeves, interosl, 216 Slings, 289 Slip type expansion joints, 218 Snobbers (se also Damping devices), 270-271, 287 Socket Welded joins, 82 ‘Solid eupport, see Ripid support Spacing of pipe supports, 288-299, 956-258 vibration considerations affeeting, 200-270 ‘Sphere under internal presure, $4 Spring-mase, model, 260 Springs, 245 Squirming, 200, Standards, 91-82 Sifnese, variable, 120, 122-123 Stites ratio @, 108, 120 [Suif piping systems, 2 Stops, 192, 297, 244 ‘oquations for, 825 treatment of in piping flexibility esleulstione, 140, 153, ght members, integration of shape coefficients, 12, 125, 175, 185, 812, 915-216, 321 Btesin, linear, § logarithmic, 5 ‘Strain energy in piping wystems, 300, 925, ‘Strain gages, use of in model testing, 201 Strain hardening, 3 rate of, 8 ‘Strain magnification, 3 ‘Strength, molecular, 14 Stress corrosion, 20-21 ‘Strovtes, allowable, 7, $448, 221 ‘combination of, 47-48 expansion, 40 fabrication, oestion, 97 in pith welds, 60 in horizontal pipelines, 358, 388 in pipe bends (oe also Stress intensification factor), 68-00 localized, prmry, sesondary, 84 pressure, cixcumferential, 43-16, 80 Stress evaluation, 45-17 in expansion bellows, 221 Sgeous intensification fuetor, 40, 48 bens, 53-60 branch conection, 65-67, 69 for corrugated pipe, 72-74 for fanges, 77 for miters 81 in fenibility analysa, 111-114, 128, in szaight pipe, 62 Stress range, allowable, 3711 Stress muptute test, 18 Streestrain curve, 2 Stroboseopie devices, 202 Stroubal number, 250 ‘Structural connections to pipe supports, ete, 251-254 deflection of, 252 location of, 286 Struts, jointed, 238 Square earner ascumption, offoct of, 111-118 Sammation eveffieonts, 129, 207, 910 Support, definition of, 282 ‘of concentrated Ton, 250 Supporting, ete from prosaure vessels, 258 Supporting structures, 254 Supporting eystem, elements of, 238, ‘erection and maintonanes of, 254 Supports, 288-287 ‘adjuntonent of, 255, Tocation of, 286-242 maintenance of, spacing on horizontal pipe lins of, 238 Sarge effects, pressure, 77 Sarge tanks, 270, 338 Swivel joints, 214 Syinmetry, of equations, 18 ‘of piping, 102, 157 ‘Temperature differentials, abnormal, 8 restianed exyansion, 31-82 ‘Terminal fixation of piving, 83-88 ‘Teste, expansion joints, 22 baydrostati, 60-51 significance of, 50-51 ‘Thermal eyeing fatigue effect of, 26 ‘Therms! exransion, cart of data, 341 restrained, 91-92 Therma} fatigue, 28 ‘Therma} unlouding, 87, 255 ‘Thick eylinders, 7, 45-16, ‘Threaded joints, 82 ‘Thec-hingod cystoms, 228-230 ‘Thrust wes, 101 ‘Tied expansion joins, 224 ‘Tie roda, 238 ‘on expansion joints, 224-226 Time constant, 334 Tolerances, expansion joint, 227 ‘Toroidal bellows, 215, 222 ‘Torus under internal prowsure, 46 ‘Tranaler of moments, 104 Transient creep, 9 ‘Trigonometsic constants for crcular mombere, 123, 315, ‘3-955 ‘Transition temperature, 17, 2 ‘Traverse, 213 ‘Tresca yield condition, 8, 48 ‘True strese vernus ultimate tres, 8 ‘Trunnion, 250-251 ‘Tube (se oso Cylindrieat shel), plastic instability of, 6 ‘Tuned resonators, 278, 290, 331-283 ‘Turbines, piping reactions on, 83-B4 ‘Two-member eystems, chart golutions for, 344-849 Uhtimate tensile stress, 5 relation to allowable streses, 95 Unbalanced presvue loads, 212, 214 Uniform loading, 170, 178-180, 185, 814-320 Universl type expansion joints, 224 Unrestrainod expansion, 91, 92 Unsuable deformations, 1 Vacuum exhaust steam service, design temperature of, 88Design of Piping SystemsDesign of Piping Systems THE M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY e Kellogg Overseas Corporation Kellogg International Corporation The Canadian Kellogue Company, Limited Deutsche Kellogg Industriehau, G. me. b. H. Kellogy Pan American Corporation Compania Kellogg Espanola Snciete Kelloge Revised Second Edition JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York + London + Ssdney owi0rs719 INTCopyright © 1981, 1986 by ‘The M. W. Kellogg Company BU Rights Reseroed ‘Than ook or ony part there must ot te reproduced in any form witht the turin perniseion. of the publisher. Revised Second Eaition 2 19 8 7 16 18 4 13:12 [Nothing oontained in Design of Piping Sten isto be construed Wifranting say right of manufacture, sale or use in connection Sith any method, apparatus or product covered. by Letters Fount, aor at inauring anyone against liabity for infingerent ‘of Letters Patent. ISBN 0 471 46795 2 Library of Congress Catalog Card Nambers 56-553 Printed in the United States of AmericaPreface ‘A-volure beating the title Design of Piping Systems, devoted solely te & e study of expnnsion stresses and reactions in piping systems, wns privately published by 2 ey Kellogg Company early in 1043. Tt made availabe for she Se time see aaequately organized, comprebensive analytical method for evaluating the an ose, reactions, and deflections in an irregulae piping system in Sach, ‘unlimited secre the character, loeation, or number of concentrated loudings, > restraints. Tf cas the culmination of an intensive, widespread effort to meet the recognized, eed for refined analysis capable of general application to he ince Ok number aoe Heal piping services required by techpotogical progress, andl {0 the increasingly seeate problems whic they posed The timely availability of Wis roliable and Hee aocpproach, now widely known as the Kellogg General Analytica! ‘Method, serie pemible to provide satisfactory design for the avalanche of critieal and pioneering piping requirements ascociated with World War 1 plant design, and Proved to be 2 major step in accelerating acquaintance wip ‘accurate thermal rrvansion anslysis and appreciation of its potentialities for more extensive applica tion. ‘Since the war, technotogical progress and the trend to larger seale, more complex ‘units has continued unabated, while the attendant increased pressures, "emp nas eruetural complexities have resulted in larger pipe sizes, heavier wall thicknesees, and a marked increase in alloy construction, Concurrently, the airtime fostered universal acceptance of adequate piping flecibiity sha! jis for ar carvice has paved tbe way for more searching examination of he over-all Gconomice of erected piping by relating potential fabrication, materials, and Cperating savings to increased engineering costs, arlin coneeptsy which regarded ining a3 trivial and expendable, are fast disappearing in view of the rising costs ene ourections and loss of plant operation —and also with the recognition hot piping eepresents an inoreasing percentage of initial plant expendifire Tie importance of sound piping design is now well recognized not only by designers and wre, but also by autborities concerned with public ssl ‘The Gade for Pressure Piping Committee (ASA B31.1) lins increased 15 membership Cote ereity over the past several years and a Conference Committee tis been srgunized, composed. of the chief enforcement authorities ofeach Stas Province that bas alopted a portion or all of the Code. Significant improveme™ in the vanes have alveady resulted in the revised minimum (and now mandaiory) re sector piping feibiity. With this trend, the ASA Code jonow rapidly assiiN cee eee aee mandatory Safety Code, whereas previously it had served designers and users primarily as a recommended design practice guide Se eae wliage of enginesting personnel during World War HI prevented tue completion of sections on other aspects of piping design that had been planned Peer en the original edition of Design of Piping Systema. As the sheraae persisted, considerable time elapsed before resumption of work could Be ceonsidered. Rremwbile, many requests for extension and suggestions for improvement WorePREFACE received from readers of the text already published. Review of these and other flovelopments in light of extended experience led to the conclusion that s new dition wos warranted. As the work got under way, it was soon evident thst Troadening of the subject matter would have to be limited to treatment of the Erructural phase of piping design; coverage of the entire fold, including fluid flow, syatem design and layout, valve design, piping fabrication and erection, ete. would Teqire much mote than the desired single volume. Wiig the objective of this Second Edition to supplement Code rules and other radily available information with specific msechanical design approaches for entire Piping eysteme as well as their individual components aud to provide background PMormation which will engender understanding, competent application of analytical eoulta, and the exercise of good judgment in handling the many special situations ‘which oaust be faced on eritical piping. In line with this objective, the opening Thapter presents a condensed treatise on the physias of materials. Tt is followed by a comprehensive study of the capacity of piping to carry various preseribed Ioadinge The utilization of materials is then considered, not only in relation to undisnental knowledge but also on the basis of conventionally aocepted practices, “Tie present edition also inchides a greatly augmented treatment of loca lexibilt ‘and stress intensification, and a chapter on simplified methods of flexibility anal vontains several newly developed approaches which should prove helpful for general scusement of average piping, or in the planning stage of the design of ritical piping. The Kellogg Genera! Analytical Method, now extended to include all forms of Toading, has been iinproved in presentation by the use of numerous suimple ealoala tions to illustrate application procedures, and by placing the derivations of the formulas in an appendix. Included in this edition are chapters on expansion joints tind on pipe supports that offer, it is believed, the first broad treatment of these items with regard to eritical piping. The rising significance of vibration, both “trustural and fluid, is recognized in the final chapter, which was also prepared expecially for this edition. For ready accessibility of information, the charts and fables most frequently needed for reference have been grouped at the end of the text, and a detailed subject index has been provided. Tas M. W. Keznoce Company Noss York, N.Y. Nanomber 1855Acknowledgments ‘Thi volume i based on the broad experience, background, and mechanical cogineeting accomplishment of The M. W. Kellogg Company ‘the field of piping “ign. Tr reflects the numerous achievernents and contribotor of the Company cere sive piping design for high temperature and pressure san ey ‘Ag with the aneraftaon, the preparation of this book bas been sponsonal Py the Fabricated Ti dota Division of which Waldo McC. MeKee is Bales Maviege™ ‘This work eros brought to realization only taraag the cooperation of he ‘entire engineet roan of the Company and, in particular of the Piping DiS} Bo pvidual contributions deserve specific acknowledgment Tt Wallstrom, proviled the major original contributions to the Ket Re ‘eneral Analytical Method rote extensions (Chapter 5 and Appendix A). He was ably assisted in this work by Mrs. Catherine R. Gardiner. Hee orowar of the Massachusetts Institute of Teshnclogy, retained conan of The MW. Kelloge Company, is esponsitle for the contents of Chapter 1 haplel gph and N, A. Wel collaborated in composing Chapters > and 8 and susie in the proparation of Chapters Land7. Chapter is the reat of a coopera eet afore between HL. Wallstrom and N. A. Wells LC, Andrewsis credited with the ‘writing of Chapter 6. ft the most significant contributions to Chapters 7 and § due to re Shentten, M, Yachtor, assisted by S. Meerbaum, prepared ¢ hhapter 9 and Appendix B. ppenaT Sion to eredits for Chapters, the following, special contributions are actnowleiged, J. J. Rush and M. Bartatein developed The Guided Cantilever Te ee Ghapter 4. Le Morsivon contributed to the general pha of piping, setae Valuable suggestions were supplied by ML. G. Seber Chapter 8 and by ‘Chanter 9. Credit is duc to J. T. McKeon for his notable comments Sea sein reviewing and proof-reading this volume, I. Mylander i (0 be ommended for co-ordinating portions of this work The task of assembling and editing the Second Edition was carried out by LP Shealfer. IN. A. Weil performed the review and inserted oomestre for the econ printing of this Bdition. The entire project bas besa Under the direction of eee Pres who has guided the design principles and philosophies embodied in this work ee ihe cave vith mest advances in the engineering art, the FiFs Eadition and cain Geniionntly exterded Second Eaition of Design of Piping System have greatly Tamefted from the research and contributions of other investign’or "Their many aan ee etrpatong are covered in the lists of zefarences a tho ends of he various Thapters and in the “Wistorieal Review of Bibliography” of Appendix A. R. B. Sat Vice-Presicent, Engineering The M. W. Kellogg CorepareyIn Memory of DAVID B, ROSSHED {In all of hie carces, Mr. Rossheim’s ability, dedication and friendliness were an inspiration ta his associates and won for him everyone's atfection and respect.Nomenclature a 18 i 18 aa 22 23 Chapter 1 Strength and Failure of Materials Stable and Unstable Deformations Plasticity ‘X. Plastie Deformation under Uniaxial Stress, 2! Be Trisnal Stress: Yield Conditions, 3 E. Plastic Streswatrain Relationships for Te asiel St, Failure by Plastic Instability ‘A. Inetability. of Plastio Extension: the UI imate Teneile Strengts, 5, B. Instability of the Plastic “Expansion of ‘Tubes, esse, and Plates 6, C. Ultimate Stress ond Working Strest, 7 Cove “A. Phe Andrade Aualysis of the Creep Curve 8; B. Transient Croep, 0; C. Viscous Creep, 1g D. Creep under Taxol Sizes, 11; E. The Mechanism of Cresp, 11; F- Bvalustion and Enjginooting Use of Creep Tests, 12; G. Creep racturo, 18, ‘Types, of Fracture Grmth Theory Durie Fractures ‘The Britdle Fracture of Steel (“Note Brittle eas") Fatigue “A. General Foatures, 20; B. The Mechanism of Fatigue, 22, C. Inluence of a Superposed Stondy Stress, 28: D, Thloence at Come pound State of Stres, 25; Influence of otohes and of Surface Flaws 25; F. Fatigue ‘Tests on Specimens vs, Fatigue Tete on Struc tural Parts, 26, G. Penidically Varying ‘Thormal Stresees, 26; H. Thermal Fatigue, 27: J. Datnage by Overstess, 27, K, Corrosion Facigu, 2. Molecular Cohesion; the Chapter 2 Design Assumptions, Stress Evaly and Design Limits Code and Standarde Design Considerations: Loadings Design Limit ‘Stress Reger Allowable Stress, and AMlowable 18 15 16 2 39 310 a1 312 38 aun Contents Stress Evaluation ‘t, Inernal Pressure up to 3000 pei Maximum, 4%; h. Internal Pressure over 3000 psi, 44, . Beternal Pressures, 45; 4. Expansion, 47; 2 Other Losding, 47 Combination of Stres: Sirs Intensifiention and Fleibility Factors [Evaluation of Deilootions and Reactions Design Significance of Inzpection and Teste Chapter 3 Local Components ‘Pipe Bende: Structural Londing (Static and Cycle) Pipe Bends: Internal Pressure Miter Benda Bends and Mitere: Summary Branch Connections: Statie Pressure Losding Brauch Conneesions: Repeated Loading Branch Connections: Comaparizon with Code Re- aquremenss Branch Connections: Practical Considerations av Summary ‘Corrugated Pipe Bolted Flanged Connections: Genoral Background Bolted Flanged Connections: Practical Considera- ‘ions Joints Between Dissimilar Matorils Other Compenencs ‘Piping and Equipment Increfocts rapter # Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysie Scope und Merits of Approximate Motbode “Thermal Expansion eeliminery Sogeopation of Lines with Adequate Flesibility: Cove Rules Selected Chart-form Solutions Approximate Solutions ‘The Simplified General Method for Square-corner Systema Approximating the Effeat of Curved Pipe and Other Components a a 8 eases a8 60 1 m 7 n st ess os 102 107or 62 85 Ba 85. Chapter 5 ity Analysis by the Gener ‘Analytical Method Scope and Field of Application of the General ect Galealating Aids CGoneral Outline of Operstions ‘The Solution of Simultaneous Equations Single Plane Calculations Inelined Members and Changes in Stifiess Circular Membr General Shape Coeficiente ‘The Secondary Term LEvfecte of Direet und Shear Forces Working Plance end Cyetie Permutation Malsiplaue Pipe Lincs with Two Fixed Ends ‘Hinged Joints and Partially Constrained Buds Skowet Members Branched Systems Intermediate Restraints ‘Caleulation of Deformations at any Point ‘Symmetrical Pipe Lines Inversion Procedures Cold Springing Weight Loading Wind Loading Chapter 6 Flexibility Analysis by Model Test ‘The Experimental Approach ‘The Routinized Model Toot ‘The Kellogg, Mosel Te ‘The Kellogg Mode! Test Lchoratory and Equip. ‘Typical Model Teste Chapter 7 Approaches for Reducing Expansion Bifects Expansion Joints Totroduetion Sources of Excessive Expansion Eects Approashes for Reducing Bxpsnsion Effects Packed Type Bxpansion Jointa Bellows Type Expansion Joints ‘t Discussion, 214; 6. Bellows Detalla, 214; © Support nd Proteotion of Bellows, 218; {1 Fxorication of Bellows Joints, 217; e. Bstab= Uhing Purchasing Requieomonts for Bellows Joints, 219; J. Materials wa. Deterioration, 220; g, Fatigue Bune for Predicting Bellows Life, 230; Testing and Quality Control of Bellows Joints, 29 Expaneion Joints with Built-In Coneteainta Establishing Expansion Joint Movement De mane CONTENTS us ns 16 17 uT uo 120 125 125 125 12 va 128 129 ie MB 6 158 187 137 186 170 185 os 195 108 201 202 210 210 210 210 az aut 28 sa 52 83 4 85 86 a7 on 92 93 94 95 26 97 98 Chapter # Supporting, Restrain the Piping System ‘Terminology and Basie Functions Leyout Considerations to Facilitate Support ‘The Blements of the Supporting System: Their Selection and Bocation Fixtures Pipe Attachments Structures and LBrestion and Maintonunce ofthe Supporting, Ree straining, and Braciog System ructaral Copneetions Chapter 9 Vibration: Prevention and Control Introduction Fundamental Considerations in Piping Vibration ‘e, Definitions, 258; 5, Typosol Vibeston, 255) 1 Sourees of Peviodio Excitation, 250; d. Vie bration Prevention and Control, 338 Structural Natural Frequency Cale ‘0. The Spring: Mase Model, 200; 0. Frequen Sand Mase Effectiveness Factors for Diereat ‘End Conrtrsints, 201, ¢, Variable Stifiaess and Variable, Mass, 203. i, Combined Bending- ‘Torsion, 264, © Approsimace Netural Fre- ‘quencies of Pipe Bends with Two Mombere (Vibration Perpoadisular to Plane of Band), 205; f. Plats nnd adil Mode in Pipe, 266. Structural Resonance and Magnification Factors Dampang of Strustural Vibrations fo Hydrqulis Suubbers, 270; 8. Blast Foun- Altius for Rotating Machinery, 271 Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations ‘@ Tho Orgen Pipe asd Resonators, 273 1; Special Cases of Sltiple Resonator Forma: Jas, 274; ¢, Piping Systome with Branches aul Enlargements, 276 Acoustic Resonance and Magniflestion Factors Flow Paleation Smooth Mi Tuned Resonators, 279; b, Surge Tans, 279; 0 Gas Pslaation Demponer Principles, 2D; d, Acoustic Expansion Tank, 281; ¢. Com- pation of Gee Pubsstion Sinoothing Device, Bet. j Hydraulic Hammer, 288: ¢- Masai tude and Disertion of Foreee on Piping Bends, 285, Diostration of Vibration Analysis of © Simple Piping System f Geeral Data and Estimates, 285; 0. Es fates of Structural Natural Frequencies of Piping System, 285; ¢. Tssimote of Lower Bounds of Structure) Natural Froquencies, 280; 4. lect of Plasticity of Machine Foundation, 266; ¢, Entinate of Hyratlic Seubber Pocoe fand Damping Hequicement for Reduction of Amplitude of Vibration, 287" J. Resonance et due to Wind Velocity, 267° 9, Estimate of Acoustic Natizel Frequencies, 287; hy Esti Tate of Acoustic Frequency of the System Corresponding. to ite First’ Harmonic Cs Mods), 258," 1, Bnlistes of Some Possible Resonator Frequencien, 288; j. Estimate of Fe 2 231 238 26 263 28 251 24 267 270 oo om 2m2.10 Aa a2 aa BL Ba BS Ra Voume sai Pressure Drop Requirement of Fydrautte Filsere (Botts) 1 the Comprossor Discharge Lines, 200; &. Tuned Resonator Goornetry, 290 Piping Vibration“ Ir arr ment, 292: 2 boule Shooting” 201; b Vibration Measure. 'Prnable Shooting” Procedure, Appendix A Mistory and Derivation of Piping tory of Piping Flosbility and Stress Analy Bibliograpby on Piping Flexibility and Stes Analysis Appendix B Derivation of Acoust Multiple Resonator of nth Ordor General Characteristic Equation for a Branched Pong Systems ‘Tuned Resonator Relations Simplified Surge Fiter Analysis Appendix © Charts and Tablew Properties and Weights of Pipe ‘Thermal Expansion, Carbon and Alloy Steels Modulus of Elasticity, Carbon and Alloy Steele (Chart for Criterion in Par, 620(a) in Code for Pros sure Piping ASA B31.1 Length of Lag Requited, Two-Member System, oth Ende Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of Memivers 2 28 28 9 aa 338 338 336 aan 2 3 ae cw en ce cas es eas cis cat cas Bat 5A2 BAS 5h 55 8 Moments and Foros, wor Member System, Both Ends, Fixed, Thermal Expaneion in Plane of Members 7 Length of Lag Required, ‘Two-\fember System, Both Ende Fised, One Suppare Displared in te Direction of Adjoining Member Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed, One Suppor: Dispaved in the Diroc= tion of the Adjoining Member Length of Leg Required, Two-memer Systenn, Both Ende Fixed, One Support Displared Normal to Plane of Members Moments and Foreos, Two-Member System, Both Ende Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal ta Plane of Members Required Height, Symmetrical Expansion Loop Moments and Poress, Symmetrical Expansion Loop Guided Cantilever Chart Correction Factor J, Guided Cantilever Method ‘Design Data: Trigonometrie Constante for Cirew- lar Members ‘Span va, Stress, Horizontal Pipa Lines, Unifoem Load Span va, Netural Frequency and va, Deflection, Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform Load Correction Fastors for Use with Charta C-18 and ei Appendix D A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis and The Use of Digital Co Inteaduetion An Example Seleoted Bibliography Inlex 5 M6 ur 38 ay ast 352 353 asa 356 as7 359 361 362catan by par 1H awa et Nomenclature: Definitions of Principal Symbols Meaning Horizontal coordinate to midpoint uf member ‘in working plane Vertical coordinate to midpoint of member ia working plane. Distance of the working plane froma the origin; ‘vous damping eoeliient, ‘Teigonometrie constants Ceitieal damping eoelicient. Diameter; inside diameter Unit linear thermal expansion for a tempera tute diference AT; base of Napierian fogarithans Prequency: factor. ‘Natural fequency. Gravitational coastant Bond characteristic (=1R/rm!; piteh of half corrugation of aa expansion bellows; grt- dicat of pipe supports, (ect range of an expansion joi, Imaginary unit (= V— 1). Flenbiity factor of pipe ia bending spring Langth, spin of pipe between support Mass. Material constant, expooent in faligue equ= Pressire load per unit area) Plastic constraint factor; shape cooficent Irnovn as the cocondary term. adi Insc ratvs ‘Mean rains Outside radius Shape conirient; stanly stress component Shape eoetivient Dime thieknass. Bhape coefficients, Shape coelBicienta Width, unit weight load, Unit oad inthe a, yr, and ediections respectively ‘Coordinate ate, coordinates of « point Meaning Area; activation energy; fee end [Atenution factor. Material constant, (Cold pring factor; veloeityof sound constant. Diameter. ‘Young's modulus of elasticity; joint efficiency Young's modulus of elasticity at ambient ‘emnperotare. ‘Young's modulua of asticity at operating temperature, Fors. oreo component in the direction of xia “indicated by subscript. Second sabscrit, if uged, refers to the source of the force. Shear modulis, diameter of the effective fgisketreuction om 8 flange, Moment of inertia. Polar moment of inertia Constant Length. Moment. ‘Magnification factor. Bending moment in the plave of the member Pending moment transverse to the plane of ‘the member: ‘Torsional momo Moment component refered to origin aud ‘bout axis nieated by subscript. Second fubscript, if used, cefers 10 the souree of the moment. Moment component sbout aris indionted by subscript. Second subscript fused, refers to the aouree of the moment, Any bending moment. ‘amber of eyes, rpm. Origin ised end, Point, concentrated loa Quotient, stifoes ratio, How rateSa Sp Sp Bu B. v. 7 ¥, NOMENCLATURE Meaning Centerline radu of torus of curved member (pipe bend or elbow}, ratio, Universal gue constan Fetigue strength; stress, amplivude of ater. nating tensile trees eompanent; shape coefickont; Stroubal number Becding sizes in the plane of the member [Bending stress traneveree tthe plane of the rmesnier Allowable sizess for material at amb temperature Allowable stress for « material at operating ‘tecnperature ‘Torsional stress Allowable etree rags Renultant benciag sree. Computed maximam stress range, Ultimate tensile strength (conventional tres) ‘Tempersture, amplitade of alternating shear seas; period af vibration Velosity, energy; shape cosficlent Voluine; supe coofcient. ‘Total uniform load, Yield. stress in uniavil tension; rosultont ‘expansion. Section medulus Syteot # r » we *. Meaning Surface energy (work for creating new auriace er unit ret}; angle; coefisent of linear expansion. Longitudinal rere intensification factor: angle, Shear stain, tranevorse stress intexaitieation actor, ratio of epeific hea ‘Tranalatory displacement; defisction Normal (tensile or eompressive) atin Logssithmie sts. Principal strats Viscous damaping coeficient (damping rato) Coeticient of viscoity Avil Weave length Acouetic conductivity Poisson's rato. Density NNortasl (easlle or compressive) trae stress, Principal stresses (rue) Shear stress Angle, Ane “Angulse frequency. Rostrained linear thermal expansion. AngleCHAPTER 1 Strength and Failure of Materials* part opcurs when a certain function of the stress or strain components reaches & critical value. ‘The designer must know, then: (a) how the stresses and strains ean be calculated from the applied loads (b) what are the critieal combinations of stress and. strain at whieh failure occurs, The frst question belongs to the fied of applied mechanics (elasticity, mathematical theory of the plastie field, and mathematical rheology), In tela tion to piping systems, it will be treated in detail in subsequent chapters of this book. he second question is concerned with the me- chanieal properties of solids, which is x chapter of the physics of solids. Iv is 0 rolatively new field of seienee; rntil about 80 years ago, the mechanisms of frasture and of plastic deformation were almost unknown, Sinee 1920, however, the progress in this field has been rapid; ab the same time, the demands con the designer's understancling of the mechanical behavior of materials have gone far beyond what is nerally available in the traditional textbooks, Hence, it is appropriate to introsuce the treatment, of piping system dosign in this book with a brief but uptodate sketch of the mechanical properties of solids Failure of a structural part ean oeeur by (a) excessive clastic deformation, (0) excessive non-elastie (plastic or viscous) defor- mation, oF (6) fracture. ‘The ealenlation of elastie deformations and of the conditions of elastic instability is the main subject of books dealing with applied elasticity (tradition- I the simplest cases, the failure of a structural ‘Propared by Dr. Egon Orowan, George Westinghouse Professor of Mechaniesl Engineering, Massachusetts Inst- tute of Techaolog. ally, though inappropriately, entitled “Strength of Materials”), In the present ehapter, only the cond ‘tions of failure by non-elastie deformation or fraeture will be considered in detail. Fashure by excessive de- Jormation will beclisenssed in thefirst our sections, and “failare by fracture in subsequent parts of the chapter, 11 Stable and Unstable Deformations |A structure ceases to be serviceable if it suffers excessive deformation. ‘The deformations leading to its failure may be elastic (Le., deformations that disoppear when the stross is removed), or non- clastic; the latter may be plastic (i.c., depending only fon the deforming stress but not on the duration of its action), or they miay represent a creep (Le., they moy increase or decrease with time at constant stress), Moderate deformations (elastie or _non-elastie) may be beneficial in that they can redistribute the stress in a structural part or between several struc- ‘ural parts and so prevent its rise to levels at which fracture ean secur. Tn many cases, the deformation leads to changes of the shape of the body that cause an increase of the stresses produced by a given load. The simplest examples of this are elastic buckling, and the plastic extension of a rod in the course of which its eross section diminishes and the stress for a given load in- creases; if this ineroase is not counterbalanced by strain hardening, it leads to accelerated disruption. ‘Such phenomens represent an