Series of Lectures

The Simplified Structural System
CE 506
Finite Element Method STRUCTURE
EXCITATION RESPONSES
Dr. Asad-ur-Rehman Khan
Modeling and Analysis Concepts Loads Displacements
Vibrations Strains
Stress
Professor Settlements pv
Stress Resultants
Thermal Changes
Department of Civil Engineering
NEDUET, Karachi
Analysis of Structures The Need for Modeling The Need for Structural Model
STRUCTURE
xx yy zz
A - Real Structure cannot be Analyzed:
+ + + pvx = 0 It can only be Load Tested to determine
x y z response EXCITATION RESPONSES
Loads Displacements
pv
Reall Structure
R S is
i governedd by
b Partial
P i l Strains
B - We can only analyze a Vibrations
Differential Equations of various Settlements pv
Stress
Model of the Structure Stress Resultants
order Thermal Changes
Direct solution is only possible for:
Simple geometry C - We therefore need tools to Model the Structural
Simple Boundary Structure and to Analyze the Model Model
Simple Loading
Finite Element Method: The Analysis Tool Continuum Vs Structure Continuum to Discrete Model
A continuum extends in all direction, has infinite

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) particles, with continuous variation of material
A discretized solution to a properties, deformation characteristics and stress
continuum problem using FEM state
Finite
Fi it Element
El t Method
M th d (FEM)
A Structure is of finite size and is made up of an pv
A numerical procedure for solving
(partial) differential equations associated
assemblage of substructures, components and
with field problems, with an accuracy members
3D-CONTINUM CONTINUOUS MODEL DISCRETE MODEL
acceptable to engineers MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF STRUCTURE
Dicretization process is used to convert Structure to (Governed by partial
(Governed by either (Governed by algebraic
partial or total differential equations)
Finite Element Models for determining response differential equations)
equations)
1
From Classical to FEM Solution Simplified Structural System The Structural System
Classical Assumptions FEM

Loads (F) Deformations (D) STRUCTURE
Equilibrium Fv
Actual Structure Structural Model
xx yy zz RESPONSE
+ +
x y z vx
+ p =0
Stress-Strain
Stress Strain Law
K =R
Kr D K
EXCITATION
S
pv
Compatibility
Partial Differential
Algebraic F Static Elastic Linear
Equations
Equations _ _
t dV = pvt u dV + pst u ds
_
Dynamic Inelastic Nonlinear
v K = Stiffness
r = Response
(Principle of Virtual Work) R = Loads F=KD
The Equilibrium Equations Basic Steps in FEA Global Modeling of Structural Geometry
1. Linear-Static Elastic OR Inelastic
Ku = F Evaluate Real Structure
Create Structural Model

2. Linear-Dynamic Elastic (a) Real Structure
Mu&&(t ) + Cu&(t ) + Ku(t ) = F (t ) Discretize Model in FE
3. Nonlinear - Static Elastic OR Inelastic Solve FE Model

Engineer
Ku + F NL = F
(b) Solid Model (c) 3D Plate-Frame (d) 3D Frame
Interpret FEA Results Engineer + Software

Software
4. Nonlinear-Dynamic Elastic OR Inelastic Physical significance of Results (e) 2D Frame (f) Grid-Plate
Mu&&(t) + Cu&(t) + Ku(t) + F(t) NL = F(t) Fig. 1 Various Ways to Model a Real Struture
Dimensions of Elements DOF for 1D Elements DOF for 2D Elements

1 D Elements (Beam type) Dy Dy Dy
Ry ?
Ry ?
Can be used in 1D, 2D and 2D Rz Dy
Dz Dx Dy
2-3 Nodes. A, I etc. Dx Dy
Truss and Beam Elements (1D,2D,3D)
Rz Dz Dx Rx
2D Truss 2D Beam 3D Truss Dx Rx
Rz
2 D Elements (Plate type)
Can be used in 2D and 3D Ry
Model Plane Stress, Plane Strain, Axisymmetric, Plate and Shell Elements (2D,3D) Dy Plate Shell
Dy Dy Membrane
3-9 nodes. Thickness Rz
Dx Rz Rx Dz Dx Rx
Rz
3 D Elements (Brick type)
2D Frame 2D Grid 3D Frame
Can be used in 3D Model
6-20 Nodes.
Brick Elements
2
DOF for 3D Elements Analysis Type Basic Analysis Types
Excitation Structure Response Basic Analysis Type

Dy
The type of Analysis to be carried out Static Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Dz Dx depends on the Structural System Static Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Static Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear Inelastic Static Analysis
Nonlinear-Inelastic-Static
Solid/ Brick
The Type of Excitation (Loads) Dynamic Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
The Type Structure (Material and Geometry) Dynamic Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
The Type Response Dynamic Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Static Vs Dynamic Elastic Vs Inelastic Linear Vs Nonlinear
Static Excitation Elastic Material Linearity

When the Excitation (Load) does not vary rapidly with Follows the same path during loading and unloading The response is directly proportional to excitation
Time and returns to initial state of deformation, stress, strain (Deflection doubles if load is doubled)
When the Load can be assumed to be applied Slowly etc. after removal of load/ excitation Non-Linearity
Dynamic Excitation Inelastic
I l ti Material
M t i l The
h response is
i not directly
di l proportional
i l to
When the Excitation varies rapidly with Time Does not follow the same path during loading and excitation
unloading and may not returns to initial state of (deflection may become 4 times if load is doubled)
When the Inertial Force becomes significant
deformation, stress, strain etc. after removal of load/ Non-linear response may be produced by:
excitation Geometric Effects (Geometric non-linearity)
Material Effects (Material non-linearity)
Both
Elasticity and Linearity The Finite Element Method

Linear-Elastic Linear-Inelastic
Action
Action
History
Brief Description
Deformation Deformation
Introduction to FEM General Steps
Advantages
Computer Programs
Action
Action
Nonlinear-Elastic Nonlinear-Inelastic
Deformation Deformation
3
Definition Discretizations
The finite element method is a numerical method for Model body by dividing it into an equivalent system
solving problems of engineering and mathematical of smaller bodies or units (finite elements)
physics. interconnected at points common to two or more
elements (nodes or nodal points) and/or boundary
Useful
U f l for
f problems
bl with
i h complicated
li d geometries,
i lines and/or surfaces.
loadings, and material properties where analytical
solutions can not be obtained.
Brief History History
Hrennikoff [1941] - Lattice of 1D bars to Grew out of aerospace industry.

McHenry [1943] - Model 3D solids Post-WW II jets, missiles, space flight
Courant [1943] - Variational form Need for light weight structures
Levy [1947, 1953] - Flexibility & Stiffness Required accurate stress analysis
Argryis and Kelsey [1954] - Energy Prin. for Paralleled growth of computers
Matrix Methods
Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp [1956] - 2D
elements
Clough [1960] - Term Finite Elements
Applications Feature Advantages
Structural/Stress Analysis Obtain a set of algebraic equations to solve for Irregular Boundaries
Fluid Flow unknown nodal quantity (displacement).
General Loads
Heat Transfer Secondary quantities (stresses and strains) are
Different Materials
Electro-Magnetic Fields expressed in terms of nodal values of primary
quantity Boundary Conditions
Soil Mechanics Variable Element Size
Acoustics Easy Modification
Dynamics
Nonlinear Problems (Geometric or Material)
4
Steps in Process
Computer Programs Programs
Small Special Purpose Programs ALGOR

Discretize and Select Element Type
Truss ANSYS
Select a Displacement Function
Frame COSMOS/M
Define Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain
Plane Stress STARDYNE
Relationships
Heat Transfer IMAGES-3D
Derive Element Stiffness Matrix & Eqs.
MSC/NASTRAN
Assemble Equations and Introduce B.C.s Large General Purpose Program (Commercial)
SAP90
Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom ADINA
Solve for Element Stresses and Strains NISA
Interpret the Results
Disadvantages of General Purpose

Advantages of General Purpose Programs
Programs
Easy input - preprocessor. High development costs.

Solves many types of problems Less efficient than smaller programs,
Modular design - fluids, dynamics, heat, etc. Often proprietary. User access to code limited.
Can run on PCs now.
Relatively low cost.
5
7/1/2009
Matrix Algebra
Review Topics A matrix is an m x n array of numbers
Technical Review
arranged in m rows and n columns.
m = n A square matrix.
matrix
Linear Algebra
m = 1 A row matrix.
Matrix Operations
n = 1 A column matrix.
Basic Elasticity
aij Element of matrix a row i, column j
Technical Review 1 Technical Review 2 Technical Review 3
Matrix Operations Matrix Operation Matrix Operations
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar. Multiplication of two matrices Transpose of a matrix:

[a] = k [c] aij = kcij If [a] is m x n then [b] must have n rows Interchange of rows and columns
Addition of matrices. [[c]] = [a]
[ ] [b]
[ ] T
aij = aji
Matrices must be of same order (m x n)
Add them term by term n If [a] is m x n then [a]T is n x m
[c] = [a] +[b] cij = aij + bij cij = aiebej If [a] = [a]T then [a] is symmetric.
e =1 [a] must be a square matrix
Matrix Operations Matrix Operations Matrix Operations
The identity matrix (or unit matrix) is The inverse of a matrix is such that: Differentiating a matrix:
denoted by the symbol [I]:
[a ][a ]
1
= [I ] d daij
[a][I] = [I][a] = [a]
[a] =
1
[I ] = 0
0
1
0
0
dx dx
0 0 1
1
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Matrix Operations Matrix Operations Finding the Inverse of a Matrix
Differentiating a matrix: Integrating a matrix. Need to find the determinant

1 a a x
U = [x y] 11 12
2 a21 a22 y a = determinant of matrix [a]
U
x a a12 x
[a]dx = aij dx Need to find the co-factors of [a]
=
11
U a a
21 22 y
y
Cofactors Stress Equilibrium Equations

Cofactors of [aij] are given by:
x xy xz
C ij = ( 1) i + j d Review of Elasticity Equations + + + Xb = 0
x y z
where matrix d is the first minor
of a ij and is matrix [ a ] Linear, homogeneous, isotropic xy y yz

material behavior. + + + Yb = 0
with row i and column j deleted. x y z
Then : [C ]
T
xz yz z
[a ij ] 1 = + + + Zb = 0
a x y z
Strain Displacement 3D Stress-Strain Matrix

Stress-Strain Relationships
1 0 0 0
u u v 1 0 1 0
x = xy = + 0 0
0 0
x y x x
1 0 0 0 x 1 0 0 0

0 y
v u w y
1 0 0 E 0 1 2
0
y = xz = + [ D] = 0 0 0
y z x
z E 0 0 0 12 0
0 z (1 + )(1 2) 2

= 1 2
( +)( ) 2 0 0 0 0 0
w w v xy 1 1 2 xy 2
z = yz = + 0 0 0
12
0 yz
z y z 0 1 2
yz
2 0 0 0 0 0
zx 2
(u,v,w) are the x, y and z 12zx
0 0 0 0 0 E
2 Note : G =
components of displacement 2( 1 +)
2
7/1/2009
Plane Stress Matrix Plane Strain Matrix Sets of Linear Algebraic Eqs.
Cramers Rule
1 0 1 0
E Inverse Method
E [ D] = 1
[ D] = 1 1 0
(1 + )(1 2)
0 Gaussian Elimination
( ) 1 0 0
1 2

Gauss-Seidel Iteration
0 0 2
2
Cramers Rule Example: Example:

[a ]{ x } = {c}
or in in d e x n o ta tio n : Consider the following equations:
In matrix form :
x1 + 3x 2 2x 3 = 2
n
a ij x = ci
1 3 2 x 1 2
j
j= 1
L et m a trix [d (i) ] b e m a tr ix [a ] 2 1 4x
2x 4 2 + 2x
2 3 =1
w ith c o lu m n i rep a ced by {c}.
4x 2 + x 3 = 3 2 4 2 x 2 = 1
T h en:

0 4 1 x 3 3
(i)
d
xi =
a
Solving:
1 2 2
2 3 2 2 1 2 1 3 2
1 4 2 d ( 2)
0 3 1 2 4 1
d( 1 ) x2 = = = 1.1 d( 3)
3 4 1 41 a 1 3 2 0 4 3
x1 = = = = 4.1 x3 = = = 1.4
a 1 3 2 10 a 1 3 2
2 4 2
2 4 2 2 4 2
0 4 1
0 4 1 0 4 1
3
7/1/2009
Inversion Example Example

[a ]{x} = {c} 1 3 2 x 1 2 x 1 1.2 1.1 0.2 2 4.1

[a ] [a ]{x} = [a ] {c}
1 1
2 4 2 x 2 = 1 x 2 = 0.2 0.1 0.2 1 = 1.1

[ I ]{x} = [a ] {c}
1 x 3 0.8 0.4 0.2 3 1.4
0 4 1 x 3 3
{x} = [a ] {c}
1
Gaussian Elimination Steps in Gaussian Elimination After this Step:
General System of n equations with n unknowns: Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every

equation except the first one. Select a11 a 11 a 12 K a1n x1 c1
as the pivot element.
a 11 a 12 K a1n x 1 c1 th multiple
Add the lti l -a21/ a11 off th
the fi
firstt row 0 a 22 K a 2 n x 2 c 2
to the second row. =
a 21 a 22 K a 2 n x 2 c 2
Add the multiple -a31/ a11 of the first row M M M M M
= to the third row.
M M M M M
Continue this procedure through the nth 0 a n 2 K a nn x n c n
row
a n 1 an2 K a nn x n c n
Steps in Gaussian Elimination

Steps in Gaussian Elimination After This Step:
Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every Repeat the process for the remaining
equation below the second one. Select a 11 a 12 a 13 K a1n rows until we have a triangularized
a22 as the pivot element. x1 c1 system of equation.
0 a 22 a 23 L a 2 n
Add the lti l -a 32/ a 22 off th
th multiple the second
d x 2 c 2 a11 a12 a13 a14 L x 1 c1
a1n
row to the third row. 0 0 a 33
K a 3 n = 0 a a23 a24 L x c
a2n
22 2 2
Add the multiple -a 42/ a 22 of the second M M 0 0 a33
a34
L a3n
x 3 c3
row to the fourth row. M M M M =
0 0 0 a44
L a4n x 4 c4
Continue this procedure through the nth x n c n
M M
0 a n 3 K a nn
row 0 M M M M M

