EQUIPMENT DESIGN: MECHANICS

I. Force and Force Systems

a. Definition of a Force

b. Characteristics of a Force

c. Types of Forces

d. Systems of Forces

e. Resultant of Force Systems

II. Moments

a. Definition of Moments

b. Elements of a Moment

c. Types of Moments

III. Beams

a. Definition of Beans

b. Types of Beams

c. Determination of Beam Reactions

d. Flexure

e. Shear and Moment Diagram

 Force and Force Systems

A force has been defined as the action of one body

on another. We find that force is a vector quantity, since
its effect depends on the direction as well as on the
magnitude of the action and since forces may be combined
according to the parallelogram law of vector combination.
Thus, the complete specification of the action of a force
must include its magnitude, direction, and point of application, in which case it is treated as a fixed
vector.

The action of a force on a body can be separated into two effects, external and internal.
Forces external to a body are then of two kinds, applied forces and reactive forces. In dealing with
the mechanics of rigid bodies, where concern is given only to the net external effects of forces,
experience shows us that it is not necessary to restrict the action of an applied force to a given
point. This conclusion is described by the principle of transmissibility, which states that a force
may be applied at any point on its given line of action without altering the resultant effects of the
force external to the rigid body on which it acts. When only the resultant external effects of a force
are to be investigated, the force may be treated as a sliding vector, and it is necessary and sufficient
to specify the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the force.

The characteristic of a force expressed by Newtons third law must be carefully observed.
The action of a force is always accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction. It is essential for
us to fix clearly in mind which force of the pair is being considered. The answer is always clear
when the body in question is isolated and the force exerted on that body (not by the body) is
represented. It is very easy to make a careless mistake and consider the wrong force of the pair
unless we distinguish carefully between action and reaction.

law in their common plane to obtain their sum or resultant R as shown in Fig. 2/3a. If the
two concurrent forces lie in the same plane but are applied at two different points as in Fig. 2/3b,
by the principle of transmissibility we may move them along their lines of action and complete
their vector sum R at the point of concurrency A. The resultant R may replace F1 and F2 without
altering the external effects on the body upon which they act. Mathematically the sum of the two
forces may be written by the vector equation

In addition to the need for combining forces to obtain their resultant, we often have
occasion to replace a force by its vector components which act in specified directions. By
definition, the two or more vector components of a given vector must vectorially add to yield the
given vector. Thus, the force R in Fig. 2/3a may be replaced by or resolved into two vector
components F1 and F2 with the specified directions merely
by completing the parallelogram as shown to obtain the
magnitudes of F1 and F2.

A special case of addition is presented when the two

forces F1 and F2 are parallel. They may be combined by first
adding two equal, opposite, and collinear forces F and F of
convenient magnitude, which taken together produce no
external effect on the body. Adding F1 and F to
produce R1 and combining with the sum R2 of F2 and
F yield the resultant R correct in magnitude, direction, and line of action. This procedure is also
useful in obtaining a graphical combination of two forces that are almost parallel and hence have
a point of concurrency which is remote and inconvenient.

Moments

The Moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to

cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis. This is
different from the tendency for a body to move, or translate, in
the direction of the force. In order for a moment to develop, the
force must act upon the body in such a manner that the body
would begin to twist. This occurs every time a force is applied
so that it does not pass through the centroid of the body. A moment is due to a force not having an
equal and opposite force directly along it's line of action.

the force to produce twisting or turning effect

about an axis. This axis is perpendicular to the plane
containing the line of action of the force. The magnitude
of moment is equal to the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action
of the force. The intersection of the plane and the axis is
commonly called the moment center, and the
perpendicular distance from the moment center to the line
of action of the force is called moment arm.

Imagine two people pushing on a door at the doorknob from opposite sides. If both of them
are pushing with an equal force then there is a state of equilibrium. If one of them would suddenly
jump back from the door, the push of the other person would no longer have any opposition and
the door would swing away. The person who was still pushing on the door created a moment.

Elements of a Moment

point or axis is directly proportinoal to the

distance of the force from the point or axis. It is defined
as the product of the force (F) and the moment arm (d).
The moment arm or lever arm is the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of the force and the
center of moments.

Moment = Force x Distance or M = (F)(d)

The Center of Moments may be the actual point about which the force causes rotation. It
may also be a reference point or axis about which the force may be considered as causing rotation.
It does not matter as long as a specific point is always taken as the reference point. The latter case
is much more common situation in structural design problems.
 feet, newton-meters, or kilonewton-meters. A moment also has a sense; A clockwise
rotation about the center of moments will be considered
a positive moment; while a counter-clockwise rotation
about the center of moments will be considered negative.
The most common way to express a moment is

Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia is the name given to rotational inertia, the rotational analog of mass for
linear motion. It appears in the relationships for the dynamics of rotational motion. The moment
of inertia must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. For a point mass the moment
of inertia is just the mass times the square of perpendicular distance to the rotation axis, I = mr2.
That point mass relationship becomes the basis for all other moments of inertia since any object
can be built up from a collection of point masses.

BEAMS
 A beam is a structural element that
primarily resists loads applied laterally to the
beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily
by bending. The loads applied to the beam result
in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The
total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to
produce shear forces and bending moments within
the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are
characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their
material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements,

but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames,
and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry
lateral loads are analyzed in a similar fashion.

Types of Beams

Beams are generally horizontal structural members which transfer loads horizontally along
their length to the supports where the loads are usually resolved into vertical forces. Beams are
used for resisting vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.

Different types of beams can be classified based on the type of support. The four different
types of beams are:

1. Simply Supported Beam

2. Fixed Beam
3. Cantilever Beam
4. Continuously Supported Beam
Simply Supported Beam
If the ends of a beam are made to rest freely on supports beam, it is called a simple (freely)
supported beam.

Fixed Beam
If a beam is fixed at both ends it is free called fixed beam. Its another name is a built-in beam or
encastre beam.

Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end while the other end is free, it is called cantilever beam.
Continuously Supported Beam
If more than two supports are provided to the beam, it is called continuously supported beam.

Finding the Reactions of Continuous Beams

Isolate each span of the beam and consider each as simply supported carrying the original
span loading and the computed end moments. Resolve further the simple span into simple beams,
one carrying the given loads plus another beam carrying the end moments and couple reactions.
With this method, the interior reaction was divided into parts which can be summed up find the
total reaction. See example below.

General instruction

In the following problems, determine the reactions and sketch the shear diagrams. Then
compute the values of maximum vertical shear V and maximum positive bending moment M. In
solving the problems, use the moments determined in the reference problems unless otherwise
instructed.
Stresses in Beams

Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses) and shearing
stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act on it, the bending is said
to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is called ordinary bending.

Assumptions

In using the following formulas for flexural and shearing stresses, it is assumed that a plane
section of the beam normal to its longitudinal axis prior to loading remains plane after the forces
and couples have been applied, and that the beam is initially straight and of uniform cross section
and that the moduli of elasticity in tension and compression are equal.
Flexure Formula

Stresses caused by the bending moment are

known as flexural or bending stresses. Consider a fiber at
a distance yy from the neutral axis, because of the beam's
curvature, as the effect of bending moment, the fiber is
stretched by an amount of cdcd. Since the curvature of
the beam is very small, bcdbcd and ObaOba are
considered as similar triangles. The strain on this fiber is

By Hooke's law, =/E=/E, then

which means that the stress is proportional to the distance yy from the neutral axis.