elastic instability if the deformation is elastic, and a plastic instability if it is essentially plastic. Plastic instabilities are of reat importance in the design of tubes and pressure vessels, Tn what follows, failure by plastic instability will be treated separately, after the section dealing withe Fig 1.1. Yield strestrain gurve of copper in compression. ‘After Cook and Lark [1 plastic failure without instability. Subsequently, failure by ereep will be considered, 1.2 Plasticity A. Plastie Deformation under Uniaxial Stress. As meationed above, pane plantciy is de- fined t= x non-elatic type of deforination without time influence. In uniaxial deformation, the plastic strain eis determined by the value of the stress ¢ at @ Beh he cefomation tes pine aay Elastic deformations also obey a law of this form: hhowever, they are reversible, while in plastic defor- mation the relationship (eq. 1.1) is valid only for increasing stress, When the stress is reduced, the plastic strain remains approsimately unaltered. By its definition, pure plasticisy means the ab- sence of oreep, No material satisfying this require- ment is known; howover, the bebsvior of ductile metals and other crystalline materials at. not too high temperatures (compared with their melting point) ean be deseribed approximately as plastic. The stress required for plastic deformation (often donoted by Y) is the picid sirss Te dependence (eq. 1.1) upon the preceding plastie strain is repre- sented graphically by the “strese-strain curva” (more @& 222286, would be colle the yield stress-strain ‘eurve). The strose-strain curves of metals capuot be represented by a simple mathematical expression. For strains that are neither too small nor too large, thoy ean often be approximated by « parabola = constant x ‘At small plastic strains, as well as at very large ones, however, the stress-strain curve is usually quite dif- ferent from the parabola representing it for moderate strains. In addition, the stress-strain curves of different metals are, as a rule, different in character. ip the treatment of plasticity, the term “yleld stro” meas the stress required for Gniiating er consinuing) plastic elormation; owing to the preweuce of strain hardening, it changes with the plastic ssi DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fie, 1.2. Stresseteaia eurve of the "ideally plastle” material A familiar type, the stressstrain curve of copper, is shown in Fig. 1:1 For the calculation of the distribution of stress and strain in plastieally deformed bodies, drastically simplified types of stress-strain curve must be used, Except in a few of the simplest cases, it is usally assumed for this purpose that yielding starts sud- denly when a critieal stress value is reached, and that it progresses thereafter at # constant stress—in other words, that there is no strain hardening. Figure 1.2 shows the corresponding stress-sirain curve of the “ideally plastic” material, Tt must. be Kept in mind that such a curve represents a sensible, though rough, approximation only if the plastic strain is large compared with the elastie strain. In tthe initial part of the stress-strain curve of a typical metal {compare Fig, 1.1), the deviation from the elastic Tine increases gradually and the idealized curve (Fig. 1.2) does not represent an approximation. ‘A few materials (notably, low-carbon steels) show ‘the so-called “yield phenomenon”: plastic deforma~ tion starts suddenly when the stress reaches the value of the “yield point.”” After its start, the stress requited for further deformation may remain con- stant for @ time, or drop immediately toa lower value (the “lower yield point”), as shown in Fig 13. If such a stress drop occurs, the initial yield point is called the “upper yield point.”” (Of particular interest to the designer is the stress 86 which the plastic strain for the total strain} curve of an annealedSTRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 3 reaches the maximum permissible value. If the stressatrain curve is of the character shown in Fig, 11, the value of the yield stress at which the strain reaches some specified permissible amount (eg, 0.2% oF 0.02%) is ealled the 0.2% (or 0.02%) “yield strength” or “proof stress."” Since the ward “cerength” is reserved in scientific usage for the fracture stresa, the term “proof stress” will be used in the present chapter. If the yielding is discon- tinuous, as in Fig. 1.3, the entire range of commonly permissible strains, up to 1% or even 3%, lias on the horizontal part of the curve; in this ease, the lower yield point takes the place of the proof stress. ‘The ‘upper yield point is a capricious quantity whieh ean be obliterated by relatively small stress concentra- tious or small plastie deformations, so that the designer eannot tely on it, ‘Naturally, the proof stress is altered by preceding plastic deformation (“cold work”). Let OBD be the stress-strain curve of an annealed metal and OF the elastic line (Fig. 14); 4 is the point at which a critical strain of, say, 0.2% is reached, After strain- ing in tension to B and removing the lond (point C), & material is obtained of which the streasstrain ‘enrve in tension is CFD. The point F at which the permissible strain of 0.2% is reached is now higher than A, owing to the preceding strain hardening, (Ou the other hand, if the same material, prestrained in tension to B, is subjected to compression, the microscopic residual stresses remaining in it give rise to perceptible plastic. deformation even at very ow compressive stresses, and the stress-strain curve in compression CG doviates from the elastic line strongly from the beginning. ‘This softening of the material to reverse deformation is called the ““Bau- iger effect.” ‘The hysteresis loop BCF observed when the stress is removed and then applied again is cssentially the same phenomenon, due to directional microscopic residual stresses in a. plastically strained material ‘A mild heating (stress-relioving) after the deforma tion removes the residual stresses responsible for the Bauschinger effect: and restores the proof stress for reverse deformation more or less to the increased level of the proof stress for deformation continuing in the initial direction, B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions. So far, ‘only uniaxial stressing has been considered. If a general (jriavial) state of stress is prosent, with Principal stresses a1 > oz > ws, yielding in a mate- Fial without a sharp yield point cecurs when s certain mathematical expression containing the principal stresses reaches a critical value, Of soveral “viold shi Pra, 14 Increase of the proof stress by cold work: the Bauschinger effect, conditions” suggested, only tivo have been found compatible with observations and at the same time simple enough for practical use: the ‘Tresea (maxi- mura shear stress) condition, and the von Mises (anaximum octahedral stress) condition The ‘Tresca yield condition [2] assumes that yielding cecurs when the msximam shear stress, equal to one-half of tho difference between the algebraically greatest and smallest principal stresses, reaches a critical value. It is expressed by (2) where ¥ ie the yield stress in uniaxial tension or com- pression. With the ‘Tresea condition, the inter mediate principal stress has no effect on yielding. ‘The Mises yield condition [3] assumes that yield ing ovcurs when the “affective” shear stress? £(es—0)" (1.3) rexches the eritical value of the yield stress in pure shear, Le., one-half of the yield stress ¥ in tens Expressed in terms of the uniaxial yield stress Y ean be written as 1 / (0, ~ 92) + (ee—as) + (e321) (LA) va *Phe “octahedral” shent steve difors from the rigbt-hen:L side of eq. 1.8 by having the factor, instead af 1/2-V2. before ‘thesquana root, The fartr 1/22 has the conveniensethat it makes the right-hand side of eq. 13 equal to the maxima shear streas inthe eae of a uniaxial etree i.e, for ge = #3 = 0.e: ‘The Mises condition is often called the “shear strain energy condition,” since, in an isotropic material the right-hand side of eg. 1.8 or 14 is proportional to that portion of the total energy whieh corresponds tothe shese deformations. For anisotropic materials, however, the shear strain energy depends in general upon the hydrostatic component (pressure or ten- sion) of the state of stress [4], The attainment of a critical value of the shour strain enengy, therefore, cannot be a condition of plastic yielding, which ‘except at extreme pressures, it not influenced hy the hydrostatic component of the stress. ‘A charaeteristic feature of the Mises condition is that the intermediate principal stress has an influence on the ovcurrence of yielding. Only if ep is equal to the highest or lowest principal stress does eg, 1-4 coincide with the Tresca condition (eq, 1.2). The sroatest divergence between the two conditions is present when the intermediate principal stress es is the mean value of the extreme ones Percery In this ease, eq. 1.4 becomes 7 = 0, — 3 = L1SY a va ‘That ie to say, the maximum principal stress differ- ence at yielding is about 15% higher according to the Mis condition than that given by the Tresea condition. Experiments indicate thatthe behavior of metals ‘with no sharp yield point, 98 a rule, is incermedinte between the Tresea and the Mises yield eonditions, tasually somewhat. closer to the Intier. For mathe- ratical investigations of stress and strain distribu tion in plastically deformed bodies, the Mises coni- tion is often simpler to handle For materials with an upper and a lower yield point thore is no reliable eritevion for the onset of yielding at the upper yield point, sinoe this quantity is extremely sensitive to slight non-uniformities of stress distribution and to the size of the specimen (5). As mentioned, however, the upper yield point is of Little importasiee to the designer, since the allowable stress must be based on the lower yield point, which in the stress required for the first Liiders’ bands to widen, From this it follaws at once that the yield condition in this ease cannot be the Mises condition Singe the Lider’ bands are sheared layers embedded betxcen still rigid blocks of the material, only the shar stress acting in their plane can eause them to ecome thicker, and the intermediate principal siress which is'parallel to the Liders! layer and DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS perpendicular to the direction of shear in the layer rust be ineffective. Consequently, the appropriate yield condition in this eace must be closer to the Tresca condition C. Plastic Stresi~strain Relationships for Stress. In the preceding section, the con- ditions of plastie yielding were considered. If they fave satisfied and yielding occurs, the question of importance to the designer ia how the resulting strains are determined by the applied state of stress. ‘The difficulties of this problem become evident if one considers the facts that the resulting deformation ‘depends on the sequence in which the stress com- ponents are applied, and that, owing to the Bau- schingeroffect, the slightest deformation destroys the initial isotropy of the material and makes re deformation easier than eontinued deformation. A plausible solution has been given only for the simple case of an ideally plastic isotropic material (strain hardening and the Bauschinger effect being jgnoted). According to this solution, # given triad of prinsipal stresses o1, 07, 3 is selated to the increment of plastic strain utising during its application; this increment is to be added to the plastie strains created by preceding actions of stressos. According to Lévy and Mises, dq = Dn ~ Flor + 98) be = Alor — Hea + od] deg = iNloa — Hor + o2)] (1.6) where de, Sen de are simultaneous increments of the principal strains, and 4 is a parameter determining, the extent of the deformation. ‘The Lévy-Mises equations determine only the ratios of the prineipal strain increments; the absolute amounts depend on. how long the straining is continued at the constant, principal stresses 01, 02, 95 In the literature, occasionally the stressstrain relationship = No ~ Bor + oa) «2 = Nox ~ Blos + a4)] eo = Noa — Hor + o2)] an is used. If the principal stresses remain invariant dating the deformation, those equations represent simply the integrated form of the Léey-Misos equa- tions; if not, they are incorrect. ‘These equations are sometimes referred to as the “deformation theory,” sas contrasted with the Lévy-Mises “incremental theory.” Vor strain-hardening materials, severa] authorsSTRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS have suggested the generalized stress-strain relu- tionship rats = fies) 18) where rat is the effective shear stress defined by a, 1.3, and 74x the effective shear strain defined by the analogous equation ‘Equation 1.8 has not yet received sufficient experi- ‘montal verification; it-can be a satisfactory approxi- mation only if the anisotropy due to preceding plastie deformation can be neglected. 1.3. Failure by Plast A. Instability of Plastic Extens mate Tensile Strength, Like elastic, so plastie or viscous deformation may slso lead to buckling, ot of a compressed column, of of a thin-walled tube under extemal pressure. The treatment. of such cases is analogous to that of elastic buckling, but the Titerarure of plastic and viecous buckling is relatively small, For details, reference should be made to the published literature (0 ‘A case of plastic instability of great historical and practical importance is that occurring in the tensile fest. Initially, the extension is uniform; unless iracture intervenes, howover, the tensile load reaches ‘maximum in the course of the tes, and at the same time a neck begins to develop. Further extension is then concentrated in the neck and ceases everywhere alse in the specimen. ‘The maximum load, divided by the initial eras-seetional area, is called the ultimate tensile strength” of “ultimate tensile stress"; its sigoificance for engineering design will be discussed in detail in Part C of the present section, at o = o(¢) be the equation of the (true) yield stress-strain curve of @ purely plastic material in Tuniosial tension; the strain used is the linear strain defined a 6= bye 110) where (ia the eurrent length of the tensile specimen, and lp its initial length. Since the volume ¥ does not change significantly during plastic deformation, the product of length Land cross-sectional area 4 in the range of uniform extension remains constant UW = bdo = 0 ain ‘The load F = oA reaches » maximum when aF =cdd + Ads =0 (1.12) dejo = —dA/A cag) Fo. 15 Considése’s geometrical construotion of the msi ‘um fond point snd ofthe ultimate tensile stress Differentiation of eq. 111 gives ayl= -dajA Combination of this equation with eq. 1.13 leads to doja = aift ay) Equation 1.10 ean be written as Tebil te (1.104) dl = Iyite From the last two equations afl = def +0) Introduced into eq. 1-14, this results in dafde = of +0) (a5) Equation 1.15, representing the condition for the Joad to reach @ maximum during the tensile test, has a simple geometrical meaning Let the stress- strain curve a(¢) be plotted in Fig. 1.5, and Jet the point P on the negative strain axis have the distance I from the origin; ie, the same distance as the point @ on the positive strain axis representing, . 100% extension, For any point of the stresssstrain curve, de/de is the gradient of the tangent line, and ¢/{1 -+ ¢) the gradient of the line ng the point (v, «) with the point P. The condition for the load maximum is equality of these pradients; i.e, the maximum oeenrs at the point Mf jn which a line drawn from P is tangent to the stress strain curve. The ordinate AM of the point. of contact is the (true) stress at maximum load; OA is the tensile strain ¢, at maximum load, ‘This theory of the maximum load point was given by Considére in 1885 [7 ‘The ultimate steoss,? defined as the maximum load divided by the initial eross-seetional area, ‘a= Fru! Ao (1.16) °sinco in the seientific treatment of this fsld the word Steengeh’” ought to be tosarved (0 a fracture sess ellie imate strengeh mill henceforth be eallod “ultimate etree.”6 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fre, 1.6 Determination of tho instability stress on the true strest logarithmic etraia ourve in tension ie not identical with the true stress at maximum load om = Fraax/A qaz) ‘The relation between them is Su/om = A/Ao which can be written as Sufen = lait According to €9. 1.104, t= ate in view of eq. LL Consequently, 1 be where ¢ is the “uniform strain” at the moment of ‘the load maximum. In Fig 15, PO = 1s PA =1-te, and AM = om; from the similarity of the triangles PMA and PUO it follows, there- fore, that the intercept OU of the ordinate axis between the origin and the tangent PAf drawn from P to the stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress. ‘A similar graphieal construction can be obtained if the logarithmic strain is used instead of the linexr strain, The relationship between logarithmic strain and linear strain ¢ is Sy (ats) = loge (1+ 8) (119) Hence, ei eit i+. Substitution of this in og. 1.25 gives dofdet = 0 (1.29) Figure 1.6 shows the corresponding graphicsl determination of the maximum load point from the logarithmic stress-strain curve: the subtangent PA. at the maximum load point is unity. B, Instability of the Plastic Expansion of ‘Tubes, Vessels, and Plates. Plastic instability due to the decrease of the load-carrying cross section oceurs also when a tube or a hollow sphere is subjected to internal pressure (8, 8]. It ix romark- able that the instability condition in these cases is not identical with that for the rod under tension, and ‘the maximum pressure withstood by the tube or the spherical shell cannot be derived from the knowl edge of the ultimate tensile stress. In view of the practical importance of these eases, their charae- teristie features should be pointed out. For a hollow sphere of rading rand (small) wall thickness f, under an internal pressure p, the tensile suress ¢ is given by pitn = 2nrta (21) ‘The volume of the shell is V = dart (4.22) hence re VV iat (1.23) Substituting eq, 1.23 into eg. 1.21 and observing that the volume remains constant during plastic de- formation, pa4vail te = Ce (2a) For & thin-avalted closed tule, 2rp = Bo (1.25) V = 2ert per unit of length and p= Qn/¥)Pe = Cate (1.26) For a square plate of edge length 1 and thickness ¢, extended uniformly in all directions in its plane by tensile foroes F acting upon its edges, P= le (27) and vert hence, B= Vite = Ogle (1.28) For the tensile specimen under uniazial tension, already considered, the corresponding relationship would bo F = ofa = Cyto (1.29) where £is the thickness of the (round) 20d. Tt is seen that the pressure p or the foree Pas 8 function of the thickness of the specimen is given in all eases by an expression of the type ore (1.30) where n= 2 for the tensile rod and the thin-walled ‘tube, } for the thin-walled hollow sphere, and 3 for the uniform-biaxially extended plate p (or F)STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS ‘The maximum load or maximaum pressure at whieh the extension becomes unstable is obtained from ap (or dF) = 0 In view of eq. 1.30, this means nfo di + do ~ 0 n(dijt) = -de/o For the hollow ephere, the tube, and the plate, a/t = —de*, where e* is the logarithmic strain per- pendicular to the wall or the plate, ‘Thus, the con- dition of instability is deft = no ai) For the sphere, this is dade (3/2)e for the tube da/det = 20 ‘and for the plate dafilet = (1/2)o For the tensile rod, dt/t is the imerement of the transverso logarithmic strain; since the volume is constant, this is — (1/2)de¥, where de® is the incre- ment of the longitudinal logarithmic strain. Thus, dojdet = 6 as before (ef, eq. 1.20). Figure L7 shows the corresponding graphical construction, quite analogous to that in Fig, 1.6, carried out for the four cases. It shows that: the instability point on the stress-strain curve (true maximum stress vs greatest logarithmic strain) is differont for each, Particularly interesting is the practically im- portant case of the thick-walled eylinder under internal pregsure. ‘The solution of this problem has first been published by Manning {10]; see also MacGregor, Coffin, and Fisher [11]. The relatively simple caleulation shows that here, too, the pressure reaches a maximum as the tube expands plastically, and then drops. ‘The maximum pressure (often called “bursting pressure”) can be calculated successfully from the stress-strain curve of the material, Tt is remarkable, however, that it cannot be derived from a single point of the eurve and the corresponding tangent. In the thick-walled tube, the strain depends on the distance from the axis; at any moment during plastic deformation, states of stress and strain extending over a more or less wide region of the stress-strain curve are present. As a consequence, the maximum pressure cannot be L a a wi “Rae vaer oa eel wy perpen on Fie. 17 Grapbieal construction of maximum load or maxi- ‘mura presture in various caaes of tensile Loading calculated without the knowledge of the entire stress- strain curve, or at least a substantial part of it In other words, the maximum pressure withstood by the thick-walled tube eannot be derived from any single “working stress” C. Ultimate Stress and Working Stress. The ullimate tensile stress has served in the past gener- ally, and still serves in many cases, a8 a basis for deriving design (working) stresses; for this purpose, it is divided. by a so-called safety factor. Has this conventional procedure a realistic basis? From the preceding considerations, she answer ean be easily recognized. There are two types of failure by plastic de- formation, In the first, the structure becomes unserviceable by suffering an inadmissible amount of distortion; in the second, it is destroyed by plastic disruption, In many practical cases, the second possibilty either cannot ocout (@. if the loading is flexural o compressive), or is of minor importance Decause the consequences of failure by excessive distortion are not significantly aggravated by sub- sequent disruption. In the design of pipes and pres- sure vessels, on the other hand, @ moderate plastie deformation may be no more than a nuisance; ‘the danger thai must be excluded is disruption (bursting) If the practically important type of failure is due to distortion, the desig must be based on the stress ft which plastic deformation reaches the maximum permissible value, i.e., on the “yield strength’ or “proof stress.” AS is seen from the Cousidére construction of the maximum load and of the ultimate strength (Figs 1.6 and 1.6), there is no general relationship between tho ultimate strength ‘and the proof stress (or, in the ease of the annealed8 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fic, 1.8. Uniform extension (stesin outside region of neck) for difecent type of enaterials low-carbon steels, the lower yield point); the old practice of deriving the working. stress from the ultimate strength by means of fictitious safety factor has then no justification. A certain exception to this is the case in which different batches of the sume type of material are compared (e.g, different deliveries of a low-carbon steel) ; the proof stress, or the lower yield point, may (but need not) be then approximately proportional to the ultimate strength, ly important type of failure ig plastic disruption (bursting), the working stress should be derived, asa rule, from the load or pressure at which plastie instability leading to rupture sets in (the possibility of brittle or fatigue fracture should be disregarded in this section; it, will be treated further below), ‘The structure is then dimensioned so that the design load or design pressure is a certain fraction of the rupture load or bursting pressure. For a rod under uniaxial tension, the corresponding working stress is the ultimate tensile strength divided by an appropriate safety factor (which, in this ease, is not a fictitious one). It is to be kept in mind that the maximum load is riven by the ultimate tensile stress only in the ease of a structural part under uniaxial tension. For a ube, or a pressure vessel, the maximum pressure Ddeeuts at a (conventional ar true) stress that may be Fery different from the ultimate stress, as will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. In exacting ‘cases, therefore, the maximum load or maximum pressure cannot be derived from the ultimate tensile stress but must be obtained by accurate ealeulation based on the stress-strain curve, or from ‘a model experiment. Often, however, this is not If the ultimate stresses for tension and for the plastic expansion of a tube differ by only 10% to 20%, and the safety factor may be snything between 3 and 6 according to tradition or code regulations, it may not be worth carrying out a sceurate design stress determination for a structural part of eubordinate importance, ‘The Considére construction siows that the necessary. ultimate stress i fandamentally unrelated not only to the behavior of the material at small, but aso to that at large, strains, Tn particular, the knowledge of the ratio between the ultimate and the proof stress gives no indication of tho fracture strain fracture may occur immedistely after the maximums load point, or at strains 10 or 50 times higher then the maximum load strain, ‘The simple tensile test in which only the maximum load but not the stross- strain curve js measured, however, may give & quantity that is estremely useful for judging the uotility of the material for certain uses, ‘This quantity is the uniform exteusion, i.e, the strain at which the lod, maximum is reached and necking starts (OA in Fig. 1.5), Since practically no further extension takes place outside the neck after this has been initiated, the unifon extension ean easily bbe moasured on the fractured tensile specimen if iis is long enough to contain parts sulicientiy removed both from the neck and from the heads" of the specimen. A material with small uniform extension (a few per cent) is disrupted easily in tension and is therefore unsuitable for drawin operations (wire or deep drawing), At the same time, however, it may chow a high ductility (.e., reduction of area at fracture), 290 that it may be eminently suitable to operations involving large plastic strains without tension. Thus, pure nickel, tin, or lead are very unsuitable for drawing, but extremely good for operations like bending or cold extrusion; austenitic chromiumt-nickel steels, on the other band, have much less ductility but they are, owing to their large uniform extension, very suitable for drawing. Figure 1.8 shows how the shape of the stress-strain curve is related to the uniform scrain ‘Materials with a fairly sudden yield and litte strain hardening afterwards, like pure nickel, lead, or tin, have sharply bent stress-strain curves of the type 4; the tangent construction gives for them a small ‘uniform strain. On tho other hand, materials thet strain-harden slowly but steadily in the initial part of the strecestrain curve, like copper, brass, oF 18/8 Cri steel (type B in Fig, 1.8), have large ‘uniform strain, independent of whether fracture occurs soon after necking or is preceded by lurge reduotion of area La Creep A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Gurve. If a material ean undergo progressive deformation “The U.S.A. standard epesimen is not long enough for thit purpore; a useful specimen can be obtained, however, by noresing ite ge Teg from 2" 40 4”STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 9 at constant stress, it is said to show creep. The simplest type of deformation that corresponds to this definition is viscosity: material is called purely viscous if the rate of straining, dy/dt is a function of the stress, /(+) and dues not depend on the deforrma- tion already undergone ay fat = fo (1.82) If the functional relationship is simple proportion- ality (Newton's law of viscosity) a ot (1.33) the material is said to show Newtonian viscosity; the constant 1 is the coefficient af viscosity. Most of the common liquids are of the Nevstonian type. ‘The creep behavior of metals, particularly at not too high temperatures, is markedly different. from pure viscosity. If a constant losd is applied to 8 tensile specimen (as is usual in technological ereep testing) ond the strain plotted as a funetfon of time, usually curves of type A in Fig, 1.9 are obtained. Solid solutions with a tendency to develop a sharp yield point (brass, Monel metal, Nickel silver) may give curves of the type (; other alloys show an induction period, as seen in curve D. However, curve A can be regarded as the pure