0 0 0 0 L a nnn 1 x n cnn 1
4
7/1/2009
Solve Using Back-substitution Example

Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every
cn 1 equation except the first one.
x n = nn 1 2 2 1 x 1 9
a nn Select a11 =2
2 as the pivot element.
2 1 0 x = 4 Add the multiple -a21/ a11 = -2/2 = -1 of the
2 first row to the second row.
xi =
1 n
1 1 1 x 3 6 Add the multiple -a31/ a11 = -1/2=-0.5 of
a1, n + 1 a ir x r the first row to the third row.
a ii r = i +1
Step 1 Steps in Gaussian Elimination Step 2

Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every
equation below the second one. Select
2 2 1 x1 9 a22 as the pivot element. (Already done 2 2 1 x1 9
0 1 1 x = 5 in this example.) 0 1 1 x = 5
2 2
0 0 0.5 x 3 1.5 0 0 0.5 x 3 1.5
Solve Using Back-substitution

Gauss-Seidel Iteration Gauss-Seidel Iteration
c
3
x3 = 3 = 2 = 3
( ) Write equations in form :

a 33 1
2
( ) x1 =
1
(c1 a12 x 2 a13 x 3 L a1n xn )
Assume a set of initial values for unknowns.
Substitute into RHS of first equation. Solve
a11 for new value of x1
( 5 + 3) = 2 1 Use
U new value l off x1 andd assumedd values
l off
x2 = x2 = (c 2 a 21x1 a 23 x 3 L a 2n x n ) other xs to solve for x2 in second equation.
1 a 22 Continue till new values of all variables are
M obtained.
x2 =
(9 2( 2) 3) = 1 1 Iterate until convergence.
2 xn = (cn a n1x1 a n 2 x 2 L a n .n 1x n 1 )
a nn
5
7/1/2009
Example Example Example

4x 1 x 2 =2 x1 = 1
4
(2 + x 2 ) = 1 4 (2 + 1) = 3 4 x1 = 1
4
(2 + x 2 ) = 1 4 (2 + 1.68) = 0.922
x1 + 4x 2 x 3 =5
x2 = 1
4
( )
(5 + x1 + x 3 ) = 1 4 5 + 3 4 + 1 = 1.68 x2 = 1
4
(5 + x1 + x 3 ) = 1 4 (5 + 0.922 + 1.672) = 1.899
x 2 + 4x 3 x 4 =6 x3 = 1 (6 + x 2 + x 4 ) = 1 4 (6 + 1.899 + ( 0.16)) = 1.944
x 3 = 1 (6 + x 2 + x 4 ) = 1 (6 + 1.68 + ( 1)) = 1.672 4
x 3 + 2x 4 = 6 4 4
x4 = 1 ( 2 + x 3 ) = 1 2 ( 2 + 1.944) = 0.0.28
x 4 = 1 ( 2 + x 3 ) = 1 ( 2 + 1.67 ) = 0.16 2
2 2
x1 = 1 x2 = 1 x3 = 1 x 4 = 1
2
Iteration x1 x2 x3 x4
0 0.5 1.0 1.0 -1.0
1 0.75 1.68 1.672 -0.16
2 0 922
0.922 1 899
1.899 1 944
1.944 -0
0.028
028
3 0.975 1.979 1.988 -0.006
4 0.988 1.9945 1.9983 -0.0008
Exact
4
1.0 2.0 2.0 0.0
Technical Review 49
6
Definition:
Stiffness Method For an element, a stiffness matrix k

x notation denotes
is a matrix such that f = k d
local coordinates
where k relates local coordinates (x, y , z ) Boldface type indicates matrices.
And nodal displacements d
to local forces f of a single element.

Stiffness Method 1 Stiffness Method 2 Stiffness Method 3
Spring Element Definitions Examples of Stiffness
k Uniaxial Bar k = AE/L

k - spring constant
Circular Torsion k = GJ/L
1 2 node x local One
One-dimensional
dimensional heat conduction
x coordinate
k = AKxx/L
f1x ,d1x f 2 x ,d 2 x node direction
One-dimensional fluid flow (porous
f1x local nodal force
L f 2 x local nodal force medium) k = AKxx/L
d 1x deg ree of freedom d 2 x deg ree of freedom
Stiffness Relationship for a Steps in Process Step 1 - Select the Element

Spring Type
1. Discretize and Select Element Type
2. Select a Displacement Function k
f1x k 11 k 12 d 1x 3. Define Strain/Displacement and
1
= Stress/Strain Relationships 2 T

k 22 d 2 x
T
x
f 2 x k 21 4. Derive Element Stiffness Matrix & Eqs.
5. Assemble Equations and Introduce B.C.s
d1x d 2 x
6. Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom
7. Solve for Element Stresses and Strains
L
8. Interpret the Results
1
Step 2 - Select a Displacement
Function
Express u as function of d 1x and d 2 x
Assume a displacement function u Substituting back into: u = a1 + a 2 x
Assume a linear function. u(0) = a1 + a 2 (0) = d1x = a1 d d 1x
u = a1 + a 2 x
u x Yields: u = 2 x x + d 1x

u(L) = a1 + a 2 (L) = d 2x = a 2 L + d 1x L
Number of coefficients = number of d-o-f
Write in matrix form.
d 2x d1x
a Solve for a2 : a2 =
u = [1 x] 1 L
a 2
In matrix form: Shape Functions

x x d 1x N1
u = 1
L L d 2 x N1 and N2 are called Shape Functions or
Interpolation Functions. They express the
dd
u = [N 1 N 2 ] 1x
shape of the assumed displacements.
displacements
N1 =1 N2 =0 at node 1
2x
d
N1 =0 N2 =1 at node 2 1 2
Where : N1 + N2 =1
x x
N1 = 1 and N 2 = L
L L
Step 3 - Define
Strain/Displacement and
N1 Stress/Strain Relationships
N2 N2
T = k
= u( L ) u( 0)
1 2 1 2
L L
= d 2x d 1x
T - tensile force - total elongation
2
Deformed Linear Spring Step 4 - Derive the Element
Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
k f1x = T f1x k k d1x

=
1 f 2 x = T f 2 x k k d 2 x
2
(
T = f1x = k d 2 x d1x )
T = f 2 x = k (d 2 x d1x ) [k ] = kk k
k
f1x = k (d1x d 2 x )
d1x
d 2 x

f 2 x = k (d 2 x d1x )
L
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Step 6 - Solve for Nodal Step 7 - Solve for Element
Equations to Obtain the Global Displacements Forces
Equations and Introduce the B.C.
[K ] = [k (e ) ]
N
Obtain : Once displacements at each
e =1 [K ]{d} = {F} node are known, then substitute
back into element stiffness equations
{F} = {f (e ) }
N
Then Solve! to obtain element nodal forces.
e =1
Note: not simple addition!

Two Spring Assembly For element 1 :

f1x k 1 k 1 d1x Elements 1 and 2 remain connected
=
f 3 x k 1 k 1 d 3 x at node 3. This is called the continuity
1 2
1 3 2 p y requirement.
or compatibility q
x
For element 2 :
F3x F2x
k1 k2 f 3 x k 2 k 2 d 3 x
=
f 2 x k 2 k 2 d 2 x d (31x) = d (32x) = d 3x
3
Assemble Global force matrix Nodal forces consistent with F3 x = k 1d1x + k 1d 3 x + k 2 d 3 x k 2 d 2 x
element force sign convention. F2 x = k 2 d 3 x + k 2 d 2 x
F1x = k 1d1x k 1d 3 x
F3x = f 3(1x) + f 3( 2x) 2
in matrix form :
1
1
3 2
F1x k 1 0 k 1 d 1x
F2x = f2( 2x)
k 2 d 2x

F1x f 1(x1 )
f 3(1x) f 3( 2x ) f 2( 2x ) F2x F2 x = 0 k2
F k k2 k 1 + k 2 d 3x

F1x = f1(x1) F3x 3x 1
or
[F] = [K ]{d}
Global Force Matrix : Global Displacement Matrix : Assembly of [K] -

F1x d1x An Alternative Look. Assembly of [K]

F2 x d 2 x
d1x d 3 x
F3x d 3x
k k1
2 (1)
]= 1
k 1
1 [k
Global Stiffness Matrix : 1 3 2
x k 1
k1 0 k1 F3x F2x

0 k2 k2 k1 k2 d 3 x d 2 x

k1 k 2 k1 + k 2 k k2
[k ( 2 ) ] = 2
k 2 k 2
Expand Local [k] matrices to

1 0 1 d 1x
(1)
Global Size Force Equilibrium

k1 0 0 0 d (21x)
1 0 1 d1x f1x
(1) (1 )
(1) (1)

k 1 0 0 0 d 2 x = f 2 x f (1) 0 F 1 0 1 d (31x)
1 0 1 d d (1) f (1)
1x ( 2 ) 1x
3 x 3 x 0 + f 2 x = F2 x 0 0 0 d 1( 2x ) F1x
0 0 0 d1x f1x
( 2) ( 2) f (1) f ( 2 ) F

( 2 ) ( 2 )
k 2 0 1 1 d 2 x = f 2 x
3x 3x 3x + k 2 0 1 1 d (22x) = F2 x

( 2) ( 2)
0 1 1 d 3x F3x
(2)
0 1 1 d 3 x f 3 x
4
Compatibility Boundary Conditions
k1 0 k1 d 1x F1x d (1) d ( 2 ) d Must Specify B.C.s to prohibit rigid

1(1x) 1( 2x) 1x body motion.
0 k2 k2 d 2x = F2 x d 2 x = d 2 x = d 2 x Two type of B.C.
B.C.ss
d 3x F3 x (1) ( 2 )
k 1 k2 k1 + k 2 Homogeneous - displacements = 0
d 3 x d 3 x d 3 x
Nonhomogeneous - displacements =
nonzero value
Partitioning
Homogeneous B.C.s
Let d 1 be the uncontrained or free displacements
and let d 2 be the constrained or specified displacements. Delete row and column corresponding
2
to B.C.
1
K 11 M K 12 d1 F1 1 3 2 So
Solve
e for
o uunknown
o displacements.
d sp ace e ts
L L L L = L x
Compute unknown forces (reactions)
K 21 M K 22 d 2 F 2
F3x F2x
from original (unmodified) stiffness
k1 k2
matrix.
K 11 d1 = F1 K 12 d 2
F 2 = K 21 d1 + K 22 d 2
k1 0 k1 0 F1x

k2
Nonhomogeneous B.C.s Nonhomogeneous B.C.s
0 k2 d 2x = F2x
k 1 k2 k1 + k 2 d 3x F3x

Transfer terms associated with known
k1 F1x d-o-f to RHS.
0 k1
Solve for unknown displacements.
k2 k 2 d 2 x F2x 0 k2 k2 d 2x = F2x
= Compute unknown forces (reactions)
k k 1 + k 2 d 3 x F3x k 1 k2 k 1 + k 2 d 3x F3x
2 from original (unmodified) stiffness
matrix.
F1x = k 1 d 3x
5
Nonhomogeneous B.C.s Properties of [K] Matrix EXAMPLE: Three Spring Assembly
Symmetric - both element [k] and global [K]

k2 k 2 d 2 x F2 x [K] is singular. Must apply B.C. to prohibit
k =
k 1 + k 2 d 3 x k 1 + F3 x rigid body motion.
motion k1=1000 lb/in k2=2000 lb/in k3=3000 lb/in
2 Terms on main diagonal are positive Kii and 1 3 4 2 x
k11
1 2 5000 lb 3
[ k ] = 1000
(1 ) 1000
1000

1000
[k ] ( 2) 2000 2000
=
1000
0
[ K] =
0
3000
1000
0
0
3000

1000
0

0
3000
1000
0
0 d1x F1x
3000 d F
2 x = 2 x
2000 2000 1000 0 1000 + 2000 2000 1000 0 3000 2000 d 3 x F3 x

[k ]
3000 2000 2000 + 3000 3000 2000 5000 d 4 x F4 x
3000 3000 0 0
( 3)
=
3000 3000
d 1x = d 2 x = 0 Element 1
d 3 x = 10 in
11
0 0 0 d 1x F1x
0 d 4x = 15 1000 1000 0 f1x
1000 1000 10 =
in
0 0 d 2 x F2 x
11
0 0 1000 0 0 F1x 11 f 3 x
= 1000 0
0 F
0 0 2000 d 3 x F3 x
3000 0
3000 0 3000 10 = 2x f1x 909.1
0 0 2000 5000 d 4 x F4 x 1000 0 3000 2000 11 F3x =

0 3000 2000 5000 15 11 F4 x ff 3x 909.1
3000 2000 d 3 x 0 F1x 909.1 1
F 4090.9
2000 5000 d = 5000 3 909.1 lb
2x 909.1 lb 1
4x = x
F3x 0
F4 x 5000
6
Element 2 Element 3 EXAMPLE
2000 2000 10 11 f 3 x 3000 3000 15 f 4x Nonhomogeneous B.C.
2000 2000 15 = 3000 3000 11 =
11 f 4x 0 f 2 x
f 3x 909.1 f 4x 4090.9
= =
ff 2x 4090.9
k k k k
f 4x 909.1 1 2 3 4
5 x
2 3 4090.9 lb 1 2 3 4
4 909.1 lb 2
909.1 lb 3 4090.9 lb 4
x x k=200 kN/m
200 200 0 0 0 200 200 0 0 0 d1x F1x

200 400 200
0 d 2x F2 x
[ k ]= [ k ]= [ k ]= [ k ]
(1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4) 200 200
=
200 200
200 400 200
0
[ K ] = 0 200 400 200 0

0
0
0
200 400 200

0 d 3x = F3 x

200 400 200

0 0 200 400 200 d 4 x F
0 0 4x
0 200 200 d 5 x F5x
0 0 0 200 200
0 0
d 1x = 0
d 5x = 20 mm = 0.02 m 400 200 0 d 2 x 0
0 200 400 200 d = 0
F2 x = F3 x = F4x = 0 3x
200 400 200 0 d 2 x 0
200 400 d 4x 4
0
200 200 0 0 F1x 0
0 0 0 200 400 200 0 d 3 x = 0

200 400 200 0 d 2x 0 d 2 x 0.005 m
200 400 200 d 4x 0
0
0 0
0 200 400 200 0 d 3x = 0 d 3 x = 0.01 m
0.02
200 400 200 d 4x 0 d 0.015 m
0 0
4x
0 0 0 200 200 0.02 F5x
7
Element 1
200 200 0 0 0 0 F1x
200 400 200 0 0 .005 F2 x 200 200 0 f1x Three Spring Assembly
0 200 400 200

0 .01 = F3 x
200 200 .005 =

f 2 x k2
200 400 200 .015 F
0 0
4x f1x 1.0 kN
0 200 200 .02 F5x
3
0 0
=
k1
2
F1x 1.0 kN ff 2x 1.0 kN P 2 x
F 0.0 kN 2
k3
2x 1
1
F3x = 0.0 kN 2 1.0 kN 1 4
1.0 kN 1 2
F 0.0 kN x 3
4x Rigid Bar
F5 x 1.0 kN
B.C. : d 1x = d 3x = d 4x = 0
Free Body Diagram
Compatibility : d (1) (2) (3)
2x = d 2x = d 2x Free Body Diagram
(2)
(1) f 2x
m : F1x = f1x
(1) (1)
Nodal equilibriu
q F1x (1) f1x f 2x
f1x
(1) (2) (3)
P = f 2x + f 2x + f 2x
(1) P
1 1 2 f 2x
1
(2)
F3x = f 3x (3)
f 2x
(3)
F4x = f 4x
Free Body Diagram Matrix Form of Stiffness Equations Applying B.C.
2 3 (2)
f 3x F3x k1 k1 0 0 d1x F1x k1 k1 0 0 0 F1x
k k 3 d 2x F2x k
3 1 k1 + k 2 + k 3 k2
1 k1 + k 2 + k 3 k2 k 3 d 2x P
2 = =
0 k2 k2 0 d 3x F3x 0 k2 k2 0 0 F3x

2 4 0 k3 0 k 3 d 4x F4 x 0 k3 0 k 3 0 F4 x
(3)
f 4x F4x
4
3
8
0 0 0 0 0 F1x
Potential Energy Approach
0 k + k + k 0 d 2 x P
Solving for Global Forces
0
=
1 2 3

0 0 0 F3 x Equilibrium at minimum potential
0 0
F1x = k 1d 2 x energy.
0 0 0 0 0 F4 x
F2 x = k 2 d 2 x Total potential energy defined as the
sum of internal strain energy U and
( k 1 + k 2 + k 3 )d 2x = P F3 x = k 2 d 2 x potential energy of external forces .
P p = U +
d 2x =
(k 1 + k 2 + k 3 )
dU = F dx
Force-Deformation Curve F=kx
System dU = k x dx
F
U = k x dx
F 1 2 1 1
U= kx = (kx)x = Fx
x 2 2 2
k k = Fx
1 2
p = kx Fx
x 2
Stationary Value Stationary Values Stationary Value

G
G = G( x)
Stationary value can be maximun, maximum p = p (d 1 , d 2 , L , d n ) = p ({d i })
minimum or a neutral point
minimum,
neutral First variation of p (denoted as p )
defined as value of x such that :
is used to minimize p
dG
=0
dx
minimum
x
9
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: Admissible Variations in Displacements Admissible Displacements
u
Equilibrium occurs when the di define
a state such that p = 0 for arbitrary Admissible Displacement Function
u+ u
admissible variations in di from the An admissible variation is one in which the
equilibrium
ilib i state
t t di l
displacementt field
fi ld satisfies
ti fi the
th boundary
b d
conditions and inter-element continuity. u
Actual Displacement Function
x
For Admissible Variations For Admissible Variations

F F
in Displacements in Displacements
p
p p p =0 (i = 1,2,3,L, n )
p = d 1 + d 2 + L d n d i
d 1 d 2 d n x
k
p = 0 or
k = 500 lb/in
p p p
= 0, = 0, L , =0 x
d 1 d 2 d n p
=0
{d }
p = U + p p = 250x 2 1000x
10000 PE
=0
x
8000
1
U = kx 2
Deformation Potential Energy
p -4.00 8000
6000
2 = 500x 1000 = 0 -3.00

-2.00
5250
3000
x
4000
= Fx
-1.00 1250
0.00 0
x = 2.00 in
2000
1.00 -750
p
2.00 -1000
3.00 -750 0 x
p = x = 0 p = 1000 lb in 4.00 0 -4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00
x
-2000
10
3 p
(pe) = 2 k 1 (d 3x d1x )2
1
EXAMPLE p =
d 1x
= k 1d 3x + k 1d 1x f1(x1) = 0
e =1
p
= k 3 d 2x k 3 d 4x f 2( 3x) = 0
+ k 2 (d 4 x d 3 x )2 + k 3 (d 2x d 4x )2
1 1
d 2 x
k2=2000 lb/in
2 2 p
k1=1000 lb/in k3=3000 lb/in = k 1d 3x k 1d 1x k 2 d 4x + k 2 d 3x f 3(1x) f 3( 2x) = 0
1 3 4 2 x f1(x1) d 1x f 3(1x) d 3 x f 3( 2x) d 3x f 4( 2x) d 4x d 3 x
p
f 4( 3x) d 4x f 2( 3x) d 2x = k 2 d 4x k 2 d 3x k 3 d 2x + k 3 d 4x f 4( 2x) f 4( 3x) = 0
1 2 5000 lb 3 d 4 x
k1 0 k1 0 d1x f1(x1)

0 k3 0 k 3 d 2 x f2(x3)
=
k1 0 k1 + k 2 k 2 d 3x f3(x1) + f3(x2 )

0 k3 k2 k 2 + k 3 d 4 x f4(x2 ) + f4(x3)
f1(x1) F1x

f2(x3) F2 x
(1) ( 2 ) =
f3x + f3x F3x

f4 x + f4 x F4 x
( 2) ( 3)
Stiffness Method 94
11
Bar Element Bar Element
y
Linear elastic bar element
Truss Elements
y
Prismatic (constant cross-section) x , u
T
Tensile forces T directed along the bar applied 2
at nodes 1 and 2
L
Global coordinate system (x,y) d 2 x , f 2 x
1
Local coordinate system (x , y ) T

Length L, Cross-sectional Area A, Modulus of d 1 x , f 1 x
Elasticity E
x
Truss Elements 1 Truss Elements 2
= E Assumptions Step 1 - Select the Element Type.

d u The bar cannot resist shear forces.
=
d x That is: f 1 y = f 2 y = 0
The bar element is selected
A xx = T = A Effects of transverse displacements with the properties previously
are ignored. discussed.
Hookes law applies.
d d u
AE =0 That is: x = E x
d x d x
Truss Elements 4 Truss Elements 5 Truss Elements 6
Step 2 - Select a Displacement d d 1x

Express u as function of dand d 2 x u = 2 x
x + d 1x
Function 1x
L
x x d 1x
Assume a displacement function
u u = 1
L L d 2 x
Assume a linear function. u ( 0 ) = a 1 + a 2 ( 0 ) = d 1 x = a 1
d
d
u ( L ) = a 1 + a 2 ( L ) = d 2 = a 2 L + d 1 x u = [ N 1 N 2 ] 1x
u = a 1 + of
Number a 2 coefficients
x = number d
2 x
of d-o-f Where :
Write in matrix form: a N1 = 1
x
and N 2 =
x
u = [1 x ] 1 L L
a 2
1
Displacement plotted along length of bar.
Shape Functions 1 1
N1 d 2 x
y
N2 u
N1 and N2 are called Shape Functions or
x
Interpolation Functions. They express the
2
shape of the assumed displacements.
displacements
N1 =1 N2 =0 at node 1 d 1 x L
N1 =0 N2 =1 at node 2 1 2
N1 + N2 =1 1

L
x
Displacement plotted along length of bar. Step 3 - Define Strain/Displacement and Step 4 - Derive the Element
Stress/Strain Relationships Stiffness Matrix and Equations
y
d d 1x
u
u = 2 x x + d 1x T = A
L ( )
d 2 x x
d d 1x
2
T = AE = AE 2 x
( )
L
d 2 x d 1x
d 1 x L
du
= = d d 2 x
f 1x = T = AE 1 x
( )

1
dx L L

x = E
Step 4 - Derive the Element Step 4 - Derive the Element

Stiffness Matrix and Equations Stiffness Matrix and Equations Step 5 - Assemble the Element
Equations to Obtain the Global
f 1 x AE 1 1 d 1 x Equations and Introduce the B.C.
f 2 x = T =
f 2 x L 1 1 d 2 x
( ) [K ] = [k ( e ) ]
N
d d 1 x
f 2 x = T = AE 2 x e =1

L [ ]
k =
AE 1
L 1
1
1
{F} = {f ( e ) }
N
e =1
2
Step 6 - Solve for Nodal Step 7 - Solve for Element
Displacements Forces Three Bar Assembly
3000 lb
3
Obtain : Once displacements at each 1
1 2 3 4 x
[K ]{d} = {F} node are known, then substitute

back into element stiffness equations 30 in 30 in
2
30 in
Then Solve ! to obtain element nodal forces. 90 in
Elements 1 & 2 Element 3

E = 30 x 106 psi E = 15 x 106 psi
A = 1 in2 A = 2 in2
For element 1 : For elements 1 & 2 :

f 1 x k 1 k 1 d 1 x
= f 1 x
k 1 k 1 d 1 x For elements 1 & 2 :
f 2 x k 1 k 1 d 2 x
= 1 1
For element 2 :
k 1
f 2 x k 1 d 2 x
[ k ] = 10
(1) 6

ff 2 x k 2 k 2 d
d 2 x
A E
k1 = 1 1 1 1
= L1
f 3 x k 2 k 2 d 3 x A2 =1 E 2 = 30 x 10 6 L 2 = 30
[ k ] = [ k ]
6
A1 = 1 E 1 = 30 x 10 L 1 = 30 (2) (1)
For element 3 :
f 3 x k 3 k 3 d 3 x k1 =
(1 )(30 x 10 6 )

f 4 x
=
k 3

k 3 d 4 x

( 30 )
For element 3 : Assemble Global force matrix

f 3 x k 3 k 3 d 3 x For element 3 : F1 x = f 1(x1 )
=
f 4 x k 3 k 3 d 4 x 1 1 F2 x = f 2(1x) + f 2( 2x )
A E
= 3 3
[ k ] = 100
(3) 6

k3
L3 1 1 F3 x = f 3( 2x ) + f 3( 3x )
A1 = 2 E 1 = 15 x 10 6 L 1 = 30 F4 x = f 4( 3x )
k3 =
( 2 )(15 x 10 6 )
( 30 )
3
k1 k1 0 0
k k1 + k 2 k2 0
[K ] = 1 F1 x
F
1 1 0 0 d 1x
3000 6 2 1 d 2 x
0 k2 k2 + k3 k3 0 d 2 x
6 1 1 = 10
1 d 3 x
2x 2
0 0 k3 k3 = 10
0 1

1 d 3 x
0 1
F3 x 2
1 F4 x
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 d 4 x
1 2 1 0
[K ] = 10 6 Solution :
0 1 2 1 B .C .' s
d 2 x = 0 .002 in d 4 x = 0 .001 in
0 0 1 1 d 1x = 0 d 4x = 0
F1 x 1 1 0 0 0
Appropriate Displacement
Functions u = constant
F 2 x 1 2 1 0 0 .002
= 10
6
d 1x = a 1
F3 x 0 1 2 1 0 .001 Usually Polynomials
d 2 x = a 1
F4 x 0 0 1 1 0 Continuous within element.
F1 x 2000 lb Inter-element
Inter element compatibility.
compatibility Prevent a2 = 0
overlap or voids.
F 2 x 3000 lb u = N 1d 1x + N 2 d 2 x = (N 1 + N 2 )a 1
=
Allow for rigid body displacement and
F3 x 0 lb constant strain. N1 + N 2 = 1

F4 x 1000 lb
Potential Energy Approach

p = U + L
p = U + A
dU = x ( x )( y )( z )d x p = x x d x f1x d 1x f2 x d 2 x
M 2 0
dU = x d x dV b u dV T x u dS fix d ix
= X u T x dS u X b d
dv
x V S i =1
U = x d x dV
S V
V 0
1
U =
2
V
x x dV
4
u = [ N ] {d }
{ x } = 1 1
L
{}
d { x } = [D ]{ x }
[N ] = 1 x x L
L
L
{ x } = [B ] d {} [D ] = [E ]
d
{}
d = 1x [B ] = 1 1
L
d 2 x L
{ x } = [D ][B ]{d }
{d } [B ] [D ] [B ] {d }dx {d } {P}
L
L A T T T T
p =
A
{ } {P}
L
A
x x d x f 1x d 1x f 2 x d 2 x { } { x } d x d
T
p = p =
T
2
2 x 0
{d } [N ] { T }dS {d } [N ] {X }dv
0 2 0 T T T T
{u } { } { } x b
u Tx dS u X b dv T x dS {u } X b dv
T T
S V
S V S V
{ U }= { d } [B ] [D ] [B ] {d }
T T T
{ f s } = [N ]T { Tx } dS
*
p =
AL
2
{}
T
d [B ]T [D ]T [B ] d d
T
{} { }{}
f
{ U }= d 1x
*
[
1

]
d L [E ] 1 1 d 1x

L
2x
S
1
L d 2 x
{ fb } = [N ]T {X b }dv
L
{ f } = { P } + [N ] { Tx } dS + [N ] {X b }dv
T T
U* =
E 2
(
d 1x 2 d 1x d 2 x + d 22 x )
S V L2
V
{ d } { f }= d
T
f + d 2 x f2 x
1x 1x
5
Transformation of a Vector in 2
p Dimensions
d 1x
=
AL E
2 L2
(
2 d 1x 2 d 2 x f1x ) p 1 d 1 x f 1 x 0 y
=
AE 1 y
1 = r
{ d } L 1 d 2 x f 2 x 0 d
xx
p [k ] = [B ]T [D ][B ] dV j
d 2 x

=
AL E
2 L2

(
2 d 2 x 2 d 1x f2 x ) V j
i
[D ] T
= [D ]
x
r i
d = d x i + d y j = d x i + d y j
Transformation of a Vector in 2 a+b =i

Dimensions a = i cos
a + b = j
y i =1
y a = cos j
a = cos
b = sin
i b = sin ii
b j x
j
i a = cos i j = sin i + cos j

a
a b b = sin ( j )
i x i = cos i sin j
d = d x i + d y j = d x i + d y j
Global Stiffness Matrix
d x (cos i sin j ) + d y (sin i + cos j )
= d x i + d y j C S
Tranformat ion matrix f 1 x AE 1
=
1 d 1 x

d x cos + d y sin = d x S C L 1 1 d 2 x
f 2 x
- d sin + d cos = d
{f } = [ k ]{d}
x y y
C = cos
Want :
d x C S d x
= S = sin { f } = [ k ]{ d}
d y S C d y
6
Global Stiffness Matrix d 1 x = d 1 x cos + d 1 y sin f 1 x = f 1 x cos + f 1 y sin
d 2 x = d 2 x cos + d 2 y sin f 2 x = f 2 x cos + f 2 y sin
{ f } = [ k ]{ d} d 1x f 1x

dd 1 x C S 0 0 d 1y ff 1 x C S 0 0 f 1y
f 1x d 1x = =
f d d 2 x 0 0 C S d 2 x f 2 x 0 0 C S f 2 x
{ f } = 1y { d} = 1 y d 2 y

f 2 y

f 2 x d 2 x
f 2 y

d 2 y
{ d} = [ T * ]{d} { f } = [ T * ]{f }
{ f }= [ k ] {d }
{ d }= [ T ] {d }
* d 1 x C S 0 0 d 1x C S 0 0