type observed if no strmctural changes occur during ereop. Tt shows that the rapid, almost sudden, extension that, follows the application of the load is followed by a period of deceleration; before fracture occuts, there Js period of acceleration, and between the periods of deceleration and acceleration there is an interval ‘of constant ereep rate which may be quite long, or may be merely 2 point of inflexion. In his analysis of exeep, Andrade [12] found that ‘he final accaloration is usually a trivial consequence of the increase of atress duc to the decrease of eross- sectional area in the course of the eonstant-lord tension test, If the experiment is carried out at constant tensile frees, the acceleration disappears in Fie, 1.9 Types of creep curves for various materials — Fia, 110 Andnade's analysts of the ercep curve many eases and curves of type # are obtained. A period of final acceleration ia frequently observed even at constant stress; however, it is always duc to structural changes taking place during creep, and so curve B can be regarded as representing the pure and simple type of creep curve. In his pioneering experiments, Andrade has ob~ served that the slope of the straight parts towards which the creep curve tends asymptotically depends strongly on the temperature At sufficiently low temperature, the asymptote becomes horizontal and the creep rate vanishes in the course of time. ‘The period of deceleration, on the other hand, is always present, even in the neighborhood of absolute zero, ‘From this, Andrade concluded that the ercep curve (B in Fig. 1.9) represents the superposition of two excentially different ereep processes, which follow the sudden straining after the application of the load, ‘The first. component is the decelerating ove, the rate of which disappears with time; this is at present called iransient creep. Superposed to this, at least if the temperature ig not too low, is a constant-rate creep process, usually called viseous creep because its rate depends, roughly speaking, only on the applied stress and not on the preceding amount of strain. Figure 1.10 shows Andrade’s analysis of the ‘creep process: the observed ereep strain is the eum of the purely plastic (plus elastic) strain which fol- lows immediately the application of the stress, the transient creep strain, and the viscous ereep strain, B. Transient Creep. At low temperatures (below, say, one-third of the absolute melting point) ‘viscous ereep is insignificant and transient creep dominates; hence its alternative name “cold creep.” At high temperatures (in the hot-creep range), the ‘transient component is often negligible beside the vis cous one; hence the name “hot ereep” for the latter. In Andrade’s original experiments, wh relatively short duration, the transient ereep eurve could be represented by the expression were of yewt Owl (b= time). (1.34) At lower temperatures, however, the logarith expression (13) y= w+ Clogt (1.35)10 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fie, 111 Stress dependence of the viseour ereep rate of lead wires at 17 C. After Andrade, fits the curve better. All transitional types between the Andrade formula and the logacithmie formule can be observed, as well as curves which represent a ‘more-than-logarithmie decrease of the ereep rate €. Viscous Creep. ‘The viscous component is often represented by a reasonably straight. curve, as shown schematically in Fig. 1.10, if the duration of the test is not very long. Otherwise structural changes. (reerystallization, precipitation, ete.) are ‘almost invariably present, and then the rate of viscous creep may increase, decrease, or irregularly fluctuate in the course of time. This is the basic factor that makes the extrapolation and practical use of creep tests difficult ‘The experiments of Andrade (12] have shown that viscous ereep in metals is far from being Newtonian (ca, 1.33); it is vanishingly small up to a certain stress region and then increases very rapidly with the stress. Figure 1.11 shows the curve given by Andrade for the viscous creep rate of lead wires at Y7.C as a function of the applied stress. ‘The char- ‘acter of the curve resembles that of the “Bingham material,” an idealized material often referred to in rheology’ (Fig. 1.12, in which the stress is plotted as ordinate according to convention). ‘The Binghat material is assumed to have a sharp yield point, and to show linear increase of the strain rate with the stress above the yield point, The behavior of metals at high temperatures differs from that of the Bingham material n that the inezease of the viscous excep cate with the sizess, as shown in Fig, LLL, is ouch moze rapid than a linear increase. Expres- sions suggested for its dependence ate, eg, the following ones: ay/it = Ast Norton (14) (1.36) dy/dt = Alo" — 1) Soderberg [15] (1.37) dy/dt = sinh (ar) Nidai (16) (1.38) where A, n, and @ are constants, It seems certain that no such simple expression can represent generally » process depending strangly ‘on complicated structural features of the material. However, one of the above expressions, or perhaps another simple relationship, may well be found accurate enough for practical purposes in the case of ‘an individual material ‘The temperature dependence of viscous creep shows a similar picture. Like all thermal reactions, it is ultimately governed by the Boltzmann expres siou for the frequeney of thermal activations; with- out further structural complications, this would lead approximately to an exponential dependence of the creep rate upon the reciprocal absolute temperature dyjat = Caer (1.39 where 4 is the “activation energy” for the creep process, & is Boltzmann's constant = 1.37 x 10" erg/*C, and 7’ is the absolute temperature Tt can be shown [17] that, in Newtonian viscous flow, A is practically independent: of the applied stress whereas ( is proportional to the stress; on the other hand, in plastic deformation based on erystal- line slip, the increase of the strain rate dy/at with the increase of the applied stressis due mainly to the desrease of the activation energy A with increasing stress [18, 19]. In the case of crystalline plasticity, C may be regarded as a constant because its de- pendence upon the stress is small relative to that of the exponential. ‘That this is true for the creep of metals ean be seen in the following way: d/dt is the strain per unit of time; its reeiproeal is the time required for unit increase of the creep strain, Now creep fracture (see subsection G below) takes place after a strain of f% = £/100; the time ¢ elapsing between the application of the load and frecture is related to the mean creep rate dy/idt by 1/8008 = dysae Introduction of this into ea. 13 ‘4/1001 = GA” (1.880) El Fis, 1.12 Definition of the Binygham materiaSTRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS u ot, if the logarithm of base 10 is taken, Tog(t001/f) + log C = O4R4A/P (1.395) Apcording to Larson and Miller (20), the dependence of the fracture time upon the temperature for vari~ fous stresses is often satisfactorily represented by: feq, 1.39b with values of lox € that vary, for different materials and experimental conditions, between 15 fan 23 if ¢ is counted in hours. ‘Thus, log C is in fact almost constant. Its order of magnitude can be derived theoretically in a simple way. It is well icnown chat, for processes of this kind, the activation energy is always around L electron volt (ev) at room temperature. If it were significantly higher (Say, 2 ev), thormal activation would be s0 shugsish that the creep rate would become too small to be cbsery- able; if it were somewhat lower (say, 0.5 ev), the treep rate would be too high to be followed experi mentally. Mt room temperature, KT’ is by ev, 0 that A/ET' e 40. As a representative example, let it be assumed that the fracture strain fis 4% and thu fracture occurs after 1000 hours. With these value, 0q. 1.39 gives log © = 0.484 X 40 — log (25,000) = 13 For A = 15 ey, A/ET = 60, loz C would be 226. ‘The observed values af C, therefore, correspond to a range of activation energies between about 1 and Lev. Tt should be remarked that, however nazrow the range of the observed values of log € is, it would be dangerous to use eq. 1.39 for extrapolating, ereep test results to times execeding the durarion of the test by a factor of 10 or more, because during the extrapolated time interval structural changes (e.g. precipitation, grain boundary oxidation) may occur and the permissible stress for a given service time may be reduced far below the extrapolated value (see Subsection G, “Creep Fracture!) D. Creep under Triaxial Stress. ‘The problem of how to obtain the principal creep rates for generat triaxial states of stress has been treated by Soder- berg [15], His solution is a rational extension of the treatment of three-dimensional cases in the theory of plasticity, and is in fair acoord with the available experienea, According to Soderberg, the basie vis~ cous stres-ereep rate relationship is a functional relationship betwoen the effective shear-stress and the effective shear-strain rate, where the formet is, 1 Via = 0) + Ga) + ee) Wa (1.40) and the latter L ja = Va We Vv Fe P+ ea ast) 2, 4 and és being the principal strain rates; volume constaney demands that atte =0 (ase ‘Thus, the general viscous ereep Jaw would be rat = She) (a3) analogous to the three-dimensional stress-strain rela- tionship suggested for purely plastic materials (ok. oq. 1.8). The relative magnitudes of the principal creep rates are assumed to be given by the Lévy- Mises equations a = Cl — Hes + os) a= ch ig = Clon — Her + o0)] — Hes + al (sa) ‘The common factor on the right-hand side is no ongor indeterminate asin the case of ideal plasticity it is determined by the condition that, if the prinei- pal strain rates are substituted on the right-hand fide of eg. 1.43, the correct value of ois rust rest Details of practical calculations are found in Soder- berg’s paper. E. The Mechanism of Creep. Although the dotails of the mechanism of transient eveep are far from being clear, there is no doubt that it is a eon sequence of thermal vibrations enforcing slip when superposed to a sufficiently high applied stress. In the course of the eteep process, the material hardens ‘and thermal vibrations are then less and less fre- quently able to produce loeal slip; this is the eanse of the gradual disappearance of transient ereep. ‘The inet that transient ereep ean be observed down to the lowest temperatures is due to the cireumstance that the applied stress mast always be high enough to cause at least @ small amount of sudden plastic strain before transient creep can be observed. If it is sufficient to cause slip without any thermal help, vvory alight thermal fluetnation should be capable of producing loral sip at the points where the applied stress is nearly bigh enough to induce slip without ‘thermal help. Ts has been found that viscous ercep itself is a ‘compound process. At least two different mecha- nisms can produce it, and often the two act simulia- neously, ‘The frst type of viscous ereep is called recovery creep. After the application of the load,BR DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS the rapid plastic deformation produces strain hard ening which raises the yield stress to the level at which it equals the applied stress and thus ean resist the load. If the temperature is high enough, how- ever, thermal recovery or even recrystallization gradually reduce the strain hardening. In ordet to carry the applied load, therefore, che material must strain-harden further until the smount of strain hardening lost by recovery is replaced. This moans that, in every unit of time, additional plastic strain arises, the smount of which is just sufficient to make up for the strain herdening removed by recovery. ‘The second important type of viseons creep is due to sliding between the grains of a polycrystalline metal when a stress acts at a sufficiently high tem- perature, At low temperatures, the grain boundary isa strong part of the structure: it resists the slip in the grain At a high temperature, however, the boundary becomes soft and viscous and is an clement of weakness. "The tungsten filaments of incandescent lamps, whieh work at the highest temperature used in engineering, can be preserved from gradual defor- ‘mation by their own weight ouly by being made of single erystals, without grain boundaries present, F. Evaluation and Engineering Use of Creep Tests, Transient (cold) creep is of great practical importance, ec, in prestrossed reinforced concrete design. However, sinee its evalustion does not in- volve complex problems to the engineer, and since the problems in which it plays a role are somewhat specialized, it will not be treated here In many high-temperature appliestions of metals, the viscous ereep strain during the lifetime of the couipment is so much greater than the initial tran- sient ereep strain that the latter is frequently neg- lected (sometimes with no sufficient justifiestion). In such cases, the usual practical rule is to assume that the Iong-time creep rate on which the design should be based is equal to the “minimum creep rate” observed in a constant-load tension ereep test, i.e, to the ereep rate in the straight part of eurve A in Big. 1.9, Although in the hands of the experienced creep practitioner this prescription usually works fairly well, strictly speaking it is fundamentally wrong, When the minimum eteep rate oocurs, tran- sient erecp may or may not have diseppeared. If it has not, the minimum eteep rate is not that of the viscous component alone, but the sum of the viscous and the residual transient creep rates. In extreme cases, solely the acceleration of transient creep, due to the deerense of the crass-sevtiona} ares, may give rige to eurves of type A, Fik. L.9, at low temperatures where no trace of viseous ereep can be present. The ‘common rule, therefore, has to be supplemented by ‘the condition that the constant-rate part of the ‘ereep curve must extend over a long time, sulficient for the disappearance of the transient component, jn order that the minimum ereep rate ean be identi- fied with that of the viscous ereep. Since structural parts must often have a service life of 10 or 20 years, whereas ereep tests cannot be extended in engineering practice beyond about one year (often they must be obtained within a few ‘weeks), the extrapolation of creep test results to the service life is the central problem of creep testing. Some of the extreme short-time testing methods sug- gested between the two wars failed because their authors were unaware of the compound nature of creep. Unless the test is extended long enough for the transient component to become relatively small, it cannot give even an approximate idea of the mag- nitude of the viscous component. The present con- ventional methods of ereep testing usually avoid this pitfall; they can be subdivided into the following ‘three elasses 1. Abridged tests. ‘The creep strain is measured as a funetion of time-for a few stresses around the probable service stress, at the servioe temperature, ‘and extrapolated to the service life. 2, Mechanically accelerated tests, The maximum. permissible creep strain is enforced within the time available for the test. by a suitably increased stress. From several such tests at different stresses, the stress is plotted ae a function of the time after which the permissible strain is reached, and the curve exe trapolated to the aervioe life to give the permissible service stress. 8, Thermally accelerated tests, ‘The maximum per~ missible creep strain ie enforced within the time available for the test by a suitably mereased tem- perature, From such tests at « few different stresses and temperatures, the stress is plotted as a function of the test temperature and of the time required for reaching the permissible strain, and extrapolated to the service life and serviee temperature, the abridged test would give a correct extrapola- tion if structural changes taking place in the material during its service life could be discounted. Ther- mally snd mechanically accelerated tests are in principle more likely to lead to errors because they take place under stress and temperature conditions different irom those in service. However, oceasion- ally certain structural changes that would occur during the service life hut do not take place during tho abridged test may be observed in the mechani cally or thermally accelerated test, ‘Then shese@ vets, stiough less correct in principle, moy STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 1B lead to a better extrapolation, No general extrapolation method can take into account the highly individual reactions of materials to stress and temperature, and the likelihood of grossly erroneous results can only be reduced by an intimate knowledge of the metal- lurgical, structural, and plastic properties of the material G. Creep Fracture. The grain boundaries of polyerystalline metals, being places of atomic dis order, behave like @ two-dimensional glass. They have a softening range of temperature (roughly identical with the “equicohesive temperature”) in which they change from being a hard structural component to being the softest. At very high tem- peratures their effective viscosity is s0 low that, at low stresses, most of the deformation is localized in them: the grains slide almost as rigid units on their neighbors. ‘This leads to the opening up of gaps between the grains, and finally to the type of frac- ture peculiar to bigh tempersture ereop: at first sight, it appears almost brittle ‘The strain at which creep fracture occurs depends on the stress and the temperature. At low stress and high temperature the deformation within the graine is insigaificant compared with the effect of sliding of the grains upon their neighbors, and thus the fracture strain is small. However, the variation of the frac- ‘ture strain in a given range of stress and temperature is always very small compared with the simultaneous variation of the creep rate. ‘The latter may change in the ratio 10,000,000 to 1 while the fracture strain ‘moreases, for instance, from 2% or 3% to 10% or 15%. Consequently, the fracture time is usually inversely proportional to the mean creep rate, to a fair approximation ‘The creep fracture test® consists in applying to the specimen » constant tensile load and recording the time elapsing to fracture. This test is simpler and easier to perform than the standard ereep test because strain measurements are omitted. It is required for design whenever the material has such poor ductility under ereep conditions that fracture may occur before the maximum permissible creep strain is reached. Since creep strains exceeding 1% are not often permitted (pressure vessels and pipes ate an exception}, and fracture occurring after less than 1% strain is infrequent, the creep fracture test is usually unnecessary. It is nevertheless ‘Widely used beewuse it can be interpreted as a crude creep test. As mentioned above, the fracture strain varies within relatively narrow limits, so that the ln the eoep tester’ vernacla, “tes rupture” cet creep fracture test represents @ ereop test in which the time required for a certain strain (the fracture strain) is measured for various stresses and tempera- tures, ‘The great shortcoming of the test is not so much the variation of the fracture strain as the fact that it is always performed at high stress Jevels in order to obtain fracture within 1000 or, at most, 10,000 hours, It has been shown by many experi- menters, particularly by Grant and his collabora- tors [21], that the ereep rate may change abruptly even after 10,000 hours owing to some structural change (¢.g., coarsening of a precipitate, or oxida- tion). For this reason, extrapolation from high- stress short-time tests to the long-time service behavior is impossible, unless it is known (from a, thorough investigation of the material extending, over years) that no structural changes may be coxpected in the time interval between the duration of ‘the routine ereep teet and the serviee life. LS. Types of Fracture; Molecular Cohesions the Griffith Theory Fraciaure is the disintegration of a body into frag- ments under mechanical stresses, If a certain type of fracture occurs in a given material when a stress component reaches # critical value, this is called the strength or fracture stress. Many types of fracture, however, do not take place at a characteristic value of a stress component, ‘Until about 20 years ago it was not realized that, there aro many fundamentally different types of fracture obeying quite different laws. ‘They ean be classified into two main groups: britile fractures aud ductile fractures. The former oceur with little or no plastic (or other non-elastic) deformation; the mechanism of the latter essentially involves plastic deformation. The mechanism of brittle fracture was elucidated long before that of duetile fractures, mainly hy the work of A. A. Griffith in 1920 [22} Griffith's effort was directed to the explanation of the extraordinary disorepaney between the very high values of strength inferred from the magnitude of the intermolecular and interatomic forces, and the observed values of the tensile strength, which are usually hundreds or thousands of times lower. ‘The way in which the tensile cohesion of material je determined by the attractive and repulsive forces between its molecules is illustrated in Fig. 1.13. ‘Suppose that a crystal conteins atomic planes with ‘the spacing } perpendicular to the direction of ten- sion. As the tension is raised, the spacing b increases, The net interatomic force acting between two parts cf the erystal across the gap between two atomicu DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Foo. 1.32 The dependence of the intermoloeularforees upon ‘the molesular spacing: planes vanishes if no tension is applied; in this ease the attractive and repulsive foroos cancel, If tension is applied and the atomic spacing increases, the repulsive forees diminish more rapidiy than the attractive ones; the excese of the attractive forces over the repulsive ones balaners the applied tension As the atomic spacing in the direction of tension increases, the repulsive forces become insignificant, and the tensile foree transmitted through the crystal lattioe must then start to diminish with increasing sirain owing to the decrease of the attractive forees with increasing soparation of the atoms Conse- quently, the net atomic force transmitted through a cross section rust have & maximum, equal to the highest external foree the material can withstand, i.e, its strength. From the general knowledge of the atomic forees it ean be estimated that the maxi- mum must occur when the spacing of the atomic planes has increased by a large fraction of its initial value; for an order-of-nagnitude estimate, it may be assumed to occur when tho atomie specing ha inereased by some 25% oF 50%. If Hooke’s law were applicable for such large strains, the tensile strain would be botween 0.25 and 0.5 and the eor- responding tensile stress, .e, the molecular strengt of the material, om = 0.258 to 0.5B where # is Young's modulus, Instead of approach- ing the order of magnitude indicated by eq. 1.45, the measured tensile strengths aze extremely low. ‘The strength of ordinary sheet glass is about. 1/1000 of its ‘Young's modulus; that of rock salt crystals, less than 1/10,000. Tt was known to physicists before Griffith that the most likely cause of the diserepaney was the presence of invisibly small cracks or other flaws which produce stress concentrations and thus (1.45) rniise the applied stress to high local values. It was Griffith, however, who calculated the critical value of the applied tensile stress « at whieh a crack, of atomic sharpness and of length c, starts to propagate. He used the following approach. When the crack extends, the surface area of its walls increases, and this requires energy for overcoming the attractive foroos between the atoms separated by the erack If the grips between which the specimen is pulled do not move during the crack propagation process, the only source from which the necessary surface energy can be obtained is the elastic energy released as the crack extends. Let dS be the surface energy needed for enlarging the crack by an infinitesimal amount, and dW’ the elastic energy released simultaneously The crack can propagate only if dW is at least as « lange as dS; thus, ah = a8 (1.46) is the condition for the crack being just able to propagste under the tensile stress, It will be seen that the stress needed for propagating @ oruck decreases as the length of the eraek increases; once condition 1.46 is satisfied, thorofore, the erack will extend rapidly, and fracture will occur. Griffith carried out this idea in the simple esse of « plate coutaining an internal erack of length 2c (Fig. 1.14). It ean be shown that the effect of such a crack upon the fracture stress of the plate is equal to that of an external crack of longth (depth) e in ‘one of the side edges of the plate. A sharp and flat internal erack of length 2c can be regarded as an elliptical hole of major axis 2e and an extremely short minor axis; the stress distribution around it when the plate is put under a tensile stress ¢ was caleulsted by Inglis in 1913 (23). From this the ‘excess energy in the plate, due to the presence of the eae Fro, 114 Plate with fot elliptioa hole (= crack)STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 8 crack, is obtained as W = r°2/B per unit thickness of the plate, where # is Young's modulus; if © inereases by de, the released elactic energy is, aw On the other hand, the ineroase of the length of the crack is 2de, and the increase of its wall surface area, is de per unit thickness of the plate; consequently, if a is the work required for ereating a new surface of unit area, the increase of the total surface energy is a8 = dade a.) Equating dV and dS gives fia on fae (as) ‘This is the famous Griffith equation for the tensile strength of a brittle material containing an internal crack of length 2c, or a surface erack of depth ¢. In the calculation, it has been assumed that the probtem is two-dimensional, and that the plate is very large in both direetions, but at the same time thin come paced with the length of the erack; if itis thick, the factor (1 — »2) has to be applied to the denominator under the square root, » being, Poisson's ratio. For glasses of the ordinary types, the erack length ¢ nesessary to explain the observed tensile strength isof the order of L micron, Tn glasses, the dangerous cracks are almost always at the surface; tensile stresses confined to the interior are relatively harm- less, This is the explanation of the high strength of “tempered glass,” obtained by quenching plass from the softening temperature by an air blast. By the time the interior has become rigid, the surface has cooled down considerably; when subsequently the ‘igid interior cools it puts the surface layers under a tangential compressive sures Any tensile stress produced by external forces is diminished at the sarfaee by the residual compression. In the interior, the residual stress is tensile, but this is of no eon" sequence because there are no sharp eracks present from which fracture may start, Thus, the steength of the glass is strongly increased. ‘The Grifith theory explains very satisfactorily the strength properties of completely brittle mato- Fials such as glass; for detailed treatment, reference should be made to the literature [2 ‘An interesting feature of the theory is the answer it gives to the question of strength under triaxial stresses, The discussion of the complete answer is beyond the seope of this chapter [24]; the result is that, s0 long as the highest compressive principal stress is less than three times the highest tensile principal stress, fracture should occur when the greatest tensile prineipal stress reaches the value of the tensile strength deduced for uniaxial tension eq. 148); the algebraically stoaller principal stresses have no influence. According to the theory, the compressive strength should be eight times the tensile strength if the material is iotropie and con tains cracks randomly distributed in all directions. ‘Thus, the theory confirms partially a» wellknown statement found in textbooks on the strength of materials coneeraing the condition of brittle failure in the escentially tensile region of principal stresses, failure does obey the maximum tensile stress eri- terion, “Flowever, the maximum tensile siress condic tion cannot be valid for any state of stress. Tf it were, the compressive strength of brittle materials ‘would be infinitely high. ‘This shortcoming of the textbook rule has been corrected by the Griffith theory, in the way just mentioned One of the most important results of the work of Grifith is the realization that the strength of a brittle material is determined by the flaws it, con- tains. ‘This is strikingly illustrated by glass, the strength of which can be made hundred times higher than normal, if by a special design (bre glass) the worst cracks are made ineffective 1.6 Ductile Fractures ‘The Griffith theory and the fracture condition (eq, 148) are applicable only to fracture of the cleavage type (“brittle fracture"). In addition to this, there is a large group of fractures in which sep- aration into fragments occurs as a consequence of certain plastic deformation processes; these are the “ductile” fractures, The simplest. ductile fractures are straightforward geometrical consequences of plastic deformation; a wire of gold, e.g, breaks in tension by the formation of a neck which becomes thinner and thinner until it is drawn out to two needle points in contact, Similarly, single crystals of gine or eadmium may break, after slow extension at a high temperature, when one part of the erystal slips of the other along @ slip plane in which the deformation has become concentrated. The nature of the fracture process is less obvious in the commen fibrous fmcture of duetile metals, whieh produces the bottom of the cup in the eup- ‘and-eone fracture. However, it soems to be funda- mentally the same type of geometrical attenuation16 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Po. 1.15. Scheme of the elusical taxi vension theary of notch brittensse, after Memager 125), Laidwik (20), and rowan (2 as in the preceding examples, repeated many times fon a microscopic seale in the surface of fracture. Shear fracture, which forms the sides of the cup and the cone, is a somewhat different phenomenon, ‘The plastic deformation leads here to the propagation of ‘crack at the tip of which there is « high coneentra- tion of strain, destroying locally the cohesion of the materia A ductile fracture eannot obey the Griffith condi- tion (eq. 1.48). ‘This can be realized in the following simple way: The plastie deformation mechanism which leads to ductile fracture is not essentially de- pendent on the elastic moduli of the material; it could take place even if Young's modulus were in- fiuitely high, On tho other hand, cleavage fracture of the Grifith type would be impossible in a per fectly rigid material; an infinitely high value of B in eq. 148 would give an infinitely high tensile strength One of the conditions governing ductile fracture can be easily recognized: it eoincides with the con- dition of the particular type of plastic deformation which is responsible for the fracture, Thus, in the tensile fracture by neck attenustion the only frace ture condition is that the tensile lond must reach the value of the yield stress in the neels, multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the neck and hy the plastie constraint factor. In shear fracture, too, this is a necessary condition for the propagation of the shear erack. “Another condition, however, must also be satisfied: the shear strain at the tip of the crack must reach the critical value at which the ¢o- hesion disappears. Ductile fractures usually occur after the struc ture has become unserviceable by excessive plastic deformation. However, if the material has low ductility, shear fracture or other types of ductile fracture may oceur after very little deformation. A threaded bolt of a low-ductility material, euch as certain precipitation hardened alloys, ean be shearedt off during tightening after 4 amall amount of plastic twist. Another instance is that of extremely ereop- resistant alloys which may fail by ereap fracture at high temperatures alter relatively small creep strain. 