0 d 1 y S
d 1 y S C 0
C 0 0
{ ff }= [ kk ] [ T ] {d }
*
d
=
d 2 x 0 0 C

S d 2 x

[ T ]=
d 2 y 0 0 S

C d 2 y
0 0 C S

{ f }= [ T ] {f }
*
{ d} = [ T ]{d} 0 0 S C
[ T ]{f } = [ k ] [ T ]{d }
* * { f } = [ T ]{f }
Expand [k] to 4x4 size:

[ T ] {f } = [ k ] [ T ]{d } C2 CS C2 CS
{f } = [ T ] 1 [ k ] [ T ]{d }
f 1 x 1 0 d 1x
1 0 S2 CS S2
[ k ] = AE CS2
ff 1 y AE 0 0 0 0 d 1 y L C CS C2 CS
f 2 x
=
L 1 0 1

0 d 2 x
[ T ] 1 = [ T ] T
CS S2 CS

S 2
f 2 y

0 0 0

0 d 2 y {f } = [ T ]T [ k ] [ T ]{d }
[ k ] = [ T ]T [ k ] [ T ]
7
C2 C2 CS
EXAMPLE
CS

CS S 2
CS S2 3
[ k ] = AE 3 3 3

y A=2 in2 L C2 CS C2 CS 4 4 4 4
E=30 x 106 psi 3 1 3 1
L=60 in CS S2 CS S 2 ( 2 )( 30 x10 6 ) 4
[k] = 3
4 4 4
x = 30 o 60
3 3 3

4 4 4 4
3
C= 3 1 3 1
L 2
4 4 4 4
30o 1
S=
2
Truss Elements x 64 Truss Elements 65 Truss Elements 66
Stress Computation Stress Computation

f
= 2x
f 1 x AE 1 1 d 1 x A
0 .75 0 .433 0 .75 0 .433 =
L 1 1 d 2 x
0 .25 0 .433 0 .25 f 2 x

[ k ] = 10 6
f 2 x =
AE
[ 1 1] dd 1x
0 .75 0 .433 y L d 2 x
x
symmetric 0 .25
2
L f 1 AE
f 2 x = 2x = [ 1 1] d 1x = E [ 1 1] d 1x
A A L 2x L
d d 2 x
f 1 x x
1
Stress Computation Stress Computation Example

E
= [ 1 1] d 1x A = 4 x 10-4 m2
= [ C ] {d}
x
L E = 210 GPa
d 2 x
y = 60o
[ 1 1]
dd E C S 0 0
E
= [ 1 1] 1 x
L
[ C ]= 2
d1x = 00.25
25 mm
d1y = 0.0 mm
d 2 x L 0 0 C S
{ d} = [ T * ] {d}
d2x = 0.50 mm
[ C ]= E [ C S C S ] d2y = 0.75 mm
=
E
L
[ 1 1] T * [ ] {d} L 60o
x
= [ C ] {d}
1
8
Stress Computation Stress Computation 3-Bar Truss Example
2
210 x 10 6 kN / m 1 3 1 3 0 .25 x 10 3 m 3
[ C ]= 6
2m 2 2 2 2 210 x 10 1 3 1
3 0 .0 m
= 3 1
2 2
d 1x 0 .25 x 10 3 m 2 2 2 2 0 .50 x 10 m
10 ft
d 0 .75 x 10 3 m

{d} = d 1y = 0.0 m 3 = 81 .32 x 10 3 kN / mm 2
45o
2 x 0 .50 x 10 m
4
d 2 y 0 .75 x 10 3 m = 81 .32 MPa 1 45o 3

10 ft
Data for 3-Bar Truss Example

E = 30 x 106 psi for all members 0 0 0 0
0 .5 0 .5
0 0 .5 0 .5
1
[ ]
6 0 .5
[k ]
( 30 x 10 ) ( 2 ) 1 0 ( 30 x 10 6 ) ( 2 ) 0 .5 0 .5
k (1 ) = (2)
=
0 .5
Element Node i Node j L (ft) A (in2)
1 1 2 10.00 2

90
C
0
S
1
C2
0
S2
1
CS
0
(10 ) (12 ) 0

0 0 0

( )
(10 ) 2 (12 ) 0 .5

0 .5 0 .5 0 .5

2
3
1
1
3
4
10.00
14.14
2
2
45
0
0.7071 0.7071
1 0
0.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
0 0 1 0 1 0 .5 0 .5 0 .5 0 .5
k (1 ) (1 )
k 12 (1 )
k 13 (1 )
k 14 0 0 0 0
11 k ( 2 ) (2)
k 12 0 0 (2)
k 13 (2)
k 14 0 0
k (21
1)
k (22
1)
k (23
1)
k (24
1)
0 0 0 0 11
1 0 1 0 (1 ) k (21
2)
k (22
2)
0 0 k (23
2)
k (24
2)
0 0
k
31 k (32
1)
k (33
1)
k (34
1)
0 0 0 0
0 0
[ ] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 (1 )
( 30 x 10 ) ( 2 )
k ( 3) = [ K ] = k 41 k (42
1)
k (43
1)
k (44
1)
0 0 0 0 + L 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(10 ) (12 ) 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L (2) +L
k 31 k (32
2)
0 0 k (33
2)
k (34
2)
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2)
k 41 k (422 ) 0 0 k (432 ) k (442 ) 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9
Point to Ponder
k ( 3 ) (3)
k 12 0 0 0 0 (3)
k 13 (3)
k 14
11 1 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 1 0
0 .354 0
k (21
3)
k (22
3)
0 0 0 0 k (23
3)
k (24
3)
1 .354 0 1 0 .354 0 .354 0 Why are rows and columns 3 & 8 equal to
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
zero?
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [K ] = ( 500000 ) xx-displacement
displacement at node 2 is 3rd d
d-o-f
o f and yy-
L 0 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 displacement at node 4 is 8th d-o-f.
0 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 These displacements must be zero because
(3) (3)

k 31 k (32
3)
0 0 0 0 k (33
3)
k 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 of geometry (not B.C.)
(3)
k 41 k (423 ) 0 0 0 0 k (433 ) k (443 )
Assembling the Global Stiffness

Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K] Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
Matrix - [K]
Upper Left Quadrant: Lower Left Quadrant:
row m 2i-1 if m=1 row m 2j-1 if m=3
2i if m=2 2j if m=4
column n 2i-1 if n=1 column n 2i-1 if n=1
2i if n=2 2i if n=2
If there are 2 degrees of freedom and element ei
connects nodes i & j then the Global [K] matrix is Upper Right Quadrant: Lower Right Quadrant:
row m 2i-1 if m=1 row m 2j-1 if m=3
assembled as follows:
2i if m=2 2j if m=4
column n 2j-1 if n=3 column n 2j-1 if n=3
2j if n=4 2j if n=4
Suppose i=1 and j= 3

Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
row m column n row column
Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K] k ( 2 ) (2)
k 12 0 0 (2)
k 13 (2)
k 14 0 0
1 1 2i-1 2i-1
row m column n row column
11
k (21
2)
k (22
2)
k (23
2)
k (24
2)
1 1 1 1
1 2 2i-1 2i
1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 3 2i-1 2j-1
1 3 1 5
1
2
4
1
2i-1
2i
2j
2i-1
1 4 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 2 1
2 2 2i 2i
2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 2i 2j-1
2 3 2 5 ( 2)
2
3
4
1
2i
2j-1
2j
2i-1
2 4 2 6 k 31 k (32
2)
0 0 k (33
2)
k (34
2)
0 0
3 1 5 1
( 2)
k (422 ) k (432 ) k (442 )
3 2 2j-1 2i
k 41 0 0 0 0
3 2 5 2
3 3 2j-1 2j-1
3 3 5 5
3
4
4
1
2j-1
2j
2j
2i-1
3 4 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 2 2j 2i
4 1 6 1
4 3 2j 2j-1
4
4
2
3
6
6
2
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 2j 2j
4 4 6 6
10
If there are 3 d-o-f per node (3D truss): If there are 3 d-o-f per node (3D truss): row m column n row column
Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K] Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K] 1 1 3i-2 3i-2
Upper Left Quadrant: Lower Left Quadrant: 1 2 3i-2 3i-1
row m 3i-2 if m=1 row m 3j-2 if m=4 1 3 3i-2 3i
3i-1 if m =2 3j-1 if m =5 1 4 3i-2 3j-2
1 5 3i-2 3j-1
3i if m =3 3j if m =6 1 6 3i-2 3j
column n 3i-2 if n=1 column n 3i-2 if n=1 2 1 3i-1 3i-2
3i-1 if n =2 3i-1 if n =2 2 2 3i-1 3i-1
3i if n =3 3i if n =3 2 3 3i 1
3i-1 3i
Upper Right Quadrant: Lower Left Quadrant: 2 4 3i-1 3j-2
2 5 3i-1 3j-1
row m 3i-2 if m=4 row m 3j-2 if m=4 2 6 3i-1 3j
3i-1 if m =5 3j-1 if m =5 3 1 3i 3i-2
3i if m =6 3j if m =6 3 2 3i 3i-1
column n 3j-2 if n=1 column n 3j-2 if n=4 3 3 3i 3i
3j-1 if n =2 3j-1 if n =5 3 4 3i 3j-2
3 5 3i 3j-1
3j if n =3 3j if n =6 3 6 3i 3j

row m column n
4 1
row
3j-2
column
3i-2
0 d 1x
4 2 3j-2 3i-1 10000 d
4 3 3j-2 3i 1 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 1 0 1y
4
4
4
5
3j-2
3j-2
3j-2
3j-1
0 .354
1 .354 0 1 0 .354 0 .354 0 0 F2 x 0
4 6 3j-2 3j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F 0
5
5
1
2
3j-1
3j-1
3i-2
3i-1

[K ] = ( 500000 )
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

{F} = 2 y {d} =
5
5
3
4
3j 1
3j-1
3j-1
3i
3j-2
0 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 0 0
F3 x 0
5 5 3j-1 3j-1 0 .354 0 .354 0 0 0 .354 0 .354 0 0 F3 y 0
5 6 3j-1 3j 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

6
6
1
2
3j
3j
3i-2
3i-1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F4 x 0
F4 y
6
6
3
4
3j
3j
3i
3j-2 0
6 5 3j 3j-1
6 6 3j 3j
0 .414 x 10 2

30 x 10 6 1 .59 x 10 2
(1 ) = [0 1 0 1]
120
(1 ) = 3965 psi
0
0 1 .354 0 .354 d 1 x

= ( 500000 ) 0
1 .354 d 1 y

10000 0 .354 0 .414 x 10 2

( 2 ) = 1471 psi
30 x 10 6 2 2 2 2 1 .59 x 10 2
( 2) =
120 2 2 2 2 0
d 1 x 0 .414 x 10 2 in 0
d = 2
1 y 1 .59 x 10
( 3 ) = 1035 psi
in 0 .414 x 10 2
2
30 x 10 6
( 3) = [ 1 0 1 0 ] 1 .59 x 10
120 0
0

11
d x i + d y j + d z k = d x i + d y j + d z k
3D Truss Problems y
^
y 2
^
x
(d i + d j + d k ) i = (d i + d
x y z x y j + d z k ) i
Need 3D transformations
d x + 0 + 0 = d x i i + d y j i + d z k i
3D trusses are called space trusses
x x1
1 i i = 2 = C x = cos x
L
y y
j i = 2 1
= C y = cos y
x L
z z z1
^ k i = 2 = C z = cos z
z L
L= ( x 2 x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y 1 ) 2 + ( z 2 z1 ) 2
d 1x [k ] = [T * ]T [k ] [T * ]
d
1y C x Cy Cz 0 0 0 C 2 C xC y C xC z C 2x C xC y C xC z
d 1 x C x Cy Cz 0 0 0 d 1 z [T ] =
*
x
= 0 Cx Cy C z C 2y CyCz C xC y C 2y CyCz
C z d 2 x
0 0

d 2 x 0 0 0 Cx Cy C 2z C xC z CyCz C 2z
d 2 y [k ] = AE
C x 0 L
C 2x C xC y C xC z

d 2 z C y 0 symmetric C 2y CyCz

C 2z
C z 0 AE 1 1 C x Cy Cz 0 0 0 symmetric
[k ] =
[T ] = C0
* x Cy
0
Cz
0 Cx
0
Cy
0 0
C z
0

0
Cx L
Cy

1 1 0 0 0 Cx Cy C z

0 C z
Inclined or Skewed Supports d 3 x cos sin d 3 x {d } = [T1 ]{d }

=
cos d 3 y
y F2x 2 3
y
x

d 3 y sin {d } = [T1 ]T {d }
{d 3 } = [t 3 ]{d 3 }
[ I ] 0 0
1
[t 3 ] =
cos sin [T1 ] = 0 [ I ] 0

sin cos
0 0 [t 3 ]
B.C. at node 3 fixes y displacement x
12
{f } = [T1 ] {f } F1 x
F
d 1x
d
{f } = [K] {d} 1y
F2 x
1y
d 2 x
F = [T1 ][K ][T1 ]
T
[T1 ] {f } = [T1 ][K ]{d} 2 y
F3 x

d
2y
d 3 x
{f } = [T1 ][K ][T1 ]T {d }
F3 y

d 3 y
13
Galerkin Method
Weighted Residual Approximate solutions, including FE
Methods
Notation:
solutions, can be constructed from
governing differential equations. One x independent variables, e.g. coordinates of a point
approach is the Galerkin method. This can u = u (x) dependent variables, e.g. displacements of a point
be applied to non-structural problems. u% = u% ( x ) approximate solution
f function of x (may be constant or zero)
D differential operator
Weighted Residual Methods 1 Weighted Residual Methods 2 Weighted Residual Methods 3
Problem Statement Problem Statement Approximate Solution

u% is a linear combination
In domain V: Residual in domain V: of basis functions
D -f = 0
Du R = Du
D% -f u% is a typically a polynomial
of n terms whose
w ith appropriate B.C.
i th term is muliplied
by a generalized d.o.f. a i
Solution One-Dimensional Example One-Dimensional Example

du
Minimize residual w .r.t. weights LT x = E x = E
dx
Best Approximation:
d 2u
q = cx P AE +q =0
dx 2
d x
W Rdv = 0
i i = 1, 2, K , n A
dx
+q = 0
1
One-Dimensional Example Exact Solution Galerkin Problem
2
d u cx d 2 u% cx
LT
+ =0
d 2 u cx
+ =0 dx 2 AE Wi 2 +
dx
dx = 0
AE
dx 2 AE 0
du
AE = P at x = L T
dx
du du%
AE = P at x = L T P cL2T c Wi =
dx u= x+ x x3 da i
AE 2AE 6A E
Galerkin Problem
Integration by Parts Galerkin Problem
d 2 u% cx
LT
Wi 2 + dx =
d ( uv ) = udv + vdu dx AE LT
d 2 u%
0
LT
Wi
d 2 u% T L
dx + Wi
cx
dx = 0 W i
dx 2
dx =
0
dx 2 0
AE
A E 0
LT
du
LT
dWi du%
udv = uv vdu u = Wi du =
dWi
dx
Wi dx +
0