17 The Brittle Fracture of Steel (“Notch Brittleness”) Low-earbon and medium-carbon steels behave in manner that is not a mere intermediato ease be- ‘oween glassy brittleness and high ductility. A com mon structural steel can be very ductile in the ordinary tensile test, with no sign of a potential brittleness, but it ean break with little or no visibie plastic deformation if it contains & erack or a notch. ‘The classieal trlavislstension theory of "notch brittleness was put forward by Mesnager [25] and, independently, by Ludwik [26]. In a form modified according to the present state of knowledge [27], its principle is illustrated by Fig. 1.15. The abscissa in this figute is the tensile strain and dhe ordinate the tensile stress; ¥ represents the ordinary tensile yield stress-strain curve. The theory aasumes that a ma~ terial suffers brittle (cleavage) fracture when the fensile stress reuches critical value B (“brittle strength”) which, in its dependence upon the plastic strain, is given schematically by the curve B. i the ordinary tensile test, ductile fracture occurs at the point D on the curve Y,, before the tensile sttens teaches the value of the brittle strength. However, if the specimen contains a notch or a erack, plastic constraint raises the value of the tensile stress reached during plastic yielding to g¥, where q, the “onstraint factor,” is greater than J, “The ourve g¥ may intersect the curve of the brittle strength # comoreine Pio. 1.16 The origin of plastic constraint ia x notched ‘exslespovimen illustrated by the fiotional constraint acting ‘upon # Hat compresion specimen,STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS aw before the plastic strain is high enough to produce ductile fracture, and so brittle fracture may oceur at P. ‘The way in which plastie constraint arises is hus trated in Fig, 1.16, Suppose that J is a coin com- pressed plastically between two hard cylinders, 11 and II. ‘The necessary mean compressive stress is higher than the yield stress Y in uniaxial compres- sion: it has to overcome, not only the resistance Y ‘of the material to plastic deformation, but aiso the frictional resistance of the compression blocks (indi- cated by the arrows) to the lntera! spread of the eoin. The radial frictional forees, together with the axial pressure, create a state of triaxial compression (a hydrostatic pressure superposed to an axial pressure. ‘The mean axial stress required for plastic compres- sion is then not ¥ but g¥ > ¥; of this, ¥ is required for the plastic deformation itself, and (g— 1)¥ for overeoming the friction Figure 1.16 ean also be regarded as representing a cireumferentially notched cylindrical specimen, being the noteh core and IF, [ZI the full sections of the specimen, If the spesimen is plastically ex- tended, the conditions are similar to the ease of the compressed coin, with the shear cohesion between the core and the adjacont parts of the epecimen replacing the friction. As before, the axial stress required for producing plastic deformation in the core must be higher than the yield stress Y. Plastic constraint is fundamentally different from elastic stress concentration. It eannot arise without some preceding plastic deformation; moreover, its magnitude depends on the depth and sharpness of the notch in a very different way, In pure elasticity, ‘the stress concentration at the tip of anmotch becomes infinitely high aa the radius of curvature of the tip converges towards zero In contrast to this, the plastic constraint factor of a circumferential notch 9 i illustrated in Fig, 1.16 increases only to a value of the order of 3, instead of rising towards infinity, as the tip radius is reduced to zero [27] This is the reason why so many ductile metals cannot be made to fracture in a brittle manner by the application of a sharp erack: if, for any valuo of Foo, LIT Extreme types of transition curves Teepe of engin stones Fra. 118 Davidenkov-Wittman ‘Theory of th betmaen brittle and ductile feature, sa nod Re by the plastic strain, the brittle strength is more than about 3 times higher than the yield stress, plastic constraint alone cannot raise the tensile stress to the fracture level An important feature of notch brittleness is the ‘existence of a transition temperature between notch- brittle, and purely ductile, behavior. Figure 1.17 shows the dependence of the work of fracture, as ‘measured with a Charpy ot Izod pendulum hammer, ‘on the temperature in low-carbon steels. Above certain temperature region it has high value, and the fracture of the notched specimen is entirely of the fibrous type. At low temperatures, the fracture work is exteemely small, and the fracture is entirely of the cleavage (“‘eryatalline”) type. Between these two temperature regions, there is a transition zone in which the fracture work drops rapidly with de- creasing temperature; at the same time, the area of cleavage in the surface of fracture inereases towards 100 per cent. With some materials, the transition zone is s0 narrow that one ran speak of a “transition temperature”; in other cases, e€, of many low: alloy lerrtie steels, it is spread over hundreds of desrees F, Figure 1.18 shows schematically how the classical theory interpreted the transition phenomenon [25]. Y is the curve giving the temperature dependence of the yield stress; the curve q¥ (= 2 or & times Y) therefore, represents the highest tensile stress that an atomically sharp eraek ean produce during plastic yielding, Experiments and thoory show that the temperature dependence of the brittle strength B must be less strong than that. of Y or a¥'; this is indicated in the figure. This seen that the tensile fracture is entirely brittle below the tem- perature Ts, even in the absence of any notch. If a hoteh or erack of maximum sharpness is present brittle fracture is possible below the temperature 7 but not above it1B DESIGN OF PIPING SYS’ Recent investigations [20] have shown that the fundamental eause of brittle fracture in normally ductile steels is not plastic constraint but the ab- normally high velocity-dependence of the yield steess ‘of forritie steels. The experiment from which this can be recognized is as follows: ‘The edge of a low- carbon steel plate is provided with a brittle erack by forcing a chisel into a notch at a. low temperature. If the plate is subjected to tension at room tempera tue, it is found that the brittle erack is unable to propagate as a brittle eruck, Instead, large plastic deformations arise around its tip, accompauied by some fibrous erack propagstion: afver this, the frac- ture suddenly reverts from the ductile to the cleavage type and the newly created brittle crack mins across the plate. ‘This shows that, at low rates of straining, plastie deformation in mieraseopically small rogions around the tip of a brittle crack cannot create the degree of triaxility of tension necessary for brittle fracture; quite large deformations, such as ean be seen with the naked eye and felt with the fingers, are required. However, once cleavage cracking starts agsin, it runs at high speed and without large plastic deformations, ‘The simplest interpretation of these observation: is that in the brittle fracture of steel the stresa is raised to the lovel of the brittle strength by the high rate of plastic deformation around the tip of a run- ning eraek rather than by plastic constraint, With- ‘out a suficiently high velocity of the erack, the production of the plastic constraint necessary for cleavage fracture requires such extensive plastic deformations that the fracture, though of the cleav- age type, is far from being britile, i., of low energy consumption, ‘Triaxiality of tension, then, is prob- ably no mote than ono of several ways of initiating cleavage fracture; the cleavage fractures then trans- formed into briltl cleavage fracture by the velouity ffoct upon the yield stress asthe erack gathers speed. ‘The rather exceptional combination of ductility with potential brittleness in steel may be understood now as being a consequence of another exceptional property of low-carbon steels, the unusually strong dependence of their yield stress upon the rate of straining (80, 81]. Tho yield stress of copper or aluminum increases ouly some 10 to 20 per cent be- tween “static” and ballistic testing speeds; for low- carbon steels, however, increases of 100 and 200 pet cent: have been recorded. ‘Why such large deformations are needed for start- ing cleavage fracture at the tip of a crack under slow tension is « question not yet answered. It has been suggested that plastic constraint alone eannot raise EMS the tensile stress to the fraeture level in typical cases cof notch brittleness under static loading; it must be aided by strain hardening, and this requires con- siderable plastic deformation. However, brittle fracture ean start in a, welded structure with very little plastic deformation, The plastic strains pro duced by thermal expansion and contraction during ‘welding and the coreesponding strain hardening can hardly be made responsible for this, beesuse the thermal strains seem too small to take the material boyond the region of yield into that of strain hardening, ‘The final question is this: What is the condition ‘under which the cleavage erack arising from the in- termediate ductile crack in static loading becomes & rapidly running erack, in which the velocity-increase of the yield stress ear replace the heavy plastic de- ormstion neoessary around a slowly extending crack to produce cleavage? A crack ean run rapidly under static load only if the work required for its propa- gation is obtained from the elastic energy stored in the specimen. It was seen in Section 1.5 that the Griffith equation (1.48), by virtue of its derivation, is the condition for the erack propagation work to be supplied irom the released elustic energy; how- ever, it cannot be applied directly to brittle fracture in steel, It has been found [27] that cleavage frac- ture in low-carbon sicel around room temperature is not quite brittle; there is thin cold-worked layer at the surface of fraciure, representing an energy of cold work of about 2 x 30° ergs/em*. Thisis around 1000 times greater than the surface energy of steal; the work of crack propagation per unit area of the crack walls, therefore, is given by the plastie surface ‘work p, beside whieh the surface energy is negligible. If the plastic surface work per unit area of the cleay- age fracture can be treated on the same footing as the sutface energy, the condition for the work of propagation of a brittle crack in steel to be supplied dy the simultaneously released elastic energy is (24, 32) (a.49) instead of the Griffith equation (1.48). In eq. 1.49 the factor V2/> has been omitted to indicate that the equation does not pretend to be accurate enough for this factor to matter Brittle cleavage fracture in stecl, therefore, ro- quires the fulfilment of two conditions 1. The temperature must be below the transition range; 2. The applied stress must satisfy the erack propa~ gation equation (1.49).a ea STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 19 "The first condition is satisfied by most structural steels, at least at low winter temperatures, ‘The de- signer, therefore, can avoid the possibility of brittle fracture only by taking care that the crack propaga- tion condition should not be sntistied. ‘The siroplest, although practically not always easy or even feasi- ble, way to do this is to avoid the presence of cracks exceeding in length certain limit. ‘The smaller the crack length c, the higher is the (mean) tensile steass @ in the plate at which erack propagation is possible. Since the stress cannot rise above the yield stress Y,, the length of the smallest erack that can start brittle fracture is obtained from eq. 1.19 as co = Ep/¥? (1.50) Cracks below this length are harmless (unless, of course, they ean gros by a non-beittle mechanism which does not require the fulfilment of the erack propagation condition, eq. 1.49). If, therefore, the possibility of cracks exceeding in length the eritieal value cp ean be eliminated by eareful fabrication or inspection, brittle fracture eannot occur even below the transition temperattire. With H=310" ps 2X 10! dyne/em?, p = 2 x 10° erg/em’, and Y =6X 10" psi= 4.1 x 10" dynefom? for the strain-hardened steel, the critical minimum. erack length 6, is obtained from eq. 1.50 as = 0.25 em = 0.1 in, To avoid any crack exceeding this length is difieult and costly, but not impossible, as is shown by the ceeasional use of ‘non-aging low-carbon steels for Pressure vessels at liquid-air temperatures. Altematively, the designer may attempt to keep the stress level so low that eq, 1.49 is not satisfied even though the longest. cracks unavoidably present might exceed the eritieal length oy If, eg, the presence of cracks of O.4 in. length eannot be ex cluded, the tensile stress must be kept below 30,000 psi; cracks of 1 in, length would set an upper aafe Jimit of about 19,000 psi to the stress, and so on Naturally, the propagation condition (1.49) may nat be the only condition that must be satisfied before brittle fracture can occur. If eq. 1.49 is eor- eet, brittle fracture cannot occur below the stresses derived from it; however, some other, more oxacting. condition may in some eases set a higher limit, so that fracture in fact may not occur at stresses as low a8 correspond to eq. 1.49. A simple examplo of this is the case of a steel plate containing a brittle erack and subjected to slowly applied tensile stress, as in the experiments described above. Although the stress given by eq. 1.49 may be quite low, the erack cannot start to propagate before considerable plastic deformation takes place around ite tip, and the stress required for this may be quite close to the yield stress of the plate. In other words, in this ase an initiation condition must be satisfied besides the propagation condition, and the former is more exacting. In recent experiments [33] in which the difficulty of crack initiation was overcome by a wedge ham- mered into the crack by the impact of a bullet, frac- ture could not be provoked below a fairly clearly recognizable stress level which depended on the con- ditions of the experiment. (notch angle, plate size, ete.). Since the mechanies of the erack initiation by wedge impact is very complex, it is diffieult.to ree: ognize the significance of this result. ‘The observed stress threshold is probably due to the necessity to satisfy some crack initiation condition; whether this condition is of more general signifieanee, ot a partien- lar charseteristic of the wedge impact experiment, is an open question, ‘The practical importance of brittle fractures in. steel structures has rapidly inereased in recent times, owing to the widespread use of welding and of high- tensile steels, Welding reeultsin high residual tensile stresses adjacent to the seam, and it, may also cause structural damage (e.g,, grain houndary oxidation). ‘This may lead to the formation of exacks which ean run aeross the weld seam and wreck the entire scrue- ture in a fraction of a second. The high yield stress of many modern steels, obtained by alloying addi- tions, cold work, or heat treatment, may Juse the designer to the use of working stresses under which spontaneous erack propagation becomes possible (of. eq, 1.49). Clesrly, an uncritieal raising of the design stresses on the ground of the increased yield stress is entirely unjustified, unless the transition range is also considerably lowered. If the latter condition is not satisfied, higher yield stress may metely mean that the working stress is no longer determined by the yield stress but by the necessity of avoiding brittle fracture Good ductility (high fracture strain, reduetion of area) in the ordinary tensile test ending with duetile fracture doos not mean inereased immunity to brittle fracture in the ease of ferritie steele. The possibili of brittle fracture can be assessed only by determin- ing the transition curve of the steel and estimating the size of the most dangerous crack that may be present. For low-carbon steels, it appears that a fracture work of 15 ft-tb in the V-noteh Charpy test at the lowest service temperature gives a high degree of protection against brittle fracture even if20 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS fof glass; stress Table. EsReGErS Eta anal a PHI SCECH ya ‘Mechanical | Creep fracture jeer | | cracks cannot be avoided. This fgure, however, does not apply to harder steels If a heat-treated high-tensile steel of 160,000 psi yield stress gives « Venotch Charpy value of 15 ft-lb, the deformation cf the noteh-bend specimen is only about one-quarter of that of » plain low-carbon steel with the samme Charpy value but a yield stress of only 40,000 psi ‘The 15 ft-lb highiensile steel, therefore, has tendency to brittle fracture comparable to that of # hot-rolled low-earbon steel with Charpy value of d feb If a steal is to be used in the brittle-fracture danger zone of temperature and stress, careful design and warkmanship are of the greatest impor- tance. Sharp stress concentrations, such as abrupt cross-sectional changes, sharp thread profiles, or blind root welds, mast be avoided, snd the formation of cracks during fabrication and beat treatment, prevented. On important equipment, or where failure may endanger lives, particular attention rust be given to careful inspection and to the removal of internal stresses 1.8 Fatigue A. General Features. ‘The term “fatigue” is used if a specimen breaks under a load which it has previously withstood for « length of time, or during 4 load eycle which it, has previously withstood a number of times. ‘There is a remarkably sharp distinction between those eases of fatigue in which only the total duration of loading matters while it is cf secondary importance whether the load is steady or interrupted, and those where only the number of load eycles matters and the duration of the eycles is of # subordinate importance. The first type of fatigue is called static, the second cyclic. Purely clastie deformation cannot cause fatigue; ‘all it does is to strain atomic bonds, and these ‘cannot wear out. Fatigue can be the consequence either of non-elastie deformations (Le., of lattice injuries or intergranular displacements it produces), or of chemical or physicochemical proceses ac- celerated by the applied load. Thus, fatigue phe- nomena can be classified according to their physical cause aa mechanical ar chemical In this way, a twofold subdivision of fatigue phenomens is obtained, as illustrated in Table 1.1 ‘An example of static mechanical fatigue is creep fracture, already discussed in Section 14, A little known caso of statie fatigue is that observed in the brittle fracture of steels which may ocour suddenly after prolonged steady losding. ‘The time delay between the application of the stress and the pect rence of fracture must be due to a slowly progressing deformation process; the rate of this process may be determined by the rate at which carbon atoms diffuse in the iron latte. ‘Thus, the delayed brittle fracture of steel may possibly represent a ease of physicochemical static fatigue The cause of the static fatigue of glass is un- doubtediy physicochemical [34]. It is known that air (probably mainly its moisture content) reduc the surface energy of mien by a factor of 10 oF 12. It must also reduce the surface energy of lass consequently, the Griffith erack propagation con- dition (eq. 148) shay be fulfilled for a given stress « and erack length ¢ in the prosence of air (Le, when a has a lowered value), but not in vacuum. In this case, the crack can only propagate at the rate at Which air or moisture can diffuse to its tip. After s period of slow propagstion with the help of absorbed moisture, the erack length may inerease to the value at which the applied stress eat. propagate the erack even without the reduction of the surface energy by moisture; fracture then occurs suddenly. ‘The physicochemical nature af the delayed fracture in glasses is verified by the observation that static fatigue is absent in vacuum. "The best known type of statie fatigue due to chemical action is stress corrosion, of which the “season tacking” of eold-worked brass and the “caustic embrittlement” of steel are familiar ex- amples. In some eases, its cause is the precipitation of a phase in the grain boundary whieh deprives the adjacent parts of the grains of an element that increases the resistance to chemical attack (35). In tho case of some austenitic Cx-Ni steels, for instance. chromium carbide may segregate in the boundary dluring heating in a certain temperature region, and the boundary regions of the grains are then depleted in chromium. Crack propagation by solution of che more easily attacked (more anodie} boundary layers cannot progress, however, without the preseneo of & tensile stress whieh opens up the ersek and provides space for the corrosion products. Under the applied stress plastic deformation occurs at the tip of theSTRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 21 crack; this may disrupt protective Inyers, and the increased free energy of the deformed region makes it more susceptible to nituck (more anodic}. Whether ‘those two effects represent important causes of stress corrosion is not certain, Strese-corrosion cracking can progress not only along the grain boundaries but also across the grains; brass single crystals crack under tension in the presence of ammonia much like polyerystalline brass (90, 37) This suggests the possibility of a stress-corrosion mechanism similar to thet of the statie fatigue of glass [38]. The effective surface energy of the crack walls which enters into the Griffith equation (1.48) can be lowered not only. by adzorption but even more radically by chemical combination between the cortocive agent and the metal atoms;,consequently, a crack may propagate in the presence of a corrosive medium by cleavage under a relatively low tensile stress while, in the absence of corrosion, the propagating stress de- manded by eq. 148 may be higher than the yield stress so that tack propagation by cleavage is impossible. Obviously, the effect of the adsorptive ‘or corrosive is to cut the cohesive bonds between the atoms of the erack walls at an early stage of the cleavage process, by converting them into chemical for van der Waals bonds between the atoms of the ferack walls and the atoms, molecules, oF ions of the sdsorptive or corrosive agent. In accordance with its chemical origin, the sus- ceptibility of metals to stress corrasion is extremely specific. Thus, for instance, the caustic embrittle- anent of Cr-Ni-Mo low-alloy steels apparently can be avoided by omitting any ono of the three alloying elements, Corrosion fatigue differs from stzess corrosion in that i¢ oceurs only if the stress varies eyclieally. It is fairly insensitive to the duration of the cycles (Le., to the total duration of stress application). Corto sion fatigue starts with the appearance of surface pits which then spread and join up to form surface ‘tooves not unlike the cracks on the bark of a birch tree. ‘These pits and blunt ecacks apparently de- ¥elop because they give rise to stress concentrations SPAY. L_ Tr Fis. 1.19 Typical atees oye, ‘Grewal Wp say oe TogN Ramer oan ‘o rocw) Fie, 1.20 Representative Fatigue Tracture stress ‘urves for nietals, where the inereased clastic energy or plastic deforma- tion locally raises the free energy; at these spots the material is electrolytically more soluble in the eor- rosive sohition (mote anodic) than its surroundings Another possible reason for the local attack is that the plastic deformation at the pits or eracks may prevent the formation of protective (passive) layers, ‘Those features of corrosion fatigue which are of quantitative interest to the designer will be men- tioned briefly after the treatment of ordinary ‘mechanical eyelic fatigue. ‘The chemical mechanisms ‘of corrasion fatigue, like those of stress corrosion, are too specific to allow any genoral treatment, | In ‘what follows therefore, the main emphasis will be laid on common mechanical fatigue, which is the ‘most important fatigue phenomenon from the point of view of the engineer The existence of mechanical fatigue of materials under eyelic stressing was established by Rankine in 1843, and the basic laws of the phenomenon were investigated experimentally by L. Wahler between 1852 ond 1869. To deseribe iy in cloar terms, a simple terminology should first be introduced Generally, 2 cyelic stress is the superposition of steady stress o and an alternating stress of amplitude S and range 28 (Fig. 1.19). The stress amplitude that causes fracture after N eyeles will be called the Fatigue ctrongth for NV eycles; if it tends towards finite value for infinitely increasing .N, this will be called the limiting fatigue strength ot, briefly, the fatigue limit, Tn the literature, the Fatigue strength ie usually called fatigue endurance; however, there is no reason why the correct technical term “strength’” for a fracture stress should not be used in this case also. ‘The fatigue strength depends, in general, on the steady stress superposed upon the purely alternating stress, I the logarithm of S (the stress amplitude) is plotted as a function of the logarithm of N’ (the number of eyeles to frasture), curves of the type shown in Fig. 1.20 are obtained. Plain earbon steels2 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fro. 121 ect of hish-amplituds fatigue om silver chloride sheet. usually have a clearly defined fatigue limit; recent experiments indicate that this may be a consequence of the phenomenon of strain aging shown by sueh steels, Nonferrous materials may also give curves showing, more or less clearly, two straight. parts connected by 2 curved transition region; however, the second straight part is usually not quite hori- zontal but slightly descending, In such eases, there is no clear fatigue limit within the experimentally accessible values of N. The fatigue sirength on which the design must be based is then that for the number of cycles which the structure must with stand during ita intended bie B. The Mechanism of Fatigue. A revealing observation about the mechanism of fatigue is that the fatigue erack, in general, seems to run along slip planes, not cleavage planes [39, 40]. This ex be recognized without ambiguity in iron where slip planes and cleavage planes never coincide. It seems that alternating slip can lead to the de- velopment of high tensile stresses in the slip planes due to a progressive warping of the slip “packets” in the course of eyelic straining. Figure 1.21 shows the waviness developed during high-amplitude fatigue test in some of the large grains in @ polyerystalline silver chloride sheet. ‘The development of tensile stresses during the warping of slip planes may be understood by means of the dislocation theory of plastic deformation [41, 42]; if the stress is high enough, it ean eause local fracture, However, the local tensile stresses which arise in the course of prolonged alternating stip do not pro- vide sufficient explanation of mechanical fatigue. If the material strain-hardens with plastie deforme- tion, the first stress eycle ought to harden it so that no further slip con occur unlese the stress amplitude of the following eycles is progressively increased how, then, can alternating slip continue in tests at constant, stress emplitude? On the other hand, observations show that alternating slip continues, with gradually decreasing amplitude, even in safe ranges of atress; how ean it then be explained that, in such cases, even hundreds of millions of no lastio strain cycles are insufficient for accumulating the amount of internal stress and lattice damay necessary for fracture? Thus, the basic questions of fatigue are (1) How is progressive slip and struc- tural damage possible under cycles of constant stress amplimde; and (2) How are safe ranges of stress possible? The answer to these questions is given by the general theory of fatigue (42, 24], whieh is concerned with those typical features of the fatigue phenomenon which are largely independent of the individual molecular mechanism of the fatigue damage. 4 quantitative deseription of the theory would require too much space to be presented in this chapter; how ever, « qualitative outline of the main points ean be given briefly. ‘The salient point is that in eyclic stressing progressive plastie deformation soon becomes con- fined to relatively small rogions (e.g., at the tips of small cracks, or in particularly unfavorably situated grains) which are then sarromded by more or less purely elastic material. Now it is easily seon that. AF a largely elastic spocimen is subjected to eyelos of constant stress amplitude, » small plastic region embedded in it will experience stress cycles of Increasing and strain eyeles of decreasing amplitude. ‘This is a consequence of progressive strain harden- ing: as the yield stress of the plastic region rises, ite clastic surroundings have to exert upon it increasing stress amplitudes to enforce further plastic deforma- tiop. By Hooke’s law the elastic surroundings must then sulfer increasing strain amplitudes, and so the strain amplitude inthe plastic region decreases Ddecause the sum of the two strain amplitudes must romain constant for a given amplitude of stress applied to the specimens as a whole. ‘The gradual decrease of the plastic strain ampli tude explains why safe ranges of stress are possible It can be shown [42, 43] that the total (integrated absolute) amount of plastic strain in an elasticallysenteann gyntinienin STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 23 embedded strain-hardening plastic region always con- verges towards finite value as the number of eyeles increases toward infinity. ‘Tis limit value of the total plastic strain decreases with the decrease of the stress amplitude applied to the specimen, Below a certain stress amplitude the total plastic strain can never reach the critical value necessary for producing that combination of strain hardening Ge., of the loval stress amplitude) and structural damage at which fracture occurs. On the other hand, if the local plastie region fractures, small crack arises and gives rise to a region of stress concentrations in which plastic deformations may now begin. A repetition of the above proves may lead to the extension of the crack and finally to the fracture of the specimen, An interesting point emerging from the theory is that. fatigue fracture can arise without ony re- duction of the cohesion (strength) by structural damage. Strain hardening alone “may raise the scress in plastic regions gradually to the fracture level even if the initial strength of the material is not reduced in the course of the alternating plastic straining, In most real oases, however, increase of the local stress by strain bardening and reduction of the strength by structural injuries probably go hand in hand. ‘Observations indicate that, in reality, the last traces of alternating slip never disappear; there is apparently a minimum value of the plastic etrain auraplitude below which no strain hardening is produced. ‘This ean be recognized most, directly from the fact that the width of the hysteresis loop decreases but does not vanish during cyclic stressing. It may be mentioned that, the general theory of fatigue leads to a semiquantitative derivation of the ‘typical shape of the log S-log 4 curve, and it also i oa 5, Anentig St Cyl, 102 pt explains the remarkable fact (see below) that the influence of the steady stress upon the fatigue strength is, as a rule, very small and sometimes imperceptible up to the value of the static yield stress, To sum up, it can be said that the typical features of fatigue under eyeles of constant: stress amplitude follow directly trom the fact that plastic deformation is not uniformly distributed but, after an initial deformation that may possibly extend over most of ‘the specimen, becomes confined to a few local regions. Onee plastic Bow becomes locall centrated, the conditions governing the devel of fatigue cracks can be investigated by a general consideration of the change of stress and strain amplitudes in plastic regions embedded in elastic surroundings subjected to eyeles of eonstant stress amplitude, As far as the general features of the fatigue phenomenon are coneemed, the molecular nature of the fatigue process is of secondary im portaneo; in particular, fatigue fracture might con- ceivably occur without any decresse of the cohesion, solely by the rise of the local stress by strain harden ing to the fracture level. €. Influence of a Superposed Steady Stress, Figure 122 shows the dependence of the fatizue strength (limiting stress amplitude) of three plain- carbon steels on the steady stress (mean stress of the cycle) according to the experiments of Pomp and Hempel [44, 45, 46]; the dash-dotted lines at 45° to the coordinate axes are the loci of the points at which the maximum stress of the eycle (including the steady stress) reaches the conventional elastic limit (in the present case, the 0.2% proof stress). ‘The curves reflect, first ofall, a genoral featuce of the dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress: up to the elastic limit, they represent straight Fro, 122 Dependence of fatigue strength on stendy sireas in plan extbon steels& | \ Fig. 1.28 Dependence of fatigue strength on steady strese in patontod (0.02% C) stae wire, Jines which slope downwards only slightly with increasing steady stress, Occasionally thie Tine is horizontal; in all cases, the influence of the mean stress on the fatigue strength is small. Another feature of Fig. 1.22 is the rapid change of the character of the curve at the elastic limit The slope changes abruptly with the onset of sig- nificant plastic deformations: the curves show & distinct increase of the fatigue strength (limiting safe stress amplitude superposed to the steady stress) at the ond of the elnstie region, This “step” at the elastic limit is followed by a second abrupt change of slope, during whieh the fatigue strength declines with further increase of the steady stress, With strongly cold-worked metals, proof stress and ultimate stress nearly coincide, Ta such cases only the first part of the “step” seen in Fig. 1.22 can be observed. An example is shown in Fig. 128 patented” steel wire, 0.02% C) {43} If a rod is circumferentially notched (og, if it is threaded), its static yield and ultimate stresses than referred to the smallest éross section are high “| | a ic. 1.24 Comparinon of fatigue strengthe of plain snd threaded bars of 0.1% C stole. DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS those for the smooth rod (owing to “plastic con- straint” exerted by the adjacent larger sections); its fatigue strength, however, is reduced by the stress concentration present, Figure 1.24 shows fa- ‘iigue strength curves for Lin, and 13 in, Whitworth ‘threaded rods of the carbon stesl which, in the form ‘of smooth eylindrieal specimens, gives eurve 1 in ‘Fig. 1.22 (this curve is repeated in Fig. 1.24) (46) The designer is mainly interested in stresses within the elastie limit; for this reason, the present considerations will be confined to the first, part. of the curves in Fig. 1.22 This can be represented schematically a6 a straight line connecting: the point P of the fatigue strength in purely altemating stressing with a point @ on the abscissa axis (ch Fig 1.25); as before, the dash-dotted 45° tine represents the elastic limit beyond whish curve deviates from the line PQ. In the stress range of interest to the designer, the effect of the steady stress is therefore given by the equation s- (1-2) on whore is the fatigue strength at the steady stress 4, So its value for # = 0, and &» = OQ, a strese param eter that determines the position of the line PQ. For many decades in the past, the dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress was usually represented by the Goodman diagram in whielr the assumption was made that the stress parameter sp = OQ can be identified with the ulti- mate stress; the Goodman diagram is indicated in Figure 1.25 by the dashed line PU where OU is the ultimate stress, Goodman's idea was thar the line would have to go through the point at which “failure” would occur in purely statie tension. As ‘ean be oen from the discussion in Section 1.3, this argument. is invalid: the ultimate stress is not a stress at which fracture occurs but merely the aoe, |p dee & Teles Se — Ne soa N os ‘eo bed Som = Foo. 1.25 The inflense of ssdy (enn) stress upon ‘he fatigue Hint.STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS: 25 (conventional) stzess at which the roaximum losd is reached and necking begins in the static tensile fest, For this reason, the ultimate stress point U has no plage on any curve showing the dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress, and uch less on the straight line that forms the initial tlastic part of such curves, In the experimental feurves shown in Fig, 1.22, for instance, the extension of the initial straight part may intersect the abscissa taxis quite far from the point U of the ultimate stress; the stress parameter sp in eq. 1.51 and the position of the point @ ean only be derived from fatigue tests. The only point that can be made in defense of the Goodman line is that its errors, how- ever large, usually lie in the safe ditection. D. Influence of a Compound State of Stress. Relatively little is known about the condition of fatigue fracture for cyctically varying triaxial states of stress. However, a practically important case, that of a shaft subjected to eyclie torsion and pending simultaneously, has been investigated in detail by Gough and Pollard [47]. They found that for a given (large) number of eyeles, those corre- sponding values S and 7, respeotively, of the tensile- stress amplitude due to bending and of the shear- stress amplitude due to torsion at which fracture foveurs are determined approximately by the re- lationship a.s2) where Ss the fatigue strength for the same number of eycles in pure bonding, and 7 the fatigue (shear) strength in pure torsion. E, Influence of Notches and of Surface Flaws. Stress raisers are relatively unimportant in ductile metals under static stress, bocause plastic flow levels down the stress at the stress concentrations. In cyclic stressing, the situation is different: oral cyclic straining produces progressive strain harden ing with consequent rise of the local stress. Hf the strain hardening could gontinue with eyelie plastic deformation at a finite rate, no matter how small the plastic strain amplitude, it would finally raise the yield stress until no plastic deformation could occur. ‘The local alternating stress amplitude and the effective stress concentration factor would then be the same as in a purely elastie body of the samme geometry. Experience shows that this is not the case in fatigue. The eifect of notches, cracks, and surface flaws is usually much greater than in static stressing, Dut itis still far below shat it would be for a purely clastic material. The simplest explanation of this remarkable fact is to assume that eyclie straining ceases to produce strain hardening when the strain amplitude becomes too stall (see above); if this is ihe case, the material at the tip of the erack never Docomes quite elastic and the stress ean never reach the level of the elastic stress concentration. Dif ferent materiala have different “notch sensitivities” (not to be confused with the notch eensitivity for static brittle fracture). Some of them, like grey lamellar east iron of cortain bronzes, are almost insensitive to the presence of small sharp cracks or notches; their ¢ value will therefore be close to zero, Others, like hard steels, are very sensitive, with q in the neighborhood of I. Similarly, che surface quality has an influence upon the fatigue strength of duetile metals thot is between those for a completely brittle material like glaas and for a ductile metal under static stress, Occasionally, the fatigue strength of extruded light- alloy rods ‘with the extrusion skin has beon found to be as low as one-half of the fatigue strength of 8 ‘machined specimen of the samme rod. In some cases the fatigue strength can be raised considerably by surface rolling o shot blasting (@.., for heat-treated spring steels); im others, such a treatment has no significant beneficial influence (eg, with many light alloys}. Exeesive surface rolling or shot blasting in materials of limited ductility may even reduce the fatigue strength by producing surface racks ‘There isa difference of great importance between the fatigue stzength of a ductile metal and the (static) strength of a brittle material like glass, In the latter ease, the strength can be raised sometimes by a factor of 10 or even 100 if surface eracks are very carefully avoided, In ductile metals, it is relatively easy to improve the quality of the surface so that any remaining faws have no influence on the fatigue strength. However, this does not raise the fatigue strength spectacularly because plastic defor- mations st in as soon as the clastic limit is exeeeded, and they produce cracks after sufficiently prolonged cyotie stressing in a way that is now more or less ‘understood, For this reason, there is no hope that the fatigue strength may be raised much above the clastic limit, If, on the other hand, the elastic limit js raised by strain hardening, precipitation harden- 4 conventions quantitative definition of tho relative notch sensitivity gin exele atest in g = (by ~ 1)/ho ~ 1) where Jen the elastic steescontentration factor for a given note fad fy isthe factor By which the fatigue scength ie eeduced ty ths provente ofthe notch. OF course, @ depends in general ton tho Hae al shape af the notch26 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS ing, or in any other way, a decresse of ductility is unavoidably associated with the increase of the fatigue strength, F, Fatigue Tests on Specimens vs. Fatigue ‘Tests on Structural Parts. The strength of structural parts under static load can usually: be caleulated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of tests performed on specimens. Stress concentrations sither do not. matter (in very ductile materisis), oF they ean be calculated by methods given in the theory of elasticity. The situation, however, is very different in eyclie stressing. The effective stress con- centration factors depend here not only on the geort- try and on the elastic constants, but in the first line ‘on the “notch sensitivity” of the material, which depends on the size of the notch. Whenever structural part has a strongly non-uniform stress distribution, therefore, its fatigue properties cannot de calculated from tests on specimens with any reasonable accuracy. If the structural part cannot be overdimensioned so a3 to exclude any danger, itis necessary to carry out full-seale fatigue tests on it [48]. This is particularly important, of course, in the case of aircraft structures. As already mentioned, attention must be given in any case to possible dif- ferences between the fatigue behavior of specimens with carefully machined surfaces and specimens oF structural parts with surfaces as they will be present in the structure, There is a more trivial reason why £0 often conch sions drawn from experiments with specimens are not fulfilled by structures, Fatigue tests are usually con- stant stress tests, occasionally constant strain tests, On the other hand, if a structureis subjected to eyeses of eonstant load or deformation amplitude, some of its elements (For instance, regions of stress concentrs tions) will be under cycles of inercasing stress amplitude and decressing strain amplitude, for the reason explained abovoin connection with the general theory of fatigue. It follows, then, that the results of constant amplitude tests cannot be applied direetly to the calculation of the fatigue strength of structures with non-uniform strese distribution. A general method of calculation in such eases has been given [43]; for the present, however, Jack of experimental data prevents the procticul use of this method excopt in the simplest cases. G. Periodically Varying Thermal Stresses. If a body is rigidly camped st two points, increase or decrease of its temperature gives rise to thermnal stresses in it, The magnitude of these stresses de- pends not only on the temperature change und on the material, but also on the shape of the body; in aulliply bent, relatively thin tube the stresses are ‘much lower than in a straight bar flyed at two eross sections. Obviously, the action of a stress upon material is quite independent of how it is produced; conse- quently, the fatigue effect of « thermal stress eyele identical with that of a mechanical load eyele involving the same stresses at the same temperatures, Compared with the ordinary fatique test, the only ow factor introduced by the thermal eyeing of rigidly supported specimen is that, together with the stress, the temperature also varies during the evele. If the temperatute amplitude is relatively small, the fatigue effeets of a thermal cycle will be the same as ‘thos of an isothermal load eycle involving the same stresses al a constant temperature equel to a suitably chosen mean temperature of the thermal cycle. ‘That this ean be £0 even for eycles of considerable tempera ture amplitude is indicated by recent experiments of Coffin [49]. The equivalent mean temperature. of the oyele, however, is not necessarily the mean value ofits highest and lowest temperatures. Ifthe magn tude of fatigue damage is determined mainly by the amount of plastic deformation, the temperature of the equivalent isothermal cycle willie nearer to the maximum than to the mean temperature of the thermal evele becsuse the material is softest, and plastic deformation greatest, in the high temperusure part of the eyele. ‘The opposite behavior (the lov temperature part of the eyele being of dominating importance) may conceivabiy also oeeur. If the specimen is-a straight rod or tube with fixed ends, i is always in tension during the low-temperature part of the cycle. If now the tensile part of the aycle is more likely to produce fatigue damage than the com- prossive part, the effect of the thermal eyele may ie closer to that of am isothermal eyele with the same stress range taking place near the lowest temperature ‘of the stress eyele A now factor eppears (both in thermal and in purely mechanical cycling) if the temperature is so high Ut the strain hardening and the structural Gamage due to plastie deformation are eurrenthy re- moved during the eycic straining. In this eas, the progressive changes which represent eyclic farigue cannot develop. Nevertheless, fracture may occur owing to a diflerent phenomenon which has been treated already under the heading of ereep fracture ‘At vory high temperatures (in the hot ereep range), the grain boundaries become aoft, and the eonseqiuent relative displacements between the neighboring grains open up cracks which finally ean lead to fracture ("static fatigue”). At first sight, it mightSTRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS ‘seem that this cannot occur under purely eye hecause the displacements produced by the tensile part of the oycle aro reversed by the compressive part. However, the compressive part eannot, undo all damage dane by the tensile part, and so fatigue fracture can also occur under purely eyclie stress although much more siowly than unler 2 steady tensile sires Lazan and Westberg [50] have earried out experi- ments in the interesting transition region just below the hot-ereep range; they applied both purely eyelie nd purely static stresses and intermediate types of loading with a stati stress superposed upon a steady stres Figure 1.26 illustrates some of their results ‘As in room temperature experiments, a relatively low mean stress has only a slight influence upon the {otigue strength if the duration of the test is not too Jong. If the time to fracture is 150 hours or longer, creep predominates over eyolie fatigue, and the steady component of the eysle becomes important from the beginning. ‘The vertical parts of the curves, show that the static fatigue strength is almost un- Influenced by the cyclie component until the eyetie stress amplitude becomes higher than about one-half of the static stress, The observed curves, therefore, consist essentially of @ nearly horizontal part repte- senting cyclic fatigue (except in very prolonged tests, 4s mentioned above), and of a vertical part repre- senting ercep fracture. The transition between the horizontal and the vertieal par is the region in which eyelie and static fatigue are of comparable impor- tance. Ifa material has been cold worked and then eub- jected to plastic deformation at. a higher tempera- ‘re, it may soften more than if it had boon subjected to the effect of the higher temperature alone without Speed of Crcng 21400 ele ° 8 = 0 15 Maan Sto af ya, 19 po Yio. 1.28 Fotiguecraep rupture interaction curves for N-189 at 1800 F. After Lauan and Westberg. Toa W N= Nbr oar rd Fia. 1.27 The damage ares in fatigue further deformation (192, 51]. In the course of the deformation, its relatively highly hardened structure changes to the less hardened structure eharacteristie ‘of deformation at the higher temperature. A similar strain-softening effect ean alao be observed in fatigue fests with previously strongly cold-warked materials 2], ‘This, however, does not mean that strain hardening is not an important factor in fatigue. Local regions of stress concentration, e.g., at the tip of @ fatigue erack, may well harden under cyelie stressing, while the static yield atress of the pre- strained bulk material deereases by thermal recovery with or withont strain softening, H. Thermal Fatigue. The most severe case of cyclic thermal stressing takes place when the surface of a metal is rapidly heated to a high temperature ‘and then cooled again, This oceurs in hot rolls, gun barrels, ete.; if the temperature amplitude is high, the usual effect is the formation of surface cracks (“crazing”) which gradually spread inwards Fre- ‘quently this eannot be prevented ; the life of the body ccan be prolonged, however, ifthe surface is machined off before the cracks become too deep. In other eases, thermal eracking would occur with most materials as, og, the 12% Cr steel used for rolls in continuous sheet glass manufacture. Anisotropic metals such as zinc, or metals that suffer phaso transformations in the temperature range to which thoy are subjected, can sufier plastic deformations on a microscopic scale within the grains which are confined and distorted by their neighbors, even if there is no significant temperature gradient present. This may result in progressive stractural Gamage during thermal eyeling. J. Damage by Overstress. If a material is eub- jected to stress amplitudes above the fatigue limit,e” it may suffer permanent damage which reduces its Tatigue strength for subsequently applied cycles of lower stress amplitude. It seems that thove combina- tious of stress amplitude and number of cyeles above whieh permanent damage occurs lie in the area D (Fig. 1.27) betweon the highstress part of the og Slog NV curve and a line below it which joins the curve at the bend [53], This line, shown dashed in Fig. 127, is the “damage line.” The permanent, damage suffered in the daraage area D eonsists proba- iy in the formation of smull cracks. K. Corrosion Fatigue. Ji the cyclically stressed. material isin a chemically active solution, its fatigue strength may be substantially lowered. Whether in this case an approximate fatigue limit exists is not certain as in stress corrosion, the phenomenon ie s0 strongly influenced by the individuality of the metal and of the surrounding solution that the only general statement that ean be made about it is warning against premature extrapolations to even slightly different metals and solutions References 1. M, Cook and B. C. Larke, “Resistance of Copper and Copper Alloys to Homogeneous Deformation in Com- premion,” J. Jnat. Metle, Vol 71, p- 71 (048), 2, M. Trecea, “Mémoire sur le poingonnage et Ia théorie mécanique da ls déformation des métaux,” Compt, rend, Vol. 68, pp. 1197-1201 (1869). 3, R.von Mites, “Mecharil: dat ‘eaten Kérper im plastseh- Aetormsblen Zustand,” Nach. hl. Gos, Wise. Math-Phys Kasse, 113, pp. 582-502, 4. R. Hil, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, p. 20. ‘The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1080. 5. J.L. M. Morrison, "The Yield of Mild Steel with Particular Raference to Efect of Size of Specimen,” Proc, Int Mech. Engrs. (London), Vol. 82, pp. 198-228 (1840). 6. 0, Hoffman and G. Sachs, Introduction to the Theory of Plasticity for Enginere, MoGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1958 7. M. Consdére, "Lemp du fe et de Vecier dans les con structions” Ann. Ponts et Chaussées, 6th Sexie, Vol. pp. 574-775 (1886), 8. G. Scchs and J. D. Lubabn, “Failure of Ductile Metals in Tension,” Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, pp. 277-279 (1946), 9. HL W. Swift, “Plastic Instability Under Plane Sess Seurnal of Mech. & Phys of Solids, Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 1-18 (otodee, 1982), 10, W.R. D_ Manning, “The Overstrain of Tubes by Interual Pressure,” Engineering, Vol. 159, pp- 101-102, 183-184 (1945); aleo “The Disign of Compound Cylinders for High Preseure Service," Engineering, Vol. 161, pp. 840~ 352 (1947), 11, CW. MacGregor, L, F. Coffin, dx, and J. C. Fisher, “The Plastic Flow of ‘Thick-Walled Tubes with Large Strsing,” J Appl. Phyo, Vol. 19, pp. 201-207 (1638); sls “Parially Plastic ‘Thick-Walled Tubes,” J. Pranélin Inst, Vol. 45, pp. 195-158 8), DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS 12, BN, da C. Andrade, “The Flow in Metals Under Large Ganstant Stretes" Proc. Roy, Sox, Series A, Vol. 9, ppp. §20-042 (1914), 15, P. Philip, “The Siow Strotoh in Indiarubber, Glass, and Metal Wires when Subjected to « Constant. Pull” Pi Mag , 6th Series, Vol. 9, pe 818-581 (1905), 14, FIL Norton, Creep of Stal at High Temperatures, MoGraw-Hill Book Co,, New York, 1922. 