0
dx dx
dx
d 2 u% du
dv = dx v =
dx 2 dx
Galerkin Problem
Assumed Function Integrals
LT
d 2 u% cx
u% = a 1 x + a 2 x 2
LT
W dx + dx = cx P
i 2
AE du% dW1 ( 1 )( a 1 + 2a 2 x ) + x
AE
dx + L T =0
= W1 = x
0 AE
=1
0
LT L
d 2 u% T
cx
W dx + Wi dx = 0 da 1 dx

i 2
dx AE LT
0 0
cx P
du
LT LT
dWi du% cx du% dW2 ( 2x )( a + 2a 2 x ) + x 2
AE
dx + L T =0
= W2 = x = 2x
1
2

AE
Wi dx + dx dx + Wi AE dx 0
0 0 da 2 dx
2
Solution Solution Solution
P 7cL2T cL T 2
P 7cL2T P 7cL2T cL T 2 u% = x+ x x
a1 = + u% = x+ x x AE 12AE 4AE
AE 12AE AE 12AE 4AE
P cL2T c
u= x+ x x3
AE 2AE 6AE
cL T du% P 7cL2T cL T
a2 = % = E = + x
4AE dx A 12A 2A 2
Galerkin FEM Formulation: Galerkin FEM Formulation:

Comparison of Results Uniform Bar, Axial Load Uniform Bar, Axial Load
Quantity Location Exact Galerkin
d 2u u% = N {d }
u L/2 0.2292 0.2292 AE + q(x) = AEu ,xx + q(x) = 0
u L 0 3333 0.3333
0.3333 0 3333 dx 2 L x x
F = AEu ,x N =
L
u,x 0 0.5000 0.5833
u,x L/2 0.3750 0.3333 L
{d} = u 1
T
u,x L 0.0000 0.0833 L
x, u u 2
A, E q = q (x)
Galerkin FEM Formulation: Galerkin FEM Formulation:

Uniform Bar, Axial Load Uniform Bar, Axial Load Galerkin FEM Formulation
u% = N 1u 1 + N 2 u 2 For EA constant:
Lj Lj
u%
N els
Wi = = Ni N i ( AEu% ,xx + q ) dx = 0 N AEu%
i ,xx dx =
d i j=1 0 0
L x x
Lj
N = N
L
N i AEu% ,x AEu% ,x dx
L L 0
0
i ,x
3
Galerkin FEM Formulation:
B.C. Uniform Bar, Axial Load
N els L j B = N ,x
N ( AEu% i ,xx + q ) dx = 0

j=1 0
F=AEu% ,x
N els L j N els
1 1 u% 1
(N AEu% ,x + N i q ) dx + N i AEu% ,x 0 = 0 u% ,x = B {d } =
For ends of the element L

L u% 2
i ,x
L
j=1 0 j= 1
N els L j
(N AEu% ,x + N i q ) dx
Beam Dynamics
i ,x
j=1 0
N els
L
[ k ]j = [ B ] AE [ B ] dx
N els T
+ N i AEu% ,x 0 = 0
L
j= 1 0
j= 1 d4v d2v
N els L
EI + (x) = 0
{re }j = [ N ]
T
L
qdx dx 4 dt 2
j=1 0
N els
L
EIv ,xxxx + L &&
v=0
[B ] AE [ B ] dx {d }j
T
{P } = ([ N ] )
N els L
T
j= 1 0 F =0
j= 1 0
([ N ] F )
N els L N els
[N ]
L
qdx +
T T
= =0
j= 1 0 j=1 0
Shape Functions
1.000
B.C. N1 N3
N1 =
1
L3
( 2x 3
3x L + L2 3
) 0.500
N2
EIv ,xx -M
M B =00 N2 =
1
L3
( x 3 L 2x 2 L2 + xL
3 ) 0.000
L
EIv ,xxx -VB =0 0 N4

N3 =
1
L3
( 2x 3
+ 3x 2 L )
-0.500
N4 =
1
L3
( x L x L )
3 2 2
Shape Functions for Beam Element

4
v% = N 1 v 1 + N 2 1 + N 3 v 2 + N 4 2
EI constant Integration
v1
Lj (by parts twice!)
{d} = 1 ( EIv v ) dx = 0

T
N + L && L
v2 N
T
,,xxxx
v% ,xxxx dx =
2
0
0
L
v%
L
N
T T
v% ,xx dx + N v% ,xxx N ,x v% ,xx 0
T
Wi = = Ni
d i
,xx
0
Lj
N ( EIv% )
T
+ L &&
v% dx = 0 EIv ,xx -M B =0
,xxxx
( N )
0 L
T
EIv ,xxx -VB =0
&&
EI v% ,xx + L N v% dx =
T
( N )
,xx L
T
&&
EI v% ,xx + L N v% dx =
T
( N )
L 0
T ,xx
EI v% ,xx + L N &&
T
v% dx + L
N v% ,xxx N ,x v% ,xx
T T 0
,xx
0 0 T VB T M
L
N N ,x B
EI 0
L
N v% T
%
T
,xxx N ,x v ,xx 0 = 0 EI
Heat Flow in a Bar

[k ] = ( B )
L
T
EI B dx
v% = N {d
&& &&} d
( AkT,x )
0
[m ] = ( L N )
L
v% ,xx = B {d }
T
N dx = dx
0
B = N ,xx L
{R } = N
VB T M
N ,x
T
Af + d ( Af )
B
EI EI 0 Af
5
T% = N 1 T1 + N 2 T2 L
d 0
T% = N {Te }
T
Wi =
T%
= Ni N
T

dx
(
AkT% ,,x dx =

)
d i 0 0
L x x
N =
L L
T% ,x = N ,x {Te } L
[k T ] = N ,x Ak N ,x {Te } dx
T
L
0
N ,x ( ) dx N ( Af ) =
T
AkT% ,x
T 0
0 L
A F 1 1
0
N ,x Ak N ,x {Te } dx = 1 1
T
[k T ] = kA 1 1
0 A 2 F2
Two Dimensional Problems Poissons Equation Shape Functions

( k x ,x ) + y ( k y ,y ) + Q = 0

In volume V:
x
( k x ,x ) + y ( k y ,y ) + Q = 0 % = N { e }
x
is known If k = k x = k y = constant: Shape functions depend on 2D element:L
On boundary S: either CST, LST, Quad, Quadratic, etc.
lk x ,x + mk y ,y f B = 0 k + Q = 0
2
6
Galerkin Residuals Integration by Parts Integration by Parts
%
0 N
T
(%
x k x ,x dxdy =

) N
T
( )
y k y ,y dxdy =

0

( ) (
N x k x % ,x + y k y % ,y
T
) + Q dxdy =
N ,x k x % ,x dxdy
T
N ,y k y % ,y dxdy
d d T
M
0
+ N k x % ,x ldS
T
+ N k y % ,y mdS
T
Galerkin Residuals Galerkin Residuals
% ,x = N ,x { e } ( N ,x
T T
k x N ,x + N ,y k y N ,y dxdy ){ }
e [k ] = N ,x k x N ,x + N ,y k y N ,y dxdy
T T
{r } = N Q Qdxdyy + N f B dS
T T
N Qdxdy + N f B dS
T T
=
% ,y = N ,y { e }
7
Beam Stiffness Beam with positive nodal displacements,
rotations, forces, and moments.
Beam, Plane Frame and
Grid Equations
A beam is a long, slender structural member
generally subjected to transverse loading
y , v
that pproduces significant
g f bendingg effects
ff as
opposed to axial or twisting effects. 1 , m 1
1 x 2 2 , m 2
L
f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y
Beam, Plane Frame and Grid Beam, Plane Frame and Grid Beam, Plane Frame and Grid
Elements 1 Elements 2 Elements 3
Beam theory sign conventions for shear

forces and bending moments. FEM Sign Conventions y , v
w(x)
Valid at All Nodes:

1. Moments are positive counterclockwise.
x
2. Rotations are p
positive counterclockwise.
3. Forces are positive in the local y direction. w(x)
m m 4. Displacements are positive in the local y
M
direction. M + dM
L dx
V V
V V + dV
Force and moment equilibrium: Curvature-moment relationship: d 2 v M

=
d x 2 EI
w d x + dV = 0 1 M d 2 v
= = = d 2 d 2 v
V d x + dM = 0 EI d x 2 EI = w (x )
dV d x 2 d x 2
w= d v
d x = Some cases :
d x
dM 4
V= d 2 v M EI d v = 0
d x =
d x 2 EI d x 4
1
Step 2: Select a Displacement Function
Step 1: Select Element Type Solve for ais
v = a 1 x + a 2 x + a 3 x + a 4
3 2
v = 3a 1 x 2 + 2a 2 x + a 3
y , v v(0) = d 1yy = a 4
2
L
( L
1
)
v = 3 d 1y d 2 y + 2 1 + 2 x 3 +

( )
1 , m 1
1 x 2 2 , m 2

dv(0)
dx
= 1 = a 3
3

( 1
) 2

(
L2 d 1y d 2 y L 2 1 + 2 x + 1 x + d 1y )
v(L) = d 2 y = a 1 L3 + a 2 L2 + a 3 L + a 4
L
dv(L)
f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y = 2 = 3a 1 L2 + 2a 2 L + a 3
d x
Matrix Form Matrix Form Collect Terms

d 1y
[N ] = [N1 N2 N3 N4 ] N1 =
1
( 2x 3
3x 2 L + L3 )
L3

v = [ N ] d = [ N ] 1
{} 2 3 1 2 1
d 2 y
N 1 = 3 x 3 2 x 2 + 1
L L
N 2 = 2 x 3 x 2 + 1x
L L N2 = 3
L
( x L 2x L
3 2 2
+ xL
3 )
2 3 1 1 1
2 N 3 = 3 x 3 + 2 x 2
L L
N 4 = 2 x 3 x 2
L L
N3 = 3
L
( 2x 3
+ 3x L 2
)
1
N4 = 3 ( x L x L )
3 2 2
[N ] = [N1 N2 N3
Beam, Plane Frame and Grid
N4 ]
L
Properties of Shape Functions Properties of Shape Functions Properties of Shape Functions

N 2 (0) = 0
N 3 (0) = 0
1 3
( )
( )
N 1 ( 0) = L =1
1 4
L3 1
(
N 3 ( L ) = 3 2 L3 + 3L2 L = 1 ) N 2 (L) = L 2L4 + L4 = 0
1
(
N 1 ( L ) = 3 2 L3 3L2 L + L3 = 0 ) L L3
dN 1 1
L
(
= 3 6 x 2 6 x L )
dN 3
d x
1
(
= 3 6 x 2 + 6 x L
L
)
dN 2
d x
=
1
L3
(
3 x 2 L 4 x L2 + L3 )
d x L
dN 1 dN 2
dN 1
( 0) = 0 (0 ) = 0 (0) = 1
dx d x d x
dN 1 1
(
( L ) = 3 6 L2 6 LL = 0 )
dN 1
d x
1
(
( L ) = 3 6 L2 + 6 LL = 0
L
) dN 2
(L) =
1
(
3L3 4L3 + L3 = 0 )
d x L d x 3
Beam, Plane Frame and Grid Beam, Plane Frame and Grid
L
2
Step 3 : Define Strain/Displacement
Properties of Shape Functions 1.000
Relationships
N1 N3
N 4 (0) = 0 d u
0.500 x (x , y ) =
N 4 (L) =
1 4
L3
(
L L4 = 0 ) N2 d x
L d v
dN 4
d x
1
(
= 3 x 2 L 2 x L2
L
) 0.000
N4
u = y
0 d x
dN 4
(0) = 0
d 2 v
x (x , y ) = y
d x -0.500
dN 4
d x
1
(
(L) = 3 L3 2L3 = 1
L
) Shape Functions for Beam Element d x 2
Step 3 : Define Stress/Strain Step 4 : Derive the Element Step 4 : Derive the Element
Relationships Stiffness Matrix and Equations Stiffness Matrix and Equations
3
= EI d v ( 0 ) d 2 v ( 0 )
f1y = V 1 = m
m = EI
d 2 v d x 3 d x 2
m ( x ) = EI ( )
d xx 2
EI
(
= 3 12 d 1y + 6 L 1 12 d 2 y + 6 L 2
L
) =
EI
L3
6 L d 1y + 4 L2 1 6 L d 2 y + 2 L2 2
d 3 v
V = EI f2 y = V
3
= EI d v ( L ) 2 = +m
m = EI
d 2 v ( L )
3 d x 2
d x d x 3
EI
(
= 3 12 d 1y 6 L 1 + 12 d 2 y 6 L 2
) =
EI
L3
(
6 L d 1y + 2 L2 1 6 L d 2 y + 4 L2 2 )
L Beam, Plane Frame and Grid Beam, Plane Frame and Grid
Step 4 : Derive the Element