15. CR. Soderberg, "The Interpretation of Creep Tests for Mochine Design," Pranz. ASME, Vol. 58, pp. 733-748 (985) 16, A. Nédai, “The Influonce of Time upon Croup, The Hyperbolic Sine Creep Law," 8. Timoshenko oth Armi- erty Vo, Macmillan Co., New York, 1988. 17. BL Orowan, "Diccussion op Plastic Flow in Metals” Proc. Roy See, Serva 8, Vol. 168, p. 307 (1988); also Proe, Fir! Nal. Congr. Aypl Meck, June, 1951, p. $58. JW, Rdwards, Ann Arbor, Mich, 1952, 18. R. Becker, "Dber die Plastzitit amorpher und kritel- liner fester Koper,” Phyait. Z., Vol. 26, p. 619 (1925) also Z. Tech, Phynt,, Vol 7, p. SAT (1928), 18. B, Orowan, "The Creep of Metals" Z. Physih, Vol. 98, . 882 (1985); alo “The Creep of Metal" Frans. West of ‘Setlana Fron Steet Ina pp. 49-16 (1947) 20, FR. Larson and J. Miller, “A Time-Tempersture Rels- Sonship for Ruptare and Creep Stresses,” Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, pp. 765-771 (1952), 21, N. J. Grant and A. G. Bucklin, On the Htrapoation of Short-Time Sires-Reuplure Daio, ASM Preprint No. 18, 1018, 22 A.A. Grifith, “The Phenoutent of Ruplure and Flow in Solid,” Trane. Roy. Soe, Series A, Vol. 221, pp. 163-198 (1920-21); also Fret Internat. Congr. Appl. Mech, p85 Daft, 1924 28. C.E_ Inglis, "Strom in 4 Plate due to the Presence of Gracks and Sharp Corners,” Trans. Inet, Naval Archit Vol, 55, Part L, pp. 210-220 (1913), 24, 5 Orowan, “Fractare and Steengeh of Solids,” Reports ‘on Progress im Phiysis, Vol. 12, pp. 185-282 (1849). 25, A. Mesnager, Réunion des Membres Francais of Belges de Association Indernatinale des Méthode d'Bteaie, pp. 305 $05, Decernber, 1902 26, P, Ludwik and R. Schea, “Uber Kerbwirkungen bei Flusseisan,” Stahl un Bisen, Vol. 48, pp. @98-1001 (1923), 27, B, Orowen, “Notch Baitteness and the Strength of Metale” ‘Trane, Inst, Engrs. Shépbuibere Soot, Paper No. 1088, pp. 105-215, Doserber, 1945. 2S, NN. Davidenkov and F, Wittman, "Mechanical Analy~ sis of Impact Brittlenes,” Phyo Techn. Inet. (U.S.S.B), Vol. 4p 308 (1087 2, D. K, Pabeek and E. Orowen, “Experiments on Brite Fracture of Steel Plates," Welding J. (V.Y.), Res. Sup. Vol. 20, No.7 (1955). 30, M. J. Manjoine, "InBuence of Rate of Steuin and Tem perature on Yield Stresses of Mild Steel” J. Avpl ‘Mechanics, Wl. 11, pp. A2LI-218 (144). 31. G. [. Taylor, “Testing of Materials at High Rates of Lowting.” J. Jat, Cie. Kngrs, Vol. 28, pp. 480-519. ‘amis. 82, E Orowan, “Fundamentals of Brittle Debavior in ‘Metale" in Wallam M. Murray, ed, Fatigue and Fracture of Metala: A Symposium, pp. 186-167, John Wiley &:Son8, New York, 1982iQ 1s En 38 v0. 0. 4 2 a J. Feely, Ie, and M.S. Northup, “Study of Brittle Failure in Tank Sloss,” precentod at the Midyear Itt fin, Petr, Inet in Houston, Texas, May, 1954 'S "Type of Plastic Deformation New in Metals” Nature, London, Vol. 119, 9, 643 (1942. Bo Akimow, “Bine neue Theorie der Strukturkorrosion,” KKorosion w. Metalahuts, Vol 8, p. 197 (1982). _O. Wasrermann, “Untersuchungen ther den Vorgang dee Spanuungetorron,” Z Metaliunde, Vol. 34, p- 207 ‘a2. G, Bdeaunds, “Season Cracking of Brass," ASTM Simp ton Steneforr Crocking in Metals, p. 67 (94) FF Orowan, in & paper presented before The Eletroshern. Soe., Boston, Oct. 4, 1964 PX. Being aad J.C. W, Humfrey, “The Fracture of Metals ‘Cader Reposted Alternating Stress,” Trans Ry Sec, Series A, Vol, 200, pp. 241-250 2008: FA. MeClintock, “On Ditestion of Fatigne Cracks ic Foiyeryotalline Tngot Tron,” J. Appl. Meckanics, Vol 1, pp. 5-56 (1952). F Orewa, “Dislocationa and Mechanical Properties” in Dislocations in Metals, ATBIT, New York, 1954 Bh Orowen, “Theory” of the Fatigue of Metals" Prov Roy, Soe, Series A, Val VI, pp. 79-106 (1939). FB Orowan, "Stace Concentrations in Stel under Cyelie Loads" Weiding J, (N.Y), Res. Supply Vah 17, pp. 2785— 282, Tune, 1982. >}. Pomp nad M. Hempel, “Daverfenigeitaschaubildor ‘Jon Sidhien bei verechiedonen Zugmittlepannogen unter Berdelsichtiguog der Pristabibem," Mit, Kate Watheimetnst, Bivenforch. Dasseldorf Vol. 18, pp. 1-18 (493. 46 a 6 40 5. . STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS 29 A. Potnp and M. Hempel, “Dauerprifung von Stabldreb- fen unter wesbselader Zugbeanspranchung,” Mit, Kaiser~ WiheinFast, Hisenforseh, Diseldorf, Vol, 19, pp. 297— 246 (1987). A. Porup and M, Hempel, “Duuerfesteieiteschaubilder ‘Yon Gekerbten und Kaltveronmten Stablen sowie. von Ye and 1)" Schrauben bei Verechiedenen Zagmittel- Sponnungea;” Milk Kewer-Wethle-Inss, Bisenforach, Diiscidrs, Vol 18, pp. 205-215 (1988), HL, Gough snd H, ¥. Pollard, ‘The Strength of Metals tence Combined Alternating Stresses," Proc. Inst, Mech ‘Landon), Vol. HL, pp. 3-54 (198). Re. Vompliny “Designing for Fatigue” io Williom Mt. Murray, ed, Fatigue ond Procure of Metals; A Sym- postum, pp. 181-188, Joba Wiley & Sons, New York, 1960. L_¥. Coffin, Jr “A Study’ of the Hifects of Gyelie Thermal ‘Stroises on’ 8 Ductile Metal” Tron, ASAE, Vol. 76, No. 6, pp. 981-950 (1954). Boi. Laran and E, Westberg, “Btect of Tensile and Come presive Fatigue Strees on Creep, Rupture and Ductlity Propertice of Tenpersture-Resstant Materials," Proc. ASTAL, Vol. 52, pp. 887-855 (1953). J.B. Dorn, A. Goklberg, and TE. Teta, "The Bfect of “Thermal-mechanical History on the Strain Fariening of Metals!” AIME Tech, Pub. No. 2445, 198, NHL Polakowsti, “Softening of Certain Cold-worked Matals Under the Action of Patigue Londs,” ASTM Preprint No. 74, 1954. HG, Preach, “Fatigue and Hardening of Steels," Trans ddim Sor. Stel Treating, Vol. £1, pp. $99-046 1853).@ a ‘of calculating st ‘applied Toad im or Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation, and Desi gn Limits 1 previous chapter passed over the problem personnel ard. tho interests of the general public ere and strains from the diet sel Teasble precautions be exercse) rer io concentrate on cor. Maximum ‘turance of safety, however, would din fundamental knowledge from ¢he hysies of | Tequire complete veeamination of all mnatecials and folds which, it was pointed Ub is aly new fabrication by the Pest fvailable means and with use in routine spter offers wid ao yet largely unformulated fo Ssien engineering. The present cha} genera) exaroination of the factors ‘which enter into gencovatuntion of stcesoos in piping ester duc to the erm enternal and internal loadings, thei Se Tas desgn Limits and Code rues, and finally tion wpniBeance and application to practen! O60 sia the increasing complexity, sze, and eevee igniiconce! of piping insallatons, ¢ necessity saarpok: beyond the Limite of ordinary PIPinE design proetice and to give attention 10 experiences of ravers in related ks, paticuerly of pres sie tgel design, Indeed, there is often 01 strtinoion, between pressure wesslg and DTT secre, apyoptiate comments Teistive £0 0 parative piping and pressure vesol deSsh approaches fare given frequently ich follow. in the diseussions whi ‘jurther consequence of the ecotomicmPOe SINT of present-day piping installations ** necessary Sast acin the design of structures and Pres equi are, to effect a caret ancl enlist Somprerl rarwon design Features (not overlooking materials, fabrication, and inspection requirements) and the raps plane economics (rst cost plus main\ena ered contingency for damages to propery and per onnel in event of failure). Safety of operating piping tsar Sum in proce ani Tani 50 tee ent of te total plant cont, Se rigaifieant Expunditures ore incarred tog. and earine propalson installations in power generat Guylicate independent inspection. | E=8 abso- Tote assurance of safety could not be attained due to personne fliiity and th fmitaions ™ sensitivity Permiteble roethods of nondestructive examinee rich this realization, in the practical approach of Wit ag adequate safety econonseals, lower Iev es sr quality are accepted ot the basis of including com> fpenzatng, safety factors in design, which are the remabined result of experience and reasoning Many ees sil exist in erent penetes Th saeuaty requirements of material and fabrication, to quale val placed on various degrees of Se ‘fon, wats, and nondestructive examinst oe "TM ghout be appreciated that Codes and ‘Standards can snes only # eve of minimum reaulrener ca erage vorvice, based on knowledge, ¢=Pero tor tne consensus of qualified individuals Many a Mnstaes raking to service operation) MAAS) sing fabrication, inspection Limitations, 0 1° ‘unusual Tein deserve epecial consideration Hf he resulting ping eyetems ae to be reasonably fF from main= aaa eis provide stistactoy Tenet of He swith wee operation. To ast the piping emENee the sate ee of good judgment on these special ‘problems, seer chapter offers approaches which TrgeLy depend tin well-established practical experience. 2 Codes and Standards ‘The objective of Code rales ane from fixing dimensional values) 1d Standards (apart is to achieve minicDESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 31 taum requirements for safe construction; in other words, to provide public proteotion by defining those material, design, fabrication, and inspection require- monts whose omission may radically inerease operat- ing hazards Absolute assurance of safety would require perfect design, materials, and fabrication; this is seldom, if ever, achieved. On the other hand, experience with Code rules has demonstrated that the probability of disastrous fuilure ean be roduced to the extremely low level necessary to protect life and property by suitable minimum requirements and safety fectors. Obviously, itis impossible for general rules to anticipate other than conventional serviee, and it would be uneconomic for them to provide for corrosion, erosion, fatigue, shock, or potential brittle fracture, except to the degree that such conditions are known tobe present, Suitable precautions are, there fore, entirely the responsibility of the design engineer guided by the needs and specifications of the user. A listing of all Standards and Specifications eon ceming piping design, together with their mandatory effective edition references, appears in. an appendix of the Code for Pressure Piping (ASA BS1.1). ‘Those whieh affect the mechanical design of piping are briefly commented! on in the following, para- sraphs, relative to their basic approach and sig- nificant details. One of the difficulties which often confronts de- fitgners of vessels and piping, as related to Code requirements and particularly local governmental regulations, is the propor classification of borderline pressure equipment. Currently (1055), neither the ASME nor the ASA Code contains definitions for vessels or piping whieh are helpful in this respect. While the Code Committees have considered this ‘matter, no common agreement has been reached. Somo items in piping ystems often considered and fabricated as part of the piping, e.g. pulsation damp- ners, are classed as pressure vessels in some States In doubtful cases itis advisable for the user to chee with the local authorities, especially in localities having regional pressure vessel lows. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section 1, Power Boilers, contains rules for the pressure devgn of boiler ping within the epecifiod boiler limits which are assosiaced vith ppropriste steam and fead-water stop valves. The exe, fabrication, and ingestion requcetents of the ASME Unfred Pressure Vessel Core, Sertion VIT, are often used by felerenca in company epeifcatons to supplement the Piping Code. Siction IX of the ASME Code is tho universal hain for quslifcation of welding procedures aad operators of all Preasre equipment, ASA BL: Code for Pressure Piping. This is the ssandurd “Piping Code” which includes sections on Power, Gas & Ain, Oil, District Heating, Refrigeration, Oil Transinie- son, Gas Transmission and Disisbution Ssstoms (ASA BSL18-1055), and Chemical Piping. Ite basic oF general supporting sections desl with requirements for internal pressure, fleubiltx, msterisls fabrication, and testing, At the prosnt writing (1055), this Cade iain the process of evolution from «Design Practice to a Safety Code. The Gas Transmission and Dietrbution Section has been adopted by several States and is under consideration by others the entire Code is used as a base of enforcement in several U8. citi and in the Province of Canada. In resogaition of th tera, 2 Conference Comaitte simila to that of the ASME “Poller Code and composed of the Chief Inspection Authority ‘of each State and rach Canadian Pooviuce which bas adopted ‘the (Piping) Code, bus been appointed. At the same time x procedure wae éstabliahed to provide interpretations in the form of Cases, which again parallels the ASM Boiler Code procedure ‘Thin wansition is largely dus to recognition by public futhoritian that pipe line files associated with @ eudden releaso of stored onergy are potentially aa dangerous ws pvt sure vessel Tallies. Experiense with piping ayatems ulao demanded a change in the former attitude that thermal ex- pansion strains could not be responsible for & major failure Although this typeof éailuro in due to fatigue rather than to» single application of strain loading it ean be & definite hazard fn most services. ASA I: Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration. ‘Tais Code contains, in Section 8, brief rules for pressure and seenaral design of piping for thi specie service. ping for Ships. Such piping requires posi considars- ton because of aided sivas from the motions of the ship. Naval vessels are subject 1 added shock due to audden raneuvering, gunfire, explosions, ete. Requicements for herchant an naval Yestela are contained in the following Standard T, 8. Navy, Bureat of Shipe: General Machinery Specific ‘ations; General Sportcations for Building Naval Vessels, “American Bureau of Shipping: Rules for Building and Clase- ing Vessels United Scates Coast Gusrd Marine Engineering Regule- tions and Material Specifications Lioyd’s Register of Shipping Blas Flange and Fitting Standards, The BIG gtoup of ASA Standards apply topipe fitting detail. Although thet signif ance is primarily dimensional, they involve desiga factors which should be appreciated. ‘These are summarized in the following sections’ Sieel Flanges. "The proportions of eeparate Ganges snd those integrated with fittings weneetablished many yeurs ago, based fon simplifed cantilever analysis. In 1958 the ateel flanger ‘were reinvestigated according to prosint ASME Boiler Coste ommulas. New rating? were established for two genetel clases of gaskets and fuciog details. These appear in ASA Standard, B16.5-1969, and also in the ASME Codes. The basis of the new ratings is rsorded in Appendix D of the S166 Standard. The calculated strea in the Flanges ehows appreciable variation with size, sores, and facings. A stress ‘of 8750 psi atthe primary pressure eating vas selected forthe purpose of establishing Class A ratings. Class B ratings are approximately 88% of Claas A ratings. In the ereey range at for above the primary rating temperature, ASME Power Boiler Code stresses are adhered to. For temperatures up toBe DESIGN OF PIPING 650 F the ratings are hased on allowable stress, whith are fapproximataly 60% of tho yild strenst. Similar to the allowable etree basis of the Piping Code, Section 3, Oit Piping Ratings betmeen 650 F and the primary service temperature are established by o straight line transition Jn general, the bolting, particularly when alloy steel, is of tubetantally greater strength than the Manges, which ean be istorted by overtightening, This excess bolt strength is significant in the ability of ASA flangce to teunerit line m- ments, a¢ discussed later io Chapter 5. ‘Steet Flanged Fitting Thickness. Fitting thicknesses were originally entablished for eastusurbon stee) by application of the Barlow (outside diameter) formula with av allowable stress of TO00 pi the primary pressure rating, ad applying £:50%% increase in thickaose ws “shapefector.””‘This approach tras later extended ¢o other east and forged materia The Fitting thicknesses in the 1968 iaeue of BIG. are besed om thie sare allowable rics, which is 80% of the value used for ating Chast A Hangee, uring the primary cervice pressure fod the modiGed Lam’ formula now common to the Codes. ‘An excess thickness of f0'% ix provided fr all flanges fittings in recogaition of the reinforemant required at the ride outots ‘of tees, bonnet nek of valves and similar branch connections, ts well as for elbows, whether or not they lave side branch connections, ‘Stel Buit Welding Plting Thickness, or cute oe wrovght= batt welding Sittings the thicknos: oquired by ASA Standard 'BUEG.O at the welding enda is tho same ss that of the pipe size ‘and sohedule with whieh they ate intended to be used. In- feud of establishing minimum wall thicknesses or “shape factore” as is done for Banged fittings, this Standard requires ‘only that the bursting ctrengsh be not Jos than thet ofa pe of the cormesponiling mari, size, and schedule number; the presure-tempersture rating then becomes idential with that OF the intact pine. API-ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels. This pressure versel Code is somelimes used as a reference in Fompany specifications. Except fr the absence of manda random examination requirements, ite provisions aro exeen- tially she same ae Section VIII of the ASME Poiler and Pres ‘ro Vercel Co, API Standards. In addition to material specfietions for line pipe, threads ete, the American Petroleum Institute hie standards for certain types of iron or steel valves for refinery for drilling and production service {API Standards €00, 0C ‘and 6D) and for vng-joint fanges (APT Siaodard OB). ‘The anges sad ratings utilized in Standard 600 sre based on ASA standards, Standards 6C and GD assign separate pressure “atings for “pipe line service” and “ring end production Service” st 100K. In addition to ulllising ASA Standard anges, APL Standard BB inchides «special “2900 Th” series. his is similar t the original assignment of « 4000 tb rating 1600 Ih eevee anges, drilled one wize smaller, which wat advanced and used hy The M. W. Kellogg Company, except that the design 48 refined, in ascordance with ealeulations using ASMB Code formulas, by Messrs. Petrie and Waite of the Crane Compaoy and Standard Oil Company (Indiana), respectively. The API Standard assigns a 100 F rating of 7500 ps for pie line service, and 10,000 ps for diling and production service, For the luiter service, materials with higher tensile and yield strengths are required. The API ratings for ASA Bangor ace the aame as ASA ratings for pipe Tino eerviee; for dling and produetion service tho 000 Ib snd TEMS higher series are required to have increased physical propertie sand accordingly are assigned ratinge about 83% higher. ‘Other Standards: Other Standards which cooiribute to pining design are those ofthe Manufseturere Standardization Soniety of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS Standard Practies), American Water Works Axcosistion (AWWA), ‘Amneritan Gas Atosiation (AGA), ederal_ Specifications Board (FSB), and Association of Ameriean Railroads (AAT “These are for the most part dimensional siandards and rating Asblee for specific piping and Stings. 2.2 Design Considerations: Loadings A piping system constitutes an irregular space frame into which strain and attendant strees ray be introduced by the initial fabrication and erection, and also may exist due to various cireumstances during operation, standby, or shutdown. In its ‘erected position, a piping system is subject to loade due to dead weights (pipe, fittings, insulation), snow or ice, contents of the line, wind load for exposed piping, and earthquake or other sbock loading in special situations, Internal (or external) pressure loads may be imposed in service or off stream. The restraint of thermsl expansion provided by terminal and intermediate anchors, guides, and stops intro- duces thermal stresses in piping due to temperature changes. Puether stress may be introduced by the movement? of terminsl eguipment, foundations, or buildings under temperature changes oF other load- ing, or from any influence affeeting the relative posi- tion of the line, anchors, or intermediate restraints ‘The dead load effects, exeept contents, are usually maintained at all times, while wind or earthquake ‘effects will be varinble and reach maximusn design values infrequently, if ever, Pressure and tempera ‘ure changes usually occur simultaneously, but may bbe independent or have a variably dependent rela- tionship. ‘They may be relatively uniform for entire service periods, or involve swings of variable duration, ‘Dead load and wind or earthquake effects on pip- ing are no different than for conventional structures, ‘while pressure effects are essentially the same as those encountered on pressure vessels oF boilers Overall expansion effects differ from those on séruc- tures exposed to ambient temperature changes, in that the range of temperature variation on piping is much greater, For many problems, the designer must consider more than one service condition, as well as start-up, shutdown, and emergency conditions; for example, 8 specific plant may involve more than one feed *Prequently termed “es designers ssccous” movement by pipingDESIGN ASSUMP stock or several alternate products which may re- ‘quire different processing pressure and tempera- tures. Many plants involve highly inflammable, toxig, or otherwise unusual fluids, or specialized machinery and equipment which must be carefully isolated from air or contaminants. Start-up and shutdown may require protracted poriods of warm- ing up, cooling off, or operations such as purging, washing down, picking or passivating, solvent clean- ing, airsteam deeoking, ete., each of which may introduce entirely different combinations of temper ‘ture and pressure over given portions of piping sys tems. Temperature differences, or other loading more severe than normal service conditions, may result where circumstances dictate that parts of system be heated successively. A proper apprecia- tion of these vatious possibilities requires an ade quate knowledge of the process design, operation, instrumentation, and control of the connected equipment or entire plant. It is not unusual for startup and shutdown procedure ta be governed by mechanical design limitations rather than to suit process only. For exhaust steam vacuum service, opinion differs 4s to whether the design temperature for thermal expansion effects should be based on the normal ‘operating temperature under vacuum conditions plus an oxcasionsl rise to 212 F, which temperature would be approached with loss of vacuum, or on 212 F, as though it: were the normal operating tem- perature. The first, approach is consistent with the handling of other operating upsets, it being recog- niged that at reduced capacity’ or after lengiby periods of operation or with sbnormally high cooling ‘water temperatures, higher absolute pressures and corresponding temperatures may occur, Tt is there- fore concluded that design considering the 212 P ease as an abnormal short duration (not an operate ing) temperature is reasonably logical ‘The Piping Code (ASA. B3I.1-1955) is deficient in adequate rules for protection against overpressure. The req) cte., are a useful guide but require modification to suit common piping practice. Pipe wall thickness is generally established for @ design pressure equal to the maximum. (non- shock) service pressure, without provision for a margin between service and design pressure, and safely valves are generally set to relieve at about 10% above the design pressure. This is in contrast with pressure vessel practice, where at least one valve ‘ust be set to open at or below the design pressure. Differences: also exist in the maximum overpressure HONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 33 allowed while a safety valve is blowing; for oil piping 8 334% incvease is often used, compared to 10% on pressure vessels, except under exposure to external fire when 20% is allowed. This situation will prob- ably be reetfied when adequate rules for protection against overpressure ae provided in the Piping Code. ‘The static effect of individual loadings forms only ‘one phase of the broad cubject of the design of pip- ing systems. It is equully important to consider the duration, frequency, and manner of application of each loading, and their mutual oecurrence. Both pressure and temperature stress, if applied in a suf- ficient mumber of repetitive applications, may result in fracture by fatigue, Failure may be accelerated by the dynamic influence of very sudden changes of pressure or temperature. Dynamie effeets may also introduce the possibility of direct shock failure, apart from the brittle fractures associated with met~ allurgieal considerations or ferrite steels at tempore tures below the transition range. While failure due tw corrasion or metallurgical changes is not a subject for this book, it should be mentioned that the level of stress in the piping or the occurrence of plastic flow may be a contributing factor in some cases Failure by stress corrosion is an important example. ‘The loadings which have been discussed can be sogregated for design purposes into two eategoties 1. Those representing the application of extemal forces which, if excessive, would cause failure inde- pendent of strain, 2. ‘Those representing the application of a finite external or intemal strain, These are goverally {introduced through temperature change. The design consideration of individual loadings may be approached on the tasis of the duration, frequency, nature, and probability af their oceur- rence. Individual loadings may be 4, Present during extended normal operation bub not during off-stream condition. }, Maintained throughout the service life 6, Oseasional and of short duration as well as low cumulative duration (including stareup and shut- down conditions) 4 Emergency or abnormal conditions of short duration, For proper establishment of design assumptions, it is necessary to have an adequate appreciation of all diteet and contingent requirervents to which the piping system will be subjected, and also to under- stand the interrelations between the behavior of structures and materials, aceording to our present state of knowledge. It is the aim of this chapter to provide useful assistance toward the first objectiveaM DESIGN OF Chapter 1, together with the references eited, should prove valuable in establishing a reasonable and broad fundamental understanding of the flow and Fracture of metallic materials, 2.8 Design Limits, Allowable Stresses, and Allowable Stress Ranges In the preceding section of this chapter, piping system loadings have been grouped into two cate- gories: external effeets whieh, if excessive, might cause direct failure, and strain effects attendant to temperature change. Categories for individual loadings were also suggested, depending on the dura tion, frequency, and nature of the loading. This section is devoted to the discussion of the mature of ses for the various forms of loading comman to piping, as well as to a consideration of allowable stresses snd an examination of the design limits which are not directly provided for by conventions) allowable stresses and nominal safety factors, ‘When considering basie allowable stress values, it is appropriate to distinguish between primary, secondary, and localized stresses. Although there is probably no accepted definition of primary and secondary stresses in piping systems, the following criteria will be advanced for purposes of this dis cussion Primary stresses are the direct, sheur, or beuding stresses generated by the impoeed loading which are necessary to satisfy the simple laws of equilibrium of internal and external forces and moments. Among the primary stresses due to external effeets are the direct longitudinal and circumferential stresses. due to intemal pressure and the bending and torsional stresses due to dead losd, snow and ice, wind, or earthquake. In addition there are the direet, hend- ing, and torsional stresses due to restrained thermal loading, the external