Stiffness Matrix and Equations Stiffness Matrix
12 6L 12 6L
f 1 y 12 6L 12 6L d 1 y
4 L2 2 L2 Step 5 : Assemble Element

m 1 EI 6 L
= 3
4 L2 6L 2 L2 1 [ ]
k =
EI 6 L
3 12 6L
6L
12 6L Equations to Obtain the Global
6 L d 2 y L
f 2 y L 12 6L 12 Equations and Introduce
m 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2
6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 2
2 Boundary Conditions
Note units on kij terms. Derived from direct stiffness
approach. Identical to matrix methods!
3
Example
y
d 1 y 1 d 2 y 2 d 2 y 2 d 3 y 3
1
1000 lbft 12 6L 12 6L 12 6L 12 6L
6L 6L 2 L2
2 L2
1
x 2 2
3
[ ]
k (1 ) =
EI 4 L2 6L
[ ]
k ( 2 ) =
EI
L3 12
4 L2
6L
6L
6L
L3 12 6L 12 6L 12

1000 lb
6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2
E, I are constant through out the beam
F1 y 12 6L 12 6L 0 0 d 1 y The Boundary Conditions are :

M 6L 4 L2 6L 2 L2

0 1
1000 24 0 6 L d 2 y
0
EI
2 L2 2
1
F2 y EI 12 6L 12 + 12 6L + 6L 12 6 L d 2 y d 1y = 0 1000 = 3 0 8 L2
=
3 6L 2 L2 4 L 2 + 4 L2

2 L2 2

0 L 6L 2
M
2 L 6L + 6 L 6L 1=0
2 L2 4L 3
F3 y 0 0 12 6L 12 6 L d 3 y

2 L2

4 L2 3
d 3 y = 0
M 3 0 0 6L 6L
Solve for nodal displacements and reactions at
node 1 and node 3.
Impose B.C.' s and reduce equations :
Example
d
P y F1 y 12 6L 12 6L 0 0 1y
6L The Boundary Conditions are :
M1 4 L2 6 L 2 L2 0 0 1

1 F EI 12 6 L 12 + 12 6 L + 6 L 12 6 L d 2 y d 2 y = 0
3
2y
= 3 2
1 M 2 L 6 L 2 L2 6 L + 6 L 4 L2 + 4 L2 6 L 2L
2 d 3 y = 0
d
x 2 2 F 0 0 12 6 L 12 6 L d
3y 3y
M 3 0 0 6L 2 L2 6 L 4 L2 3 = 0
3
L L
Impose B.C.' s and reduce equations :
E, I are constant through out the beam
4
P 4 L2 2 L2 6 L d 1 y
EI 2 P
0 = 3 2L 8 L2 6 L 1 7 PL 3
0 L 6L F1y

12 2

6L

F1 y
M
12
6L
6L 12 6L 0 0 12 EI
3 PL 2 M 0
1 4 L2 6L 2 L2 0 0 1 5
P

7 PL 3 F2 y EI 12 6L 12 + 12 6L + 6L 12 6L 4 EI
F2 y 2
=
3 6L
0
M
2 L 2 L2 6 L + 6L 4 L2 + 4 L2 6L 2 L2
PL 2 = 0
d 1y 12 EI F3 y 0 0 12 6L 12 6L
4 EI

M 2 3
2
3 PL 2 M 3 0 0 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L 0 F3 y 2 P
1 =
4 EI2
0 1
2 PL M 3 PL
4 EI 2

f 2 y 12 6L 12 6L 0
PL 2 P
m 2 EI 6 L 4 L2 6L 2 L2

= 3 4 EI
f 3 y L 12 6L 12 6L 0 1 3P/2
PL

m 3 6 L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 0 P P
3 3P/L
ff 2 y 2 P 3P/L
PL 5P/2 PL/2
m 2 PL PL/2
2
= 3
f 3 y P
2
m 3 PL
2
Example
Bending Moment Diagram
Shear Force Diagram E = 210 GPa
I = 2 x 10-4 m4
M y P = 50 kN
V
PL/2 3
1
2
x 2
1
k =200 kN/m
3m 3m
-PL
5
k
[k s ] =
k
F1 y
M
12
6L
6L 12 6L 0 0 d 1 y
k k
0 1
d 1y
1 4 L2 6L 2 L2 0 F1y 12 6L 12 6L 0 0 0
F2 y EI 12 6L 12 + 12 6L + 6L 12 6 L d 2 y Let :
M1
4L2 6L 2L2

0 1
= 3 6L 0 0
M 2 L2 6L + 6 L 4 L 2 + 4 L2 6L 2 L2 2 F2 y 12 6L 12 + 12 6L + 6L 12 0 d 2 y
2 L 6L
kL 3
6L
EI
F3 y 0 6 L d 3 y k = M 2 = 3 6L 2L2 6L + 6L 4L + 4L2 6L 0 2
2
0 12 6L 12 2L2
F L 0 k d
M 3 0 0 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 3 EI 3y
0 12 6L 12 + k 6L
3 y
M 3 0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 0
Then :
0 0 0 0 k 0

k 3
F4 y
Plus stiffness from spring! d 4y
k k
[k s ] = EI3
L k k
The Boundary Conditions are : Rearranging terms yields:

d 1 y = 0 8 L2 2 L 2
F1 y 12 6L 12 6L 0 0 0 0
0 6 L 2 M 6L 4 L2 6L 2 L2 0 0 0 0
EI 2 1
1 = 0 F2 y
0 = 3 2L 4 L2 6 L 3
12
EI
6L 12 + 12 6L + 6L 12 6L 0

0

M 2 = 3 6L 2 L2 6L + 6 L 4 L2 + 4 L 2 6L 2 L2 0 0 .00249
d 2 y = 0 P L 6 L 6 L 12 + k d F L 0
3 y 3y
0 12 6L 12 + k 6L k 0 .0174

M 3 0 0 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 0 0 .00747
d 4 y = 0 F
k

2 0 .00249 radians 4y 0 0 0 0 k 0 0

3 = 0 .00747 radians
Impose B.C.' s and reduce equations : d 0 .0174 m
3y
F1y 69 .9 kN Distributed Loads

M 50.0 kN
1 69 .7 kN m 69.9 kN
F2 y 116 .4 kN y , v

M 2 =
w(x)
0
F 50 .0 kN 69.7 kNm 2
3y 116.4 kN 3.5 kN
M 3 0 1
x

F4 y 3 .5 kN L
6
Work Equivalence Method -
Equivalent Loads Work Equivalence Method Example
L
0 w ( x ) v ( x ) d x = m 1 1 + m 2 2 + f 1 y d 1 y + f 2 y d 2 y
f 1 y f 2 y Wdistribute d = Wdiscrete w ( x ) = w
( ) ( )
m 2 2
1
L v ( x ) = d 1 y d 2 y + 1 + 2 x 3 +
2 Wdistribute d = 0 w ( x ) v ( x ) d x L3 L2
1
m 1
Wdiscrete = m 1 1 + m 2 2 + f 1y d 1y + f 2 y d 2 y 3
( 1
2 d 1 y d 2 y L 2 1 + 2 ) ( ) x 2 +
L
L
x + d
1 1y
Work Equivalence Method - Collect Terms : Collect Terms :

Example L
0 w ( x ) v ( x ) d x = m 1 1 + m 2 2 + f 1 y d 1 y + f 2 y d 2 y Lw
f 1 y =

+ Lw Lw =
wL
2 2
L Lw
( L2 w
)
0 w ( x ) v ( x ) d x = 2 d 1y d 2 y 4 1 + 2 ( )
Lw wL
L
0
Lw
w ( x ) v ( x ) d x =
2
(
d 1 y d 2 y
L2 w
4
)
1 + 2 ( ) (
Lw d 2 y d 1 y + )
L2 w
( L2 w
2 1 + 2 )
(Lw ) d =
f 2 y =
2
Lw =
2
3 2 1 1y
L2 w L2 w 2 L 2 w L2 w
( )
2
(
Lw d 2 y d 1 y + )
L2 w
2 1 + 2
2 1
(Lw ) d 1y
Lw Lw m 1 = + = wL
3 + Lw Lw d 1 y + Lw d 2 y + 4 3 2 12
2 2
L2 w 2 L 2 w L2 w 2 2
L2 w L2 w wL 2
1 + L w + L w 2
4
+
3

2 4 3 m 2 = + =
4 3 12

Nodal Hinge
y , v Hinge
Procedure also works for a f 1 y f 2 y
m 2
1 , m 1
concentrated load applied
pp 2 1 x
2
at a point other than a m 1
1
2 , m 2 = 0
L
node. L f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y
7
Nodal Hinge Partition Stiffness Matrix
Partition Stiffness Matrix
Hinge [ k condensed ] = [K 11 ] [K 12 ][K 22 ]1 [K 21 ] =
y , v 12 6L 12 6L 12 6L 12 6L
2 , m 2 4 L2 2 L2 EI 2 1
[ ]
[ ]
EI
EI 6 L 6L 6L 4 L2 6 L 2L 6L 2 L2 6L
3 3 2
1 x
x 2 k =
k L 12 6L 12 L 6 L 4 L
1 , m 1 = 0 3 12 6L 12 6L
L
1 L 1
L 6L 2 L2 6L 4 L2 [ ]
k condensed =
3 EI
L L2 L
f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y 3
L 1 L 1

Expand Stiffness Matrix Expand Stiffness Matrix Potential Energy Approach

Hinge at node j Neglecting Body Forces.
Hinge at node i
1 L 1 0 p = U +
L 1 0 1 L
L2 0
[ k Hinge =
3
]
EI L
[ ]
k Hinge =

3 EI 0 0 0 0 U=
1
2
x x dV
L3 1 L 1 0 L 3 1 0 1 L V

L L2

0 0 0 0 L 0 2 2
= Ty v dS f iy d iy m i i
S i =1 i =1
v = [ N ] {d }
d 1y
2
v
1 L
1 { x } = y d
p = x x dA d x v Ty b d x dx 2
2 0
{d } =
x A

d 2 y
[B ] = 12 x 3 6 L 6 x L 4 L2 12 x + 6 L 6 x L 2 L2

L L3 L3 L3
f1y d 1y f2y d 2y m 1 1 m 2 2

{ x } = y [B ]{d }
2
2
v
{ x } = y d
dx 2
8
{ x } = [D ]{ x }
L
1 1
2 { } { } dAd x
L
p = 2 x dA d x v Ty b d x p =
T
[D ] = [E ]
x
0 x x
x A
A 0
f1y d 1y f2y d 2y m 1 1 m 2 2
{ } {P}
L
b T y {v }T d x d
T
{ x } = y [D ][B ]{d } 0
2 {d } [ B ] [ D ] [ B ] {d }
I T T T p
=0
p = dx d {}
0 L L
[ B ] [ D ] [ B ] dx {d } [ N ] w dx P {} Plane Frame and Grid

T T
L I
{} {}
T T
w d [N ] dx d {P }
T
0 0
Equations
L
0 {} f = [ N ] w ddx + P
T
{}

w = bT
0
L
y
[k ] = I [ B ] [ D ] [ B ] dx
T
I= y dA
2 0
Same result as direct m ethod!

A
d 2 y d x C S d x
Stiffness Matrix y
d y
=
S

C d y
2
2
12 6L 12 6L
d1x
4 L2 2 L2
[ ]
k =
EI 6 L
3 12 6L
6L
12 6L
d 1 y , y
d y
L
d 1 y

S

C 0 0 0

0 d1y

L
2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
6L 2L 6L 4 L2 x =
1 x d 2 y 0 0 0 S C 0 d 2x

Recall the stiffness matrix for a beam element. 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 d 2 y

Arbitrarily oriented beam element. 2
9
f 2 y
[k ] = [T ]T [k ][T ] y f 2 x
C = cos
2
S = sin
S C 0 0 0 0 12 S 2 12 SC 6 LS 12 S 2 12 SC 6 LS
0 0 1 0 0 0

[T ] =
12 C 2 6 LC 12 SC 12 C 2 6 LC

0 0 0 S C 0 EI
[k ] = 3
4 L2 6 LS 6 LC 2L 2

ff 1 y L
L symmetric 12 S 2 12 SC 6 LS
0 0 0 0 0 1

x
12 C 2
6 LC x
1
symmetric 4 L 2 f 1 x

Local forces on a beam element.

Axial forces/dis placements :
f 1x AE 1 1 d x C1=(AE)/L
=
f 2 x L 1 1 d y C2=(EI)/L3 d 1x C S 0 0 0 0 d 1x C S 0 0 0 0

Combining Results : d 1 y S C 0 0 0 0 d 1 y S
C 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
ff 1 x C 1 C1 d d 1 x

1
= [T ] =
0 0 0 0
dd 2 x 0 0 0 C S 0 d 2 x 0 0 0 C S 0

12 C 2 6C 2 L 0 12 C 2 6C 2 L d 1y d 0
f 1 y 0 0 S C 0 d 2 y 0 0 0 S C 0
2y
2
m 1 4 C 2 L2 0 6C 2 L 2C 2 L 1
= 1 2
f 2 x symmetric C1 0 0 d 2 x 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
f 12 C 2 6C 2 L d 2 y
2y
m 2 symmetric 4C 2 L2 2
2 12 I 2 12 I 6I 12 I 2 12 I 6I
AC 2 +
[k ] [T ]
AC + 2 S A 2 CS S S A CS S
L L L L2 L2 L A rigid plane frame is defined as a series of beam
[k ] = [T ] T

[k ] = E
AS +2 12 I 2
L2
C
6I
L
C
4I

A

6I
12 I
L2
S
CS

AC +

2
6I
12 I 2
C
L2
S

6I
L
C

2 I
elements rigidly connected to each other. That is
the original angles between members at the joints
C = cos
L L
L
symmetric AC 2 +
12 I 2 12 I 6 I remain unchanged after deformation.Moments are
S A 2 CS S

L2 L
12 I 2
L
6I
transmitted from one member to another at the
S = sin symmetric AS 2 + C S
L2 L joints. Additionally, the element centroids and the
symmetric 4 I
applied loads lie in a common plane. Element
stiffnesses are functions of E, A, I, L and .
10
10 ft
10000 lb 2 3 5000 lb-in
2
E = 30 x 106 psi
10 ft A = 10 in2
1 3 I = 200 in4 for elements 1 and 3.
y 5 ft I = 100 in4 for element 2.
4
1
x
2 12 I 2
A
12 I
CS
6I
AC 2 +
12 I 2
S

A
12 I
CS
6I
Element 1 d 1x d 1y 1 d 2x d 2y 2
AC + 2 S S S
L L2 L L2 L2 L Directed from node 1 to node 2.