forces being supplied in this case by the line anchors or other restraints, In general the level of primary stresses direetly measures the ability of » piping system to withstend the imposed londings safely. Accordingly, thase stresses due to sustained external loading (categories (a) and (0) of Section 2.2) are controlled to the Code allow- able stress value for the operating temperature, Some overstress is allowed for temporary external Joudings (categories (c) and (a). Secondary stresses are usually of a bending nature, varying irom positive to negative aeross the pipe: wall thickness and arising generally because of dif- ferential radial deflection of the pipe wall, A most important example of secondary stresses is that of ‘the circumferential bending stresses in « curved (G SYSTEMS pipe subject to bending, discussed in Chapter 3. Secondary stresses are not a source of direct failure jin ductile materials upon single losd application, If above the yield strength they merely effect local deformation which results in a redistribution of the loading and a reduction of the stress in the operating condition. If the applied londing is eyclic, however, they establish a local strain range corresponding essentially to their full original magnitude. ‘They thus constitute a potential source of fatigue failure. Localized stresses are those which die away rapidly within a short distance from theie origin, Examples are the bending stresses in the hub of a fange, at a sharp cone-to-cylinder junction, or at the inside diameter of s branch connection. Localized bending stresses can be considered equivalent in significance tosccondary stresses, It is possible in some cases for the plastic low which may result from an initial over- stress to alter tho contour of the pipe to a stronger shape. ‘This would lower the local strain range dure ing subsequent applications of the loading and the fatigue resistance would be raised accordingly Allowing large initial amounts of localized deforma- tion earries the risk, however, of propagating flaws in the base material, particularly in welds, and of initiating cracks in leas ductile heat-affected zones adjacent to welds ‘The Pressure Vesse] and Piping Codes contain tables of allowable stresses at various temperatures which are related only to the primary static-loading stresses (categories (a) and (6) of Section 2.2). ‘The level of localized stresses a notzles, branch connec- tions, in heads, ete.. is ouly loosely and indirectly controlled by formula and shape requirements and may easily be 100% or more above that of the primary ciroumferentisl pressure membrane stress Due to the lack of adequate analysos or to the diffi ‘eulty attendant to their evaluation, many secondary and localized stresses are neglected by the Codes, such a8 the bending stresses in vessel or pipe shells due to piping reactions, although the Code may warn the designer to consider much loadings, ‘Two etiteria are associated with piping stresses One is the so-called “Code allowable stress” at the operating temperature, familiar to all designers of pressure equipmout; the other one is the somewhat Jess known “allowable stress range,” which is derived from Code allowable stresses and which has appeared in the Piping Code since 1942 as the basis for expan- sion and fiexihility design. ‘The application of exch of these criteria is covered later in this section in connection with specific loadings ‘The allowable stress is a function of the msterialDES properties and safety factors as associated with spe- cific design, fabrication, and inspection requirements. Experience with the pressure vesiel Codes as pros ently constituted has shown that pressure and other maintained loading can be sustained by average equipment within this allowable stress Limit for an indefinite period. Also, it is not uncommon to aliow moderate short durations of overload or overtem= perature due to abnormsl or emergency cireum stances. In a more presise approach, however, such overioade should properly be assessed on an inte- grated basis with respect to duration and frequency. In the following, pazes, the various considerations influencing the serviceability or safety of piping sys- tems are summarized and augmented by current opinion 48 to advisable limits of stress, or other de- sign criteria, For Pressure Loading: In the 1952 ASME Boller and Pressure Vessel Code, the basis for the allowable stresses for ferrous materials in both Seo- tion [, Power Boilers, and Seetion VIM, United Pressure Vessels is given in Appendix P of Seo- tion VITT, This appendix is important a3 a general reference not only for its explanation of the basis of allowable stresses given in the Code but also for its guidance in soting stress values for similar materials, For nonferrous materials Appendix Q (Seotion VILL, Unfired Pressure Vessols) similarly establishes the basis of allowable strossea The allowable stresses for Section 1, Power Piping, of the ASA 131.1-1955 Code for Pressure Piping are identical with those of the ASME Power Boiler Code; those of Section 3, Oil Piping, within reflacry limits, are in agreement in the ereep range with Seation VIIT of the ASME Code. At lower temper- ‘tures, tho safety factor on tensile strength is lower than that of the Unfied Pressure Vessel Code, allow able stresses being limited to one-third of the mini- ‘mum tensile strength or G07 of the minimum yield strength, ‘The other sections of the Code for Pressure Piping are intouded for either ambient or relatively moderate temperature service, with allowable stresses in varying percentages of the yield strength $, ot tensile strength Sy as indicatod below, Section 2, Gag and air piping: 0.6 to 0.72 Sy Section 3. Oil transmission lines outside refinery limits: 0.85 8, Section 4, Distriot hosting eystems: 0.25 Sq Section 5. Refrigeration piping systems: 0.25 Sy Section 8. Gas transmission and distribution pip- ing sysioms: 0.72 S, max, ‘The assignment of higher allowable stresses for high IGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 35 vicld-strength materials operating at temperatures below the creep range, and recognition of yield strength enhaneed by cold work and/or heat treat- ‘ment, reduces the margin of safety provided by the iping Code for unassessed stresses and for fatigue life under eyelie conditions. In addition, Seetions 2 and 8 use nominal rather than minimum pipe-wall thickness, whieh further diminishes safety margins The dependence of fracture (and bursting) stress ‘upon the shape of the part is quite properly recog- nized in Chapter 1, Thiseffect, however, is one that is commonly ignored in ordinary design practice and in the Codes which represent stch practice. Hence, the Code safety factors sgainst bursting, related only to fracture of conventional tensile test speci- tens, must be regarded as nominal values which are not necessarily the actual safety factors for the burst ing of a eylindrical vessel under pressure, or for any other general shape, While an exact evaluation of the disparity between sufety factors fora tensile test specimen and those for a tube requires a complete knowledge of the plastic stress-strain properties of the material, a general evaluation for a wide range of materials is made possible by certain-reasonable assumptions At first, the material under consideration is con~ sidered to obey the effective stress-strain relationship of eg. 18, stresses being dependent: upon strains in accordance with the deformation theory of Hencky- Mises (eq. 7). Further, itis assumed that a fune- tion of the type or Bley a) where 7 = true stress in uniaxial tension 1 =logarithmie strain in uniaxial tension Band » = assumed material constants, can adequately describe the stress-strain curve in uniaxial tension. The types of stress-strain curves obtainable from eq. 2.1 through a variation of the constant n (sometimes referred to as the strain- hardening exponent) are shown in Pig, 2.1.7 From the foregoing assumptions, it ean be shown that the engineering (conventional) stress in a. ten= sile bar, at the instant of attaining the maximum load, is given by Bonjey* (22) where S, = ultimate (conventional) tensile stress 2.71828 = base of natural logarithms Band n are as previously defined. 5B, also called the “hardaeas factor.” in simply the true stowss value ata logaritheaie axial strain of 1.0,DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS ea cn = a 7 eget Sra vis, 21 Analytica epresentation of the tent tree stain Tourve for various values of ‘This instability stress value is identical with the conventional “ultimate tensile stress. ‘a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel the conventional circumferential stress at instability (at the mevimom sustainable pressure) ean be expressed = ~2(S) ea) Va We Tor a structure in uniaxial tension desig based on oi atthe ultimate tensile stress (as given by on 1) represents tru eley Factor of For ronmare vessels the safety factor should appropri: Seely be applied to oq. 23. If, instead, salety {96° ce are related to the ultimate tensile stress for pressure vessel design, then the quotient Q = 8./Sq = 1550.67)" (24) will indicate whether the real safety factor against During, on a single application of overpressure, is farger (0 > 2) ot smaller (Q_< 1) than the nominal cor presumed value of k, L., (GF) = @X GHrenwond — 25) [A plot of eq, 24 in Fig. 22 gives values of @ for values of n ranging from 0 to 0.5 and shows that (for materials behaving as assumed) the safety Fae tor for bursting of thin cylindrical vessels wil be Jarger than the tensile safety factor when m is Jess than 0.263 and emaller shen n exceeds this value, Tn commonly encountered materials the strain: hardening exponent n vaties from about 0.05 t0 0.15 for greatly cold-workest or tempered anaterials and ie within the range of 0.2 to 0.45 for soft annealed vretals, Carbon and low-alloy steels generally have ve values from 0.15 to 0.25, Within this mange @ has value barely exceeding 1.0. Thus if } of the ulti- rate tensile stress is used as a basis for design, a» etal safety factor equal to or somewhat higher qhan 40 on bursting will apply to eylindrical pres, Cre vessels (of earbon or low-alloy steel), ws proved by numerous static destruction tests, Similar com: Tonts apply to Codes using a different fraction of the ultimate tensile stress as a design basis, ‘Thus, for te ASA B3L-1 Code, Section 3, which Hilts de- tun stresses to $ of the ultimate tensile sts & safety factor of around 8.0 will be available agsins! purating of thin-walled cylinders. With other ma terials or with departures from the simple eylin- eal tube, however, it would appear that the shepe fifect may bear investigation for more accurate fassessmnent of bursting conditions Th the croop range a similar safety factor does not ‘exist, ‘That is, if ereep continues while the pressure fe maintained, fracture will inevitably take place fitter a sufficiently ong time. Henee, the design Stress ie selected to avoid failure within the service life period “ror the cate where 100% of the extrapolated 10° hour ereep fracture stress is allowed by the Code, and if this vaiue governs the design stress (ue. it is Tower than the stress eausing 1% creep extension ip 10° hours), it woud appear that the “fe factor” (ectual ve. desired life) may be no more thaw 10. Th other words, if the desired design life is also 10° hours (about 11-4 years), fracture should follow when the design life is exhausted. Admittedly, there cre only a few ferrous metals whose extrapolated Stress value for creep fracture is less than the stress producing 1% creep in 10? hours. However, even Tor these metals, no case of fracture following tended iife is known in the annals of the industry, ithough many pressure vessels have operated in the Greep range for pariods considerably exceeding 11.4 years ‘Ouse reason for this lies in the fuet that the allow: able long-time design stress values (for both creep and creep rapture) are obtained by extrapolation ie, 22 The “safety futor ratio” Qs a function of' } erin DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS aT from short-time tests, Although not strietly admis- sible this extrapolation generally leads to acceptable results for the creep values as shown in Fig. 2.3. On ‘the other hand, in the very short-time creep rupture ‘tests comparatively high stresses are used. As men- tioned in Chapter 1, this tends to promote intra- ‘erystalline deformation, with an. ensuing high ductility. At the longest commercial testing periods (generally 10* hours) the stresses are much lower; intrarystalline deformation is largely absent, and the ductility is considerably lower, although the stresses are still higher than those producing 1% longation in the sume time, ‘The respective pos tion of these stress values does not chsngo even when the loading period is increased to 10° hours However, the conventional log-log extrapolated value based upon test results up to 10¢ hours in duration may in some cases yield a fictitious rupture strength ‘at 10? hours which is below the 1% ereep stress valng, as shown in Fig, 23. ‘The unrealistic aspect of this extrapolation partially explains why pressure vessels do not fracture after 11-12 years even if extrapolated test data would predict’ this in cases where the creep fracture value governs design. Structural Effects. ‘The Piping Code mules ASA B31.1-1955 require that primary stresses due to ‘weight of pipe, fittings and valves, contained fluid and insulation, and other sustained external losdings be maintained within the hot allowable stress Si Occasional effects such as wind and earthquake should have litle influence on the fatigue life of the piping system or creep at high temperature. There- fore, they can be treated more liberally, similar to AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction} practices, where 333% higher stress is allowed for the separate effects of wind or earthquake super- imposed on the basie loading, Tn average piping systems, structural louding is not investigated in an overall fashion; instead it is controlled by standardized practices and details. In ‘extreme eases of large or stiff piping it is advisable to evaluate the complete loading, Attention should be directed to those loadings which can occur simul- taneously, s0 as to obtain an integrated equivalent eyclie strain as discussed in Section 2.6 and under “Temporary Loudings” in this section uctural instability or collapse of piping under longitudinal loading, such as is encountered in columns, is posible only under anusual eireume stances, Collapse by circumferential buckling is mote likely to occur, although the thickness-to-radius ratios ordinarily used in piping applications are usually high enough to prevent this, AS « design % rep Fs oe ae ~ co eg eae sce tered or Cup ta, Genres Cae i pee So 1 Crap Ba Tine, ee a see Fic. 23 Comparison of extrapolated and wet ereep-trnc= ture curve for a fypiea) material at eonstant temperature, criterion to gard against circumferential buekling, itis suggested that primary longitudinal eompressive stresses should not be pertutted to exceed 0.07E1/r, where £ is Young's modulus of elasticity, ¢ is the wwall thickness, and r is the radius ‘Tho alowadie sires range was suggested initially by Rossheim and Markl [1] ag o measure of the permissible strain range in 4 eyele of load application ‘to guard againct the possibility of a fatigue faifure after a given nomber of eyeles.. It is selected so that it will be applicable to ductile materials and to average commercial pipe surface conditions at the location of highest stress (strain) range. ‘The prin- cipal eycic loadings are restrained thermal exp sion and pressure, although weight of contents and occasional effects such as wind end earthquake are also repetitive in uature. A eycle of externa! loading usually varies from the full presence of the loading, uring operation to its complete removal under off- stream conditions; the distribution of the assoviated internal strain between the cold and hot ends of the ‘eyele may on the other hand vary due to the depend- ‘ence of strains on the materiel properties a each temperature and the presence of initial fabrieation stresses of residual stresses set up as the result of plastic flow. With the erection and completion of the final joint of each leg of a piping system, intemal stress ‘may be introduced by cold pull, weld shrinkage, or flange makeup, ‘This establishes an initial state of stress, limited only by the yield point of the material With temperature change on the first period of operation, expansion strain is superimposed on tho residual fabrication strains. If the total exceeds the elastic limit at any point, yielding occurs, leading to relaxation of tho initial fabrication stresses and = redistribution of the thermal strain. Prolonged elevated temperature will serve to further reduce theDESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Fic, 24 Representation of ber for calulation of plastic tin concentration faror. hhot stresses by ereep, at & rate proportional to the combined stress (expansion, pressure, weight, ete.) ‘The reduction of the stress duc to thermal strain loading hy plastic flow or ereep at, the operating temperature is termed “relaxation.” The relaxed strain reappears at the ecld end of the temperature cycle with reversed sign For moderate-temperature piping, the division of thermal strain betwreen the hot and cold condition is adjusted during the initial cycle in an amount ddctsted hy the initial residual fabrication stress and the thermal-stress magnitude. The imposition of a temporary overload during operation can effect & further strain shift from the hot to the cold condition. For higher temperatures, where eteep occurs, strain adjustment continues until the combined stress at the operating temperature is reduced to the relaxa- tion limit, For convenience in design thisis generally scumed to be the Code allowable atress level. Al- though such adjustment takes place, it is important to grasp the fact that the strain range per eycle does not change and that the ability of the pipe material to sustain the range is « funetion of both its hot and cold properties. The process wherein the pipe line seeks an equilibrium condition, and the resulting selfadjustment accomplished by yielding and ereep, is termed “self-springing.” Self-adjustment may be minimized by preepringing (cold springing) which eonsists of incorporating pre- stress during erection, Since this practice is par- ticularly useful in controlling initial reactions so as to protoct connected equipment it will be discussed in that regard under the heading of Piping and ‘Equipment Intereffects in Section 9.14 As to whether prespringing offers advantages beyond controlling the initial hot reaction, » general answer eennot readily be given. In the 1942 edition of tho Piping Code, the allowable stress range could in effect, be increased when 50% or more prespring was provided by the permissible reduction in the expansion loading to two-thirds. ‘The 1055 edition provides a uniform stress range regardless of the initial strain condition. This is based on the reason jing that fatigue life is primarily dependent on the sango of strain which is unaffected by prestress, and that the piping system cooks an equilibrium condi- tion by self-springing. Credit, for prespring is, how- ever, till permitted when estimating maximum hot ‘and cold reactions on terminal equipment. By prespripging, the plastic flow which the line may have to undergo on the first, or first few eycles, in order to effectively self-epring itself, ean be avoided entirely or appreciably reduced, This is sometimes ‘considered advantageous in minimizing the visk of fan early failure due to “follow-up elasticity" effects should there be a highly localized woak link in the system, However, from a fatigue standpoint, no enefite are attributed to cold springing once self- spring has been effected. ‘The advantage of pre- spring in this respeet is more important for piping which is to operate at temperatures in the creep range, ‘The proposition has also been advanced that the hot plastic flow associated with self-springing will detract from the final available duetility under high temperature “creep” conditions; in reality, the ‘mochanisin of sell-springing is probably more neatly ‘akin to fabrication hot forming operations. To this light, the only cleatent conclusion that ean be drawn is that prespringing ean have only advantageous and no deleterious effects, especially as concerns initiat terminal reactions. Therefore, it is a desirable practice when economically justified and effectively carried out. ‘The 1955 Piping Code rules eall attention to the possibility of an undesirable amount of oreep of reduced strength, such as short runs of reduced sie in highly stressed zones under certain conditions The possibility of the unit strain in local highly stressed areas being magnified under conditions of plastic flow by reason of the follow-up elasticity of the more lowly stressed areas is not generally appre- cisted, In order to gain a better understanding, it is of interest to study a simple analogue consisting of a bor having a section of reduced area, as shown in ig. 2.4, restrained at the ends and subjected to eyeic heating and cooling. ‘The bar will be assumed to bo made of an ideally elastic-plastic material (non-strainhardening). ‘Let this bar now be subjected to eyelic heating, and cooling of constant amplitmde, to a Jevel which tcouses plastic flow in member on each cycle. It fan be shown then that during any thermal balfeycle (from heating to cooling or viee versa), other han Ihe first heating operation, the total (elastic pius plastic) unit strain in member 1 is given byDESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 39 where ¢_ = elastie strain range limit Se Sa Ee By tad) ¢ = unit Hinenr thermal expansion for a temperature rise of a7. L = total length. 1s, La = lengths of members 1 and 2 Ay, Az = cross-sectional areas of members Fond 2, Syo, Sa ~ yield strength at the cold and hot iemperatures, respectively. Ez, Bs = Young's modulns of elasticity at the cold and hot temperatures respectively. Had this bar been analyzed on the assumption thet all strains remained elastie, the ealeulated unit strain range in member 1 would be given by: 28) The strain given by eq. 206 is higher than that indicated by eq. 2.8, and the ratio of the two can be termed the strain magnification factor 8, which is given by the following equation, valid for ¢, > « (29) teresting result, since « is the ‘maximum unit strain ealculsted by application of elastic theory and «is the mastimum unitstmain range which the material ean accept without allowing Plastic flow on each eyele. So long as « does not exceed ¢, there is no magnification factor. ‘The ‘magnifieation factor for ¢. greater than e, is given by e429. Figure 2.5 is a plot of this equation for a specific ratio of y/4z = 0.5 and shows the magni- fication factor as a function of ce/ee and La/Ly; high values ean be reached which would materially reduce the fatigue life of such a bar. ‘The magnification factors inerease as aren A; approaches area As. At first thought this might he unexpocted; the explana- ton is that, as A,/Ap approaches unity, the portion ‘of the caleulated strain in member 2 which is nover developed, but instead esos plastic flow in member \oinereases as a direct function of Ay/ A> From this siraple anslogue it can be generalized that, in any eystem which is stressed so that plastie flow occurs over a portion of the total length only, ‘ho unit strain is magnified in the portion undergoing 2 Shon Magan Faster na ¥ Tet of Cad Ee Sn ange S/o bie Boe yan ps Hal ple Fra, 2.5 Strain magnification in a locally weakened bat, such flow by the follow-up clasticity of the more Jowly stressed portion. It is not necessary thal the ‘area of the critica! portion be less than the remainder. All that is necessary is that nlastie flow occurs prefer- centially in the critical portion rather than over the rest of the system, Lower mechanical properties ean have the same effect as reduced area. Systems stressed in bending are subject to this effect even when of uniform properties and size due to the non- uniform stress distribution whieh prevails. Stra ‘magnification will occur whether the plastic flow is due to exceeding the elastic limit or is due to opers~ tion at high temperature where the plastic flow snd strain magnification factor would be & function of time per cycle. Similar conclusions were obtained in a recent. paper by Robinson (2). Analyzing a few elected piping systems operating at elevated temperatures (Gn the creep range), he found that severe strain concentrations can exist in layouts where the max saum stress is limited to a very short length of the piping, and where the follow-up elasticity of the Temainder of the system is great. ‘These findings are in agreement with those of the previously pre~ sented analysis for strain concentrations under plastic flow conditions. The allowable stress range limits established by the Piping Code are such that plastie flow due to ‘expansion effects is not permitted to occur with each cycle. Both yielding and creep effects have been considered in basing the hot portion of the allowulble range on the hot yield or creep strength, whichever governs, Repetitive strain magnifeation over aub- stantial lengths of the piping should, therefore, not occur, For lines which are not presprung, it is, hoss- ever, possible for some such strain magnification to ‘occur during the initial operating period, while the40 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS line is undergoing celf-springing. Since this oocurs only once it rust be considered in an entirety difer- nt light and would have no inguence on fatigue iife "The bar analogue presented above was used to derive magnification factors assuming that the weak farea was initially known and that an élastic analy ‘Of strees conditions was made. ‘The analogue could be readily modified to show the extremely high local magnification factor which would exist at a dofect jnva bar of uniiorm ares, which is sufficiently serious fo cause local plastic flow, It is well known that Tatigue failure follows rapidly in the presence of such a defect. "Phe allowable stress range, as associated with the various types of tepeated loading, is discussed in de- tail in the following treatment of specific loadings Expansion Stresses. Sinee thermal expansion cecurs ss A finite strain load associated predom antly with bending effects, fracture om initial appli- tation is unkely to occur in ductile materials Fractures resulting from repeated applications of thermal strain loading are similar to fatigue failure lunder mechanical loading. Therefore, the allowable stress or strain range must be related to the mumber of cycles anticipated during the life of the piping system, Failure will occur in the zone of highost Gyelic strain, whother primary, localized, or second fury, For this reason it is necessary to apply stres jntensifiation factors for any individual piping com- ponent wherever stresses above the level of the priv Inary stresses are introduced. Due to theimportance of such stresses from a fatigue standpoint, Chapter 8 fs entizely devoted to recording present knowledge of stress intensifieation in various components of piping systems as well a their influence on lexibilit ‘Overall design is based on the stress range for the critical component, as established by its intensifica- Hon factor and the nominal primary stress at 586 location ‘The basic allowable stress range established for thermal expansion stresses in the 1955 Piping Code 1.258, + 0.258, where Sp = allowable stress at ambient temperature 'S, = allowable stress at operating tempern~ ‘ure, hhas been selected with the objective of providing & ‘since the prosare vesse) codes do not provide rules for thermal expatsion loading, itis desirable to check the effet Greomparatively sti piping om vostel shells of low thickness adios ratio, ‘This is accomplished in the manner outlined ia ‘Chapter 9 for tetzanal connections. rinimum of 7000 eycles of operation without failure. TToeal and secondary stresses are Kept within this limit by the stressintensifcation factors, For @ umber of eycles greater than 7000 the stress range is reduced by a factor relating the allowable stress range to the number of ¢ycles as determined by lambient temperature fatigue tests on exrbon-stee! pipe. The reduction factor has a lower limit of 0.5 Some adjustment, of these factors, particularly for tnaterials other than earbon ste, will undoubtedly be necessary 25 further fatigue information is obtained, "The possibility of fatigue failure under the eyelie straining conditions present in piping systems has Doon questioned by many individuals. ‘The propo- sitiona were variously advanced that the internal ‘Strain Joading associated with thermal eyeling cs hot initiate fatigue eracks, or that the stress-telieving dnd annealing effects at elevated temperatures would prevent the propagation of such racks. As indi- fated in Chapter 1, reasoning should lead to the opposite conelusion; furthermore, experimental veri fieation that fatigue under constrained therznsl Joading does occur. is provided by the work of 1. F. Coffin, Jr. (3, 4], who demonstrated shat fatigue failure is primarily associated with the range of epelic plastic strain, while stress or strain relief is fof a secondary order of influence ‘The Code allowable stress range cited above as ssumes that longitudinal stresses due to pressure and ther sustained external losdings are not over the asic hot allowable stress, S,, For hot lines the expansion stresses at operating temperatures are ‘sumed to be gradually lowered by yielding and roep, #0 as to be carried essentially ae an f-stream for cold stress, If the longitudinel stress due to sts- tained loadings is less than S, the Code permits the tinused portion to be applied to extend the stress range available for expansion effects, ‘Therefore the ‘Code, in effect, permits total maximum allowable stress range equal to 1.25(S.