AS 2 +
12 I 2 6I 12 I
AC 2 +
12 I 2 6I 0 .167 0 10 0 .167 0 10
C C A
2
CS S C x x 1 60 ( 60 )
L 2 L L L 2
L C = cos 90 o = 2 = =0 10 0 0 10 0

[k ] = E 4I
6I
S
6I
C 2 I L(1) 120
L L
L
6I y 2 y 1 120 0 800 10 0 400
symmetric

AC 2 +
12 I 2
L2
S
12 I
A 2 CS
L L
S

o
S = sin 90 =
L(1 )
=
120
=1 [k ] = 250000
12 I 2 6I 0 .167 0 10
symmetric AS 2 + C C 12 I 12 ( 200 )

symmetric
L2 L
4 I
= = 0 .167 symmetric 10 0
L2 120 2
6 I 6 ( 200 ) 800
= = 10 .0
L 120
E 30 10 6
= = 250 ,000
L 120
Element 2 d 2x d 2y 2 d 3x d 3y 3 Element 3
Directed from node 2 to node 3. 10 0 0 10 0 0 Directed from node 3 to node 4.
x x2 60 ( 60 ) 0 . 0835 5 0 0 .0835 5 x x3 60 ( 60 )
C = cos 0 o = 3 = =1 C = cos 270 o = 4 = =0
L( 2 ) 120 L( 3 ) 120
400 0 5 200
o
S = sin 0 =
y 3 y 2 120 120
= =0 [k ] = 250000 o
S = sin 270 =
y4 y3
=
0 120
= 1
L( 2 ) 120 10 0 0 L( 3 ) 120
12 I
=
12 (100 )
= 0 .0835
symmetric 0 .0835 5 12 I 12 (100 )
= = 0 .167
L2 120 2 L2 120 2
400
6 I 6 (100 ) 6 I 6 (100 )
= = 5 .0 = = 10 .0
L 120 L 120
E 30 10 6 E 30 10 6
= = 250 ,000 = = 250 ,000
L 120 L 120
11
d 3x d 3y 3 d 4x d 4y 4 Assemble Global Matrix Apply B.C.
0 .167 0 10 0 .167 0 10
d1y = 0
10 0 0 10 0 k (1 ) (1 )
k 12 0 0
11 d1x = 0
800 10 0 400 k (1 ) k (22
1) (2)
+ k 11 (2)
0
[k ] = 250000 [K ] = 21
k 12
0 .167 0 10 (3) 1 = 0
0 k (21
2)
k (22
2) (3)
+ k 11 k 12
10 0 3)
0 0 (3)
k 21 k (22
d4x = 0
800
d4y = 0
4 = 0
Equilibrium Equations: Displacements:

10 .167 0 10 10 0 0
10 .0835 5 0 0 .0835 5 d 2 x 0 .211 in
10000 10 .167 0 10 10 0 0 d 2 x d
2 y 0 .00148 in
0
1200 0 5 200 5 d 2 y
[K ] = 250000 10 .0835 5 0 0 .0835
10 .167 0 10 0
= 250000

1200 0 5 200 2
2 0 .00153 rad
10 .0835 5 0 10 .167 0 10 d 3 x =
0 10 .0835 5 d 3 y d 3 x 0 .209 in
1200
5000

1200 3 d 3 y 0 .00148 in

3 0 .00149 rad
C=0 { d }= [ T ] {d }
S=1
C S 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
S 0 1 0 0 0 0
C 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 For Element 1:
[T ] =

0 0 1 0 0 0

[T ]{d } =
0 0 1 0 0 0

0

0 0 0 C S 0 [T ] = 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 .211
0 0 0
0 0 0 S C 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 .00148
0 0

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 .00153
0 0 0 0 0 1
12
3700 lb Example: Cantilever beam with a bar
{ f } = [ k ][T ] {d} 4990 lb element support. 2 10 3

0
(12 )(5 10 5 ) (
0
6 5 10 5 )
2 10 3 0
(12 )(5 10 5 ) (
0
6 5 10 5 )

223000 lbin 0
3700 lb 32 3 32 3
4990 lb

( ) (
6 5 10 5 ) (

)
[ ] 4 5 10 5 2 5 10 5
9
210 10 0
k (1) = 3
3 Bar: 3 2 10 3
0 0

( ) (
)
{} 376000 lb in A = 1.0 x10-3 m2 (12 ) 5 10 5
6 5 10 5
f = y E = 210 GPa

32 3
3700 lb x 2

(
4 5 10 5

)

Beam:
4990 lb 376000 lbin A = 2.0 x10-3 m2
4990 lb 45o 1 2
223000 lb in 1 x I = 5.0 x10-5 m4
y E = 210 GPa
3m
z 3700 lb
500 kN
cos 2 45 0 (cos 45 )(sin 45 )

0 0
cos 2 45 0 (
cos 45 0 )(sin 45 ) 0

sin 2 45 0 (
cos 45 0 )(sin 45 )
0
sin 2 45 0
2 0 0 2 0 0 [k ]
(2)
= C
0 .0667 0 .10 0 0 .0667 0 .10
cos 2 45 0 (cos 45 )(sin 45 )
0 0
0 .354 0 .354 0 .354 0 .354

0 .354
[ ] [k ] = 70 10
sin 2 45 0
0 .20 0 0 .10 0 .10 0 .354 0 .354
k (1) = 70 10 6 (2) 6
2 0 0 0 .354 0 .354
0 .0667 0 .10 (1 10 )(210 10 )
3 9
C = 0 .354
0 .20 3
cos 45 o

AFTER ASSEMBLY
AND APPLICATION OF B.C.S 2 .354 0 .354 0 d1x 0 {f }= [ k ] [ T ]{ d }

70 10 6 0 .421 0 .10 = d1x
d 2x 500000

f 1 x AE 1 1 C S 0 0 d 1 y
0 .20 1 0
=
2 .354 0 .354 0 f 3 x L 1 1 0 0 C S d 3 x
[K ] = 70 10 6 0 .421 0 .10

d 3 y

d1x 0 .00338 m
0 .20 f 1 x =
AE
(C d 1 x + S d 1 y ) = 670 kN
d 2x = 0 .0225 m L
f 3 x = 670 kN
1 0 .0113 rad
13
670 kN
f 1 x C1 0 0 d1x
Grid Equations

f 1 y = 0 12 C 2 6C 2 L d1y
670 kN
4 C 2 L 2 1 A grid is a structure on which loads are applied
m 1 0 6C 2 L
0.0 kNm 78.3 kNm perpendicular to the plane of the structure, as opposed
to a plane frame where loads are applied in the plane of
f 1 x 473 kN the structure
473 kN
473 kN
f 1 y = 26 .5 kN

m 1 78 .3 kN m 26.5 kN 26.5 kN
Typical Grid Structure. Step 1

y y
F1 m 1 x , 1 x m 2 x , 2 x
m 2 x , 2 x
m 1 x , 1 x
x
F2 m 1 z , 1 z 1 2 1 x
F4 x 2
F3 2 z , 2 z
m
z
z f 1 y , d 1 y L f 2 y , d 2 y
F5 m x , x m x , x
1 x
2
Step 3
Step 2 AB = max d x = R d
= a 1 + a 2 x
d
y

= 2 x

1 x
x + 1 x

R max = R
L d x
( )

= [N 1 N 2 ] 1 x

max
O x
d r
=r = 2 x 1 x
A
2 x
N1 = 1
x
B
d x L
L
x
z d
= G
N2 = dx
L
14
Step 4
J For sections made up of thin rectangular
m x =
R shapes:
m x =
GJ
(
2 x 1 x ) m 1 x G J 1
=
1 1 x

L 1 1 2 x
L
m 1x = m x
mm 2 x
1
m 1 x =
GJ
(
1 x 2 x ) J= 3 b i t i3
[k ] = GLJ 11
L 1
m 2 x = m x
1
m 2 x =
GJ
L
(
2 x 1 x )
b2
Combine with basic beam element
b t2
t b t
t tw 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI 6 EI
t1 h 3 0 0
L L2 L3 L2
t1 h a GJ GJ
t h
b1
t2
t f 1 y 0 0 0 d 1 y
t t1 L L
m 1 x 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI 1 x
m 0
b1 L L2 L 1 z
2 t t 1 (a t )2 (b t 1 )2
t 1z =

b2 b J= 3 f 2 y 12 EI 6 EI d 2 y
b t 0
a t + b t 1 t 2 t 12 J= ( h + 2b ) m
2x
L3 L2 2 x

t3
( ) t3 3 GJ
J= ( h + 2b ) J=
1
b 1 t 13 + b 2 t 32 J= ( h + 2b ) m 2 z symmetric 0 2 z
3 3 3 L
4 EI
L
12 EI 6 EI 12 EI 6 EI
3 0 0 Transformation:
L L2 L3 L2
GJ GJ
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 20 ft
0

L L C S 0 0 0 x j xi
4 EI 6 EI 2 EI
0 0 S C 0 0 0 C= 3
[ k Grid ] = L L2 L [TGrid ] = L
x
12 EI
0
6 EI 0 0 0 1 0 0 z j zi 10 ft 4
3 2 0 0 0 0 C S S= 2

L L
L 3
GJ 0 0 0 0 S C
symmetric 0 10 ft
L 1
4 EI 1
L [ k Grid ] = [TGrid ] T
[k Grid ][TGrid ] 2
100 kip
z Beam, Plane Frame and Grid
15
For all elements :
E = 30 10 3 ksi I = 400 in 4 Element 1:
Boundary Conditions G = 12 10 3 ksi J = 110 in 4
12 EI 12 ( 30 10 3 ) (400 )
Directed from node 1 to node 2.
= = 7 .45
d 1 y 0 d 3 y 0 d 4 y 0 L3 (22 .36 12 )3 x x 1 0 20

C = cos = 2 = = 0 .894
1x = 0 3 x = 0 4 x = 0 6 EI 6 ( 30 10 3 ) (400 )
= = 1000
L(1 ) 22 .36
0 0 0 L2 (22 .36 12 ) z z1 20 10
1z 3z 4z S = sin = 2
GJ
=
(12 10 ) (400 ) = 4920
6
L(1 )
=
22 .36
= 0 .447
L (22 .36 12 )
4 EI 4 ( 30 10 3 ) (400 )
= = 179 ,000
L (22 .36 12 )
Element 2: Element 3: Assemble Global Matrix
Directed from node 1 to node 3. Directed from node 1 to node 4. k (1 ) + k ( 2 ) + k ( 3 ) (1 )

k 12 ( 2)
k 12 (3)
k 12
x x 1 0 20 x x 1 20 20 11 11 11
C = cos = 3 = = 0 .894 C = cos = 4 = =0 k (21
1)
k (22
1)
0 0
L(1 ) 22 .36 L(1 ) 10 [K ] =
k (21
2)
0 k (22
2)
0
y y 1 0 10 z z 1 0 10
S = sin = 3 = = 0 .447 S = sin = 4 = = 1 (3)
k 21 0 0 3)
k (22
L(1 ) 22 .36 L(1 ) 22 .36
Applying B.C.s Local Forces Procedure

[K ] = [ k 11( 1 ) + k 11
(2)
+ k 11
(3)
] 1. Find k, T for element.
100 98 .2 5000 1790 d 1 x 2. Get element nodal displacements.
{ff } = [kk Grid ] [TGrid ] {d}

0 5000 479000 0 = 1x 3 Calculate element nodal forces.
3. forces

0 1790 0 299000 1 z
d 1 x 2 .83 in

1 x = 0 .0295 rad

1 z 0 .0169 rad
16
Beams in 3D Bending in x^- z^Plane
Bending in Two Planes
1. Considers beam elements arbitrarily oriented in 12 L
y 6 L2 12 L 6 L2
space.
2. First considers bending about two axes. 1 y , 1 y
m
2 y , 2 y
m [k y ] = E I4y 4 L3 6 L2 2 L3
f 1 z , d 1 z f 2 z , d 2 z L 12 L 6 L2
3. Adoptsp a sign g convention for axes
4 L3
a. x positive directed from node i to node j
b. y positive directed along axis for which moment of

m 1 z , 1 z x
inertia is minimum. L I y - moment of inertia of cross - section about principal axis y
2 z , 2 z
m
c.
z positive directed along axis for which moment of f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y
the weak axis. That is I y < I z
inertia is maximum. z
d. right hand rule applies.
Bending in x^ - y^Plane Add Two Bending Results, Axial A E

0 0 0 0 0
12 L

6 L2 12 L 6 L2

Stiffness and Torsional Stiffness L
12 E I z 6 E Iz
0 2
4 L3 6 L2 2 L3 0 0 0
Gives a 12 x 12 Element Stiffness Matrix
[k ]
z
E Iz
= 4
L

L3
12 E I y 6 E Iy
L

6 L2 6 6

12 L
0 0 0 0
[ k 11 ] = L3
GJ
L2

4 L3
[ k ] = kk
0 0 0 0 0
e 11 k 12 6
6 E Iy
L
4 E Iy

I y - moment of inertia of cross - section about principal axis z
0 0
L2
0
L
0
the strong axis. That is I z > I y
21 k 22 6
0
6 E Iz
0 0 0
4 E Iz

Positive sense for rotation is different, resulting in sign changes. L2 L
AE AE A E
0 0 0 0 0 L
0 0 0 0 0 L 0 0 0 0 0
L 6 E Iz
12 E I z 6 E Iz
12 E I z
12 E I z 6 E Iz
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L3 L2 L3 2
L L3 2
L
12 E I y 6 E Iy
12 E I y 6 E Iy 0 0 0 0
12 E I y 6 E Iy
0 0 0 0
[ k 12 ] =
0 0
L3
0
L2
0

[ k 21 ] = L3
GJ
L2
[ k 22 ] = L3 L2

GJ 0 0 0 0 0 GJ
0 0 0 0 0 L 0 0 0 0 0
L 6 E Iy 2 E Iy L
6 E Iy 2 E Iy 0 0 0 0 6 E Iy 4 E Iy
0 0 0 0 L 2
L 0 0 0 0
L2 L 6 E Iz 2 E Iz L2 L
6 E Iz 2 E Iz 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 L2 L 6 E Iz 4 E Iz
L 0 0 0 0

2
L L 2
L
17
[ k ] = [ T ]T [ k ][ T ] C xx C y x C z x y
yy y
yx
xy
3x 3 = C
x
0 0 0
C y y C z y
xy
xx
0 3x3 0 0 C xz
zy
C z z
yz
[ T]= C y z xz
x
0 0 3x3 0
Generally : C y x C xy z zx
0 0 0 3 x 3 zz
z
The y axis is chosen to be to x and to z axes.