+ S:), for thermal fexpunsion stress combined with stresses from other sustained loadings. For sorvice temperatures below the occurrence of significant ereep, the total per niesible longitudinal stress (both bending and direst) js equivalent to approximately 1.25 times the vield strength for power piping and 1.38 to 1.6 times the yield stzength for oil piping Tn general, Code design Is simplified for general use; at best it considers only average static condi- Gone and establishes minimum design requirements, placing dependence on the safety factor to take care ff unaseessed stress conditions, ‘The cyclic natureDESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS a of loading and the possibility of fatigue failure are not specifically considered, exeopt in the Piping Code's treatment, of piping flexibility for thermal expansion. It might be asked why the fatigue design approach is currently limited to piping expansion analysis, This is due to the fact that the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code rules limit primary pressure stresses in ferritie materials to 624% of the yield stress and 25% of the tensile strength. This pro- vides a reasonable margin against the possibility of fatigue due to localized and secondary stresses, which may be 100% or more above this allowable stress, for the type of eyclic conditions normally eneoun- tered in most preesute vessel serviees. By compari son, thermal strains play o greater role in the design of piping, which would be seriously affected eeonom- jeally (and would be virtually impractical in the cease of large stiff systems) if total stress including expansion effeets were to be held within the Code rable sttess at the operating temperature Spurred by this necessity, experionce and analytieal svork have led to the Piping Code’s more advanced treatment of thermal strains, and to rules which recognize the influence of number of eycles, hot and cold material properties, and Iocel stress intensi fications, It remains for the piping engineer and designer to recognize any unusnel demands imposed by the de- sign or serviee on piping systems. The following topies, in particular, are not at present adequately covered by the minimum Code design. Shock or Dynamic Loading. Shock or dynamic Joading conditions warrant special consideration be- cause of the added stress which can be introduced by the rate of application of the motivating inffuence and the fact that the yield point of steel ean be ap- presiably raised by very rapid loading. Localized yielding at. points of stress concentration may be inhibited under such conditions and fracture more readily initiated. The genersl subject of vibrations which are a source of concer from a fatigue stand- point is treated in Chapter &, ‘Tho more significant dynamic loadings which enter into piping design can be listed as follows Earthquake. ‘Tho accelerations associated with earth tremora are generally of the order of 1 to Sft/see®, These values represent about 3% to 2: of the 32.2 ft/sec’ avceleration of gravity. For this reason, earthquake design is commonly approached by applying a horizontal force acting at the center of gravity of the structures; this foree is 10% to 20%, of the structure weight, depending on the maxinum accelerations recorded for the locality cousidered. Earthquake loading is not normally assumed in de- sign unless it is specifically: required for the lovality eoncetned. Some consideration has been given to requiring that all structures be checked for some ‘minimum lateral thrust of this type, lower than in recognized earthquake zones, but this is not the practice at present, Gun Fire, Piping on warships is sometimes checked for the dynamie effect due to the firing of gums. Water Hammer or Flow Surge Bifects. The Piping, Code contains water hammer allowances for ast iron pipe, in the form of a required increase in design pressure. On steel pipes no standard allowance is ‘made for flow surge or hammer, and allowances ate usually made only on high-head water fiow lines, such as penstocks. ‘The shock pressure due to sud- den stopping of a liquid is a funetion of its velocity, stoppage time, snd the elasticity of the pipe. Pres- sure surge effeets are present wherever reciprocating Pumps or compressors are used. The accompanying mechanical vibrations may in certain eases be suf- ficient to result in fatigue failure, if not promptly corrected. This subject is treated in more detail in Chapter 8 Brittle Fracture in Ferritic Steel. The poten- tial dangers of the brittle fracture of steel structures were mace clear during World War IL and after by the numerous failures of merehant ships, and by ceasional partial or complete failures of bridees, pressure spheres, gas-transmission piping, and stor- tage tanks. The phenomenon and conditions under which fracture may occur wore diseussed in Chap- tet 1. From the practical design standpoint it has deen realized for a long time that, as ambient ten peratures are redueed, the hazard of brittle fracture in ferritic steels is increased. As a result, the Pres sure Vessel Codes have required for many years that for services below ~20F (excluding applications for service at prevailing ambient temperature, such as outdoor pressure storage tanks), ferritic materials have an impact value of at least 15 ft-lb, at the low- fst intended service temperature as determined by keyhole or Lenotch Charpy specimens, ‘The numerous fractures of ships and other struc- ‘tures have resulted in extensive investigations for s underlying brittle behavior. While no ‘complete practical remedy for avoidance of brittle fracture has resulted, several factors have been rec ‘ognized to have important influence, Although ine dividual impaet or equivalent testing of evel plate, bar, or tube at the lowest service temperature still provides the best assurance as to its transition tem- the caus2 DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS perature, there is definite evidence that average transition temperatures are lowered and the incie dence of failures significantly reduced, within the range of ambient temperstures, by using open- hearth or clectric-furnace steels, controling the manganese-earbon ratio of plates over 3 in. thick, and by employing killed steels made to fine-grain practice, particularly for thicknesses over 1 in. (see ASTM Spee. AISI-537 for example). Normalizing is also desirable for important piste applications over 1in, although none of the ASTM Specifications for structural steel at, present requires this in any thick- ness; however, ASTM Specification Al31-53T in paragraph 4(b) mentions thet plates over 19 in. may lve required to be produced to special specifications ‘Tho ASTM Specifcation A873-541 covers scrue~ tural steo! for welding and is similar to A131 except that iv makes no reference to fine-grain practic for plates over 1 in. or to special requirements over Ig in, ‘The development of these specifications and ‘their gradually more widespread use in the construc- ‘tion of ships, tankage, and other structures at insig- nificant increase in cost is an encouraging trend ‘Though it represents only a modest start it indicates ‘that much more could be accomplished by economic steel specifieation control and that its extension to al] pressure services is a necessary undertaking. ‘Tho experimental vork also showed tht signifi cant improvement in performance can be achieved through eareful design by the avoidance of high stress concentration or areas of high local restraint (ee, sbip hatch corner design). Significantly, all such failures have been triguered off by a relatively minor fw or notch, the majority of which wore associated with welds. Apparently, in addition to the posibility of welds containing small eraeks, the Jocal residual stress pattorn associated with them is A factor. ‘The latter plays a significant role, not only in initiating exuck propagation, but in accolerating the crack propagation speed to a level where it ean continue as 6 spontaneous process through a much lover stres field. "This sin beeping with the theory given in Chapter 1 Non-ductile Materials, Cast iron and other non-dluctile materials are usually confined to rela- tively low temperature service when used for pres- sure parts. Bending stresses for these materials rmust be Kept within well-defined allowable values (for cast iron, usually 1} times the allowable stress for tension). Bell-and-spigot or packed joints of a design incapable of taking longitudinal stress are provided with anchors at the end of each run, with expansion absorbed by moveroent at the packed joints, For low-temperature underground. lines expansion provision is usually not neoessary. Temporary Loadings. An allowance of 338% above the basic allowable hot, stresses established for oil piping in the Piping Code bas beensuggested for temporary loadings due to wind or earthquake. Stresses due to occasional brief overloads in opers tion can be similarly treated; such might be ocea- sioned by minor upsets in operating conditions or by starting-up or shutdown conditions. For power piping applications the ASME and ASA Codes specifically recognize oecasionsl operating variations in pressure and temperature, allowing the following increase in the ealeulated stress due to internal pressure 1. 15% during 10% of the operating period. 2. 20%, during 1% of the operating period ‘This permissible overstress is intended to cover the surges expected to occur due to the heat lag of large boilers when the output is suddenly decreased. It is not recommended as a genoral design practice for znormal operation variations in pressure or tempera~ ture as itis better to design for the maximum pres- sure and temperature conditions expested to ovcur in regular operation. However, brief temperature or pressure upsets may be treated on this basis, provided they are sich as to require quick reme- dial adjustments in operation to restore normal conditions, Severe upset or emergency loadings sometimes eall for immediate drastic corrective measures and may require shutting down the unit. Wherever prac- ticable the samo limit ss proposed for temporary loadings should be observed, but the nature and probability of the emergency often requires special consideration, In the caze of piping where design is controlled by creep and stress-rupture properties. analysis of the ability of the system to sustain an ‘occasional short duration emergency can be based on the short-time properties of the matericl or, if more frequent, on the permissible ereep stresses for the shorter time period involved, by evaluation of the cumulative ereep for service end unusual conditions. No standard guide can be given. More study and tests ure desirable to assess the cumulative effect of short-duration high overloads and long-duration, norma! Joads. Tt is known that, for & given total ppetiod of overloading, the number of times the loading is spplied hes a significant effect, boing more damaging, as the frequency of application increases for a eonstant total duration of the overload Where basic allowable stresses are set higher or are established by eold-worked properties (eg. gas cocina intent tshies Astin insiCaicanCvnbi bisikiaisiatibteisoi link suns cle asta nai ncielaas agDESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 8 ‘transmission Tine piping), overstress due to tem- porary loading should be avoided. Abnormal temperature differences may ocour due to upsets or during stari-up operations, which ean cesuse thermal expansion stresses higher than assumed, for the normal design condition. When infrequent compared (0 the normal design condition, some increase in the permissible stress range can be justi- fied. For example, when working to the rules of the 1951 ASA Piping Code, The M. W. Kellogg Com- pany designed for emergeney thermal expansion con ditions using a 50% inerease over the basic allowable stress range. A moro appropriate design approach would be one which would determine the number of eycles at the Code allowable stress range which would be equivalent to the number of cycles under the diverse conditions actually anticipated. Assum- ing a basic relation between number of eycles NV and stress range Sy of the form e N= (K/Se)" the equivalent number of eycles NV. at a stress Sq can bo established roughly as (2.10) where K and n are constants for the material Nj; isthe number of eyeles producing an over- load stress 8), Nz is the number of cycles producing an over- load stress Ss, ete. Nop is the number of expected operating cycles ‘on the normsl design basis. Sp is the corresponding eateulated stress. Sa is the Code allowable stress range for 7000 eyoles. @ since the Code stress range is intended to provide for a minimum of 7000 cycles at a etress Sq, if M7, does not exceed 7000, the design may be considered oquivalent to a Code design. Tests on carbon-sted pipes (5 indioated that m can be taken equal t0 5. Without similar test data, the use of n= 5 for other materials is open to some question. 24 Stross Evaluation Stress evaluation is commonly limited to primary direct, bending, and torsional stresses which, in pip- ing, result from the effect of pressure, weight, and thermal expansion, Localized and secondary stresses which do not affect the overall system are not ordi- nariy evaluated dirwoty although their infuence on the eyelie ot fatigue life under thermal expansion is taken into account through so-called stress intensi fication factors. ‘The following discussion presents background information and comments to aid uader- standing of the current approsch in treating various loadings 24a Internal Pressure up to 3000 psi Maxi- mum, In their present status, the Pressure Vessel Codes already mentioned are stated to be applicable sehen the preasure does not exceed 8000 psi, Pres: ures above this may require special attention to dosign and fabrication details, elosures, branch con nections, ete, in view of the heavier wall and thick- ness/diameter ratio involved, Actually, any such simi is stietly atbiteary and should more properly be established as a pressure/stross limit so that the influence of different. materials and the effect of temperature would be included ‘Por the most common susface of revolution, the celinder, the so-called inside diameter (or membrane) ‘and outside diameter (or Barlow) formulas were first used for thiekness/diamotar below and above O.t respectively. These were later supplanted by the mean diameter formule and, more recently, by the universally adopted formula approximating the results of the Lamé formula, All these formulas ray be expressed in a eommon manner as follows S= (priit) + Kp uy) where p = internal pressure, r= inside radius wall thickness constant having values between 0 and 1 K If Kis given the value of 0, the inside diameter for- mila is obtained ; for K = 0.5, the mean diameter; for K = 1.0, the outside diameter. When the value of 0.6 is used, stresses are obtained which correlate reasonably well for values of up to about 0.6r. with the recognized inside citeumferential stress formula of Lamé. This approximation, discovered by H. C. Boardman, was rapidly adopted for moderate- temperature piping by both Pressure Vessel and Piping Codes, while for piping in the creep range it is considered applicable if « further adjustment of K is made us covered later in this section. relationships, which approximate the direct cireum- ferential pressure stress st the aner-wall surface for other shapes of revolution, are presented in Table 2 | For dished heads it may be noted that the Code also relates the design of torispheriesl and ellipsoidal heads to the sphere formula, which is suitably modi- fied by ® correction fuctor to correspond with the“ DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS Table 2.1 Internal Pressure-Circumnferential Stress Formulas for Elastic Conditions Shape t Cylinder Cone? Sphere Torus (pressure inside) General shape of revolution? wheres surface, s00 Fig. 2.6), B = wold joint efficiency. ‘E = torus center line bend radius, (Pig. 2.6), a =F cone included (apex) angle. = 05(5- 1) fom mints aa) sircunaterential stress, ~ internal pressure *Not covered by Piping Code at present. {Not given in any code wt present membrane stresses associated with their contour. ‘The pressure design of shell openings for nozzles, manboles, and branch connections is based on the simple maintenance of the original cross-sectional area, by replacement of the removed metal by rein- foreement immediately adjacent to the weakened area. Flanges and cover plates involve primavily bending sirosses; the direct stresses in these com- ponents are commonly neglected due to their lesser magnitude. Specific formulas are given in the Codes for their pressure design 2.46 Internal Pressure over 3000 psi, ‘The Codes at present (1955) do not cover the design of high-pressure vessels, although this subject has re- ceived considerable attention in the last twa decades. ‘Many problems arise at high pressure for whieh con ventional code details ure either totally unsuited or present an undesirable choice, Examples are: nozzle reinforcements which, within Code limits for r forcement, entail extremely abrupt changes in sec- tion, cones, ete., involving inside corner radii which are smali in comparison with the wall thickness, As the pressure is increased, practical limite are resched for design as covered by Code rales. In the follow~ ing itis attempted to summarize the practices which » s ae By, pa Bn + 0.61) in place of rin the eylinder formulas Pin Fyn +020 leis) BlG-s8)-+™] inside radius (use meridional radius in general formula, i., radius from axis of revolution and normal 10 sictual radius of curvature ia meridions! plane st the point in question (positive if concave to prossure) Ll a Fis, 2.6 The meridional madi of curvature for halls of revolution, are followed in the design of shells, heads, closures, and connections of high-pressure piping, The Lamé formula and the Rankine (Maximum Principal Stress) criterion, on whieh the ASME Boiler Code and ASA Code for Pressure Piping are based, no longer predict general yielding or rupture within reasonable limits when the thiekness/diameter ratio exceeds approximately 0.20. Although the error is on the safe side, the deviation becomes greater the more the thickness/diameter ratio is in- creased. For initistion of yielding the Maximum Shear or Maximura Shear-Strain Energy Theories are in good agreement with experimental evidence,DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS 45 @sssesrionst in Chapter 1, Biter ofthese theories ay be used to practical advantage as general yield- ing or bursting criteria when applied in conjunction with plastic stress analysis, For thick cylinders, yielding of the inside fibers Jeads to compressive residual stresses in the phasti- cally deformed portion of the wall when pre: removed, increased stress in the outer fibers und pressure loading, and grester uniformity of shear Stress throughout the wall thickness. This redis- tribution of stresses due to plastic flow is termed “qutodrettage”; it was first employed for casting guns in the early nineteenth century. Later, greater control and uniformity of stress distribution was at~ tained by shrinking successive closely machined shell layers on to each other, thus producing a thick ‘walled eylinder, whose inner layers are in # state of precompression. ene initial yielding of the inner fibers Joecurs at only a fraction of the pressure correspond ing to general yielding distinguishes thick-walled veseels from thin-walled shells, Since the pressure to produce failure im thick-walled vessels is more properly associated with plastic rather than elastic priteria, a valid design of these structures can be based on plastic analyses, and related to the general yielding and bursting conditions. The various approaches which have been suggested are diseuasod in the following paragraphs. Motified Elasticity. This approximate solution assumes that a safety factor of 4 on bursting is main- tained so long as yielding of the inside fibers is ‘avoided at the design pressure, This approach also requires that the atress at the mean wall thick fs calculated hy the Lamé formula, does not exceed the usual allowable (0.25S,) value. The safety faotor assumed by this analysis is likely to be in Qe the une side vAulofretiage. The wall is assumed to be in two layers with the inner layer taken to be in a state of precompression, attained by applying @ suitable overpressure and yielding the inner fibers, The stress is then calculated by the Lamé formula con~ sidering the initial prestressed condition. ‘The results will be similar to the preceding approximate ap- proach for the same safety factor. Partial and Complete Plasticity. Stress analyses of evlindors having an inner plasti-lastic zone and fan outer elastic zone are available in many text books dealing with plasticity. These solutions are enerally based on the assumption of an ideslized material which is elastic up to the yield stress and plastic (non-work-hardening) st the yield value ‘rem | i Fro, 2:7. ‘Typical stress vaviasion ina pipe under elastic ‘or ereep conditions For a severely eold-working material the assumption that the strain is the sum of an elastic strain obeying, Hooke’s law and a plastic strain ean be considerably inerror, Special analyses have also heen worked out for strain-hardening materials, Plasticity analyses are generally based on the assumptions that (1) elastic strains are negligible in comparison with plastic strains; (2) the volume of the material remains constant during deformation 5 ‘and (3) the length of the pipe is unchanged under ‘the application of presture, The distribution of cir- ‘cumferential stresses changes completely from the fdastic results, the maximum in the plastic range occurring at the outside fiber. ‘The shear stress also tends to be constant through the wall thickness, but remains a maximum at the inner fiber. Figure 27 illustrates the difference in stress distribution. For a thicle-walled oylinder of an ideally plastic (non swork- hardening) material, Nadai {6} gives the following formulas at the onset of general yielding: (2.12) jen THe ayy fen la » independent of +) Tog Gara eyeo: where S.. = circumferential stress at any radius r. Sy = radial stress at any point r. S, = shear stress, outside radius. re = inside radius 7 = radius at point in question ‘The value of 25, is equal to S, ut the outside radius, If this is accepted as @ suituble criterion of general yielding ot bursting, itis interesting to know that q, 2.14 can be closely approximated by the simple mean diameter formula Spurred on by an interesting paper by Burrows and Buxton {7] on available formulas for eylinders under intemal presaute, the ASA B31 Committee appointed a special task group to study the subject and recommend a simple appropriate fornmala for the design of heavy-walied piping in the ereep range “This task group recommended that the value of Kin the simple formula of ey, 2.11 be gradually modified from 0.6 to 0.3 at temperatures over 900 F for ferritic steels and over 1050 F for austenitic steel, This recommendation was approved and the formulas for piping in the ASA Piping Code, Sections 1 and 3, and the ASME Power Boiler Code now include this provision ‘The formulas given in eqs, 2.12 102.14 will provide a reasonably good answer for the behavior of thick- ‘walled cylinders made of materials with only a mild strain-hardening tendeney. Where a more exact evaluation of probable performance is desired, the stress distribution should be evaluated from the actual stress-strain characteristics of the max terial [8, 9,10), An analysis of thick-walled eytinders under internal pressure in the ereep range has slso been ndvaneed by Bailey (11) Concerning the practical design dotails of thick shells, an effort should be made to avoid stress raisers in the form of abrupt changes of section at the Toca tion of openings, noatles, and intersections, ‘The observance of these rules, coupled with careful con- trot of materials and fabrication, and with adequate testing, may permit a reduction in the overall nominal safety factor without diminishing (and possibly improving) the real selety fuctor. With the trend to higher pressures and temperatures, more adequate use of material is imperative. Lower safety factors for simple surfaces of revolution or for con struction of controlled low stress intensification is also necessary [12 2de External Pressures. External pressure loading involves, in. addition to control of direct stresses, the consideration of stability, Direct DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS stresses for external pressures are governed by the same formulas as for internal pressure, except that the signs of all of the equations containing the pres- sure p have to be reversed, indicating compression stro. Stability of evlinders “against collapse is well covered by the rules of the ASME Boiler Code, Section VIII, which provide for the design of both ‘unstiffened and stiffened eylinders of all Code materials, For an explanation of the Code charts, reference should he made to 4 paper by E. O. Bergs rman (13), ‘This paper also contains an extevsive bibliography on this subject. Similar to columns, the limiting compressive load which a eylinder wil sistain is related to its equivalent slendemess, end conditions, and deviations from true contour. In the case of long unstiffened cylinders (length/ diameter over sbout 10), the ¢ollapeed contour approximately folloss a figure B outline, consisting of two complete lobes. Consoquently, an unstiffened cylinder may be compared with a fixed-end column ‘whose length equals one-half of its circumference For stiffened eylinders, the mumber of lobes increases fas the length-hetwoen-stiffeners/diamever ix de- creased, with a corresponding increase in collapse pressure. ‘The Code design of « stiffened shell establishes a shell thickness and combined moment of inertia for the stiffener and shell to assure the stability of the entire shell section, This results in heavier stiffeners than would be obtained by a design approach wherein the stiffener loading is based on division of Iond between the connected shell and stiffener under pressure, and the elastic conditions up to the point of collapse. The eol- lapsing pressure of heads (which in early Code editions involved flat reduction in allowable external pressure to 60% of that allowed for internal pressure) is now predicated on the collapse pressure of a complete sphere having a radius equal to that of the spherieal part of the head The ASME rules attempt lo maintain the some nominal safety factor of 4 against collapse under external pressure as is used aguinst bursting under internal pressure. There is some reason to question ‘whether this is entirely logical, since the effect of localized stresses oF stress concentrations, sch 23 at branch connections, may be entirely diferent the degroe of hazard in the event of failure will genetally be appreciably less for external pressure, although hazard must still be judged independently for individual applications. In addition, the Code rules maintain the same safety factor for failure by clastic instability as for failure by plastic yielding, signi hmtentishiechanenbaneninsitiettiinreannninili