u x = cos xx i + cos y x j + cos z x k The z axis is to x and to y axes.
i j k
x j xi k u x = A u y = 0 0 1 i j k
cos xx = =l l m n 1
L u x u y = u z = l m n
A = sin zy = 1 cos 2 z y = 1 n2 D
y j yi -m l 0
cos y x = =m l +m +n =1
2 2 2
ln mn
L 1-n = l +m
2 2 2
u z = i j + D k
D D
z j zi (
D = l2 + m2 =A )
1 2
cos zx = =n m l
L u y = i + j
D D

3D Summary
l m n
m 1. Need to specify direction cosines for beam
[ ]
=
l
0 element so Iy and Iz can be calculated.
D D 2. Process can be difficult.
ln
mn
D 3. Need local directions to calculated axial
D D stress.
Elements 160 Elements 161
18
Two-dimensional Elements Plane Stress
Plane Stress/Strain 1. Thin plate elements . 1. A state of stress in which normal stress
Stiffness Equations 2. Two coordinates to define position. and shear stresses directed perpendicular
3. Elements connected at common nodes and/or
along common edges
edges.
to the plane of the body are assumed to
4. Nodal compatibility enforced to obtain be zero.
equilibrium equations 2. If x-y plane is plane of body then only
5. Two types nonzero stresses are: x,y ,xy
Plane stress
1.
2. Plane Strain
3. Zero stresses: z ,xz ,yz
Plane Stress/Strain 1 Plane Stress/Strain 2 Plane Stress/Strain 3
y
y
Plane Strain
T
T
1. A state of strain in which normal strain
T and shear strains directed perpendicular to
x x
the plane of the body are assumed to be
zero.
2. If x-y plane is plane of body then only
nonzero strains are: x , y , xy
Plane Stress Problem: Plane Stress Problem:
Plate with a Hole Plate with a Fillet
3. Zero strains: z , xz , yz
y
y
Plane stress: z 0
Plane strain: z 0
x
Plane Strain Problem: Plane Strain Problem:
z
Dam Subjected to Horizontal Load z Pipe Subjected to Vertical Load
1
y
2D State of Stress and Strain xy
xy
y x
{} = y
xy
x dy
x
x

dx
xy xy
y
Two-dimensional State of Stress
Principal Stresses Two-dimensional State of Strain

x + y
2 u
x y x =
1 = + + xy
2
x
2 2
v
x + y x y
2
P y =
2 = + 2xy y
2 2 x
u v
tan 2 p =
2 xy xy = +
x y y x
y, v u
dy
y
Full 3-D Stress-Strain Relationships
v
v+ dy
y D
x u
y v x 1 0 0 0 x
{} = y

dx
B 1 0 y
dy x
A 0 0
y
v v z E 1 0 0 0 z
x, u =

x (12 )
u
xy (1 + )(1 2) 0 0 0 2 0 0 xy
xy
yz 0 0 0 0
(12 )
0 yz
u
2
(12 )
dx u+ dx
x zx 0 0 0 0 0 2 zx
Displacements and rotations of lines of an element in the x-y plane

2
Full 3-D Stress-Strain Relationships
1 0 0 0
x 1 x yz = 0
0 0 0
1
2

2
0

y
y 1 0 0 0 x 1 1 x
0 E (12) z
zx = 0 E 2 2
= 0 0 0 0 0 y = 1 0 y
(1 + )(
1 2) +
( )
2 ( 1 )(1 2 ) 1 1
xy
(12) xy
0 0 0 0 0
2
0 yz z = x + y xy
0 0
(1 2 ) xy

0 (12)
zx 1

2

0 0 0 0 0
2
x
1 + 2 2

2 2
0

1
0
1 0
1 1

E

2 2
1 + 2 2

x
x 1

1

x
0 y
y =
(1+ )(1 2 )
xy

1 1
(1 )(12 ) xy

y

=
E
(1 + )

1
1
1
0

y

[ D ] = E 2 1 0

0 0 2(1 )

xy (1 ) xy 1 (1 )
0 0
2 (1 )
x
1 2 (1 2 )
1 0
0 0
2
1 x 1 0
{} = [ D ]{}
(1 2 ) 1 2 x x
E
0 y

y = E
(1+ )(1 2 ) 1 1 y = 1 0 y
( 1 + ) (1 )
0 (1 )(12 )
xy 0 2(1 )

xy
xy

0 0
(1 )
2

xy

For Plane Stress
Plane Strain Full 3-D Stress-Strain Relationships
1 0 0 0 1
yz = 0 x x
0 x 0
1 0 0
y
x
y
1 0 E 1 0
zx = 0
0 0
y =
z E 0 y
(1+)(12)
(12)
=
xy
0 0 0 0 0
(12)

(1+)(
1 2) 2
xy
xy xy 0 0
z = 0 yz

0 0 0 0
(12)
2
0 0

2
xz (12) 0
0 0 0 0 0
2
3
1 Step 1 - Select the Element Type y
0
T T
E
[ D ]= 1 0 1. Discretize Body into Three-Noded
( 1 + )( 1 2 )
Triangular Elements.
0 0
(1 2 )
2 2. Two degrees
degrees-of-freedom
of freedom per node.
{} = [ D ]{} 3. These are x and y displacements.
4. ui - x displacement at ith node.
For Plane Strain 5. vi - y displacement at ith node.
Thin Plate in Tension x
i-j-m numbered counterclockwise!

y m (xm, ym)
m
ui y
v i (xi, yi)
di i
u
{d i } =
ui
{d} = d j {d} = j
i j

d v i vj
m u m j (xj, yj)

v m
x x
Discretized Plate Using Triangular Elements
Step 2 - Select Displacement Function

Linear Functions u (x , y ) a 1 + a 2 x + a 3 y
{ } = =
Select Linear Functions: 1. Ensures compatibility between elements. v (x , y ) a 4 + a 5 x + a 6 y
2. Displacements vary linearly along any line. a1
a
u (x , y ) = a 1 + a 2 x + a 3 y 3. Displacements vary linearly between nodes. 2
v (x , y ) = a 4 + a 5 x + a 6 y 4. Edge displacements are the same for adjacent 1 x y 0 0 0 a 3
elements if nodal displacements are equal. { } =
0 0 0 1 x y a 4
a 5

a 6
4
i j m
Conditions on the ais: 1
ui 1 xi yi a1 [x ] 1 = i j m
u i = a1 + a 2 x i + a 3 y i 2 A
i j m

u j = a1 + a 2 x j + a 3 y j uj = 1 xj yj a2
u m = a1 + a 2 x m + a 3 y m 1 xi yi If i-j-m
u m 1 xm y m a 3 2A = 1 xj yj counterclockwise!
vi = a4 + a5 xi + a6 yi 1 xm ym
v j = a4 + a5 x j + a6 y j
{a } = [x ]1 {u } ( )
2 A = x i y j y m + x j (y m y i ) + x m y i y j ( )
vm = a4 + a5 xm + a6 y m
a 1

i j m {u} = [1 x y ] a 2
i = x j y m y jx m a1 ui a
1 3
j = xm yi ymxi a 2 = i j m uj
a 2 A u
i j m i j m ui
m = xi y j yix j 3 m 1
{u} = [1 x y] i j m uj
i = yj ym i = xm xj Also : 2A u
i j m m

j = ym yi j = xi xm a 4 i j m vi
m = yi y j m = xj x 1 i u i + ju j + m u m
a 5 = i j m vj {u} = 1
[1 x

y ] i u i + ju j + m u m
a 2 A v 2A
i j m u + u + u
6 m i i j j m m
ui
1
( i + i x + i y ) u i + Ni = ( i + i x + i y ) v
i
1 2A
u(x, y ) = ( j + j x + j y ) u j + u( x, y ) N i
{ } =
0 Nj 0 Nm 0 u j
2A
( m + m x + m y ) u m

Nj =
1
2A
(
j + jx + jy ) =
v( x, y ) 0 Ni 0 Nj 0

N m v j

u m
1
Nm = ( m + m x + m y ) v m
2A { } = [N ] {d}
( i + i x + i y ) v i +
1 u ( x , y ) = N i u i + N ju j + N m u m
( j + j x + j y ) v j +
v(x, y ) = N i 0 Nj 0 Nm 0
2A
[N ] = N m
v( x, y ) = N i v i + N j v j + N m v m 0 Ni 0 Nj 0
( m + m x + m y ) v m
5
Ni = 1 at node i
Ni = 0 at node j Ni Nj
Ni = 0 at node m
Nj = 0 at node i
m
Nj =1 at node j
Nj = 0 at node m m
Nm = 0 at node i i i
Nm = 0 at node j x x
Nm = 1 at node m y y
j
Ni + Nj + Nm = 1 j
Nm Strain/Displacement
u

m x x
i Define Strain/Displacements {} = y = v
x and Stress/Strain Relationships y
xy u v
y + x
y

j
u
= u ,x = (N i u i + N ju j + N m u m )
x x
ui
u , x = N i, x u i + N j, x u j + N m, x u m v
N i, x =
Ni
=
1
( i + i x + i y ) = i x =
u
=
1
(
i u i + ju j + m u m ) x i 0 j 0 m 0 i
x 2A
1 u
x 2A x 2A
y = 0 i 0 j 0 m j
y =
v
=
1
(
i vi + jv j + m vm ) 2A v
N j, x =
j y 2A
xy
i
i j j m m j
u m
2A xy =
v u
+ =
1
x y 2A
(
i u i + ju j + m u m + i v i + j v j + m v m )
m v m
N m, x =
2A
u
x = =
1
( i u i + ju j + m u m )
x 2A
6
1 0
Stress/Strain
{} = [B ] { d} [ D ] = E 2 1 0
1
i 0 j 0 m 0 (1 )
1
[B ] = 0 i 0 j 0 m 0 0
2
2A
i i j j m m {} = [ D ]{}
For Plane Stress
1 0

E
[ D ]= 1 0
( 1 + )( 1 2 )
{} = [ D ]{} = [ D ][B ]{d} {} = [ D ]{} = [ D ][B ]{d}

0 0
(1 2 )
2
{} = [ D ]{}
For Plane Strain
Step 4 - Element Stiffness Potential Energy Approach Potential Energy Approach
1
{ x }T { x } dV
( ) 2
p = p ui , vi ,u j, v j,um , vm U=
V
p = U + = U + b + p + s
1
U= { x }T [D ] { x } dV
2
V
7
b = { }T {X}dV 1
{d}T [B ] [D ] [B ] {d} dV
T
p =
1
{d}T [B ] [D ] [B ] dV {d}
T
p =
2 V 2
V V
{d} [N ] {X} dV {d} [N ] {X} dV

T T
T T
s = { } T
{T} dS V V
{d} {P } {d} [N ] {T} dS

T
[N ] {T} dS
S T T
{d} {P } {d}
T T T
b = {d}T {P}
S
S
T
T T 1 T
p = {d}T [B ] [D ] [B ] dV {d} {d}T {f }
[B ] [D ] [B ] dV {d} = {f }
{f } = [N ] {X} dV + {P } + [N ] {T} dS 2 V
V
V S
p T
= [B ] [D ] [B ] dV {d} {f } = 0
{d}
V [k ] = [B ]T [D ] [B ] dV
V
Example 7.1
i = y j y m = 0 1 = 1
[k ] = [B ]T [D ] [B ] dV t = 1 in
E = 30 x 106 psi
V = 0.25 j = y m y i = 1 ( 1) = 2
m=3 (0,1)
Find [k]
[k ] = t [B ] [D ] [B ]
T
dx dy m = y i y j = 1 0 = 1
A jj=22 i = x m x j = 0 2 = 2
For the constant Strain Triangle : (2,0)
j = xi xm = 0 0 = 0
[k ] = t A [B ] [D ] [B ]
T i=1
(0,-1) m = x j xi = 2 0 = 2
8
A= 2
T
[k ] = (2 )(30 10 )
1 0 2 0 1 0 6 1 0 2 0 1 0
[B ] = 1 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 (4 )(0.9375 )(4 ) 2 .5
1 .25
1 .25 2 1 .5 0 .5 0 .25
2 (2) 2 1 0 2 2 1 4 .375 1 0 .75 0 .25 3 .625
2 1 0 2 2 1

1 .25 0

1 0 2 0 1 0 (
[k ] = 4 10 )
6 2 1 4 0 2 1

1 .25 0 1 .5 0 .75 0 1 .5 1 .5 0 .75
30 10 6 .25 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 .5 0 .25 2 1 .5 2 .5 1 .25
[D ] = .25 1 0 1 .25
0 0 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 .25 3 .625 1 0 .75 1 .25 4 .375
1 (.25 )2 1 .25 2
0 0
2
x

Given : {} = y =

xy
0 .0
0 .0025 0 .0
x 19200
1 0
0 .0025

{} = y = 4800 psi
.25 1 0 2 0 1 0
0 .0012
0 .0012
{d} = 30 10 6 1
1 (.25 )
2
.25 1 0
2 ( 2)
0

2 0 0 0 2
0 .0

0 .0 1 .25
0 0
2
2 1 0 2 2 1
0 .0

0 .0

0 .0025
xy 15000
0 .0025
y
X b Surface Forces
m
y
h Yb 1
x
X b At X b L p (lb/in2)
i j {X} = {f b } = 2 1
b Yb 3 Yb 3 x
Element with centroidal coordinate axes. L
x dA = 0 y dA = 0 X b
i x dA = 0 i y dA = 0 a
i = j = m = 2A
3
Yb
9
T
{f s } = [N ] {T} dS
S N1 0 N1 p
p p 0 N 1 0
{T} = x =
p y 0 t L N 0 p t L N p
N1 0
{f s } = 0 0 2 dz dy {f s } = 0 0 2 dz dy
0 0 N2 0 0
N 1 N 3
0 N 3 p
N 0
[N ]T = 2 0 N 3 x = a , y = y 0 x = a , y = y
0 N2
N 3 0

0 N 3
L2
Evaluating N i ' s on edge ap
2
1 ay
N1 = 0
p 2A
t
L (a x ) {f s } = 0
L N2 =
2A
( )2

2 aL 2 L2
L ap

2
1
N3 =
Lx ay
0
2A
2
a 3 0

1 in
p L t
2
0 1
20 in T=1000 psi
pLt/2
{f s } = p 0L t
L
10 in
2 1 3
pLt/2+ pLt/2
2 L
0 2 E = 30 x 106 psi
= 0.30
5 a 4
pLt/2
0
10
{F } = [K ]{d}
R 1x d1x 0
2 3
1 R 1y d 1y 0
5000 lb F= TA
1 2 R 2x

d 2 x 0

y R 2y d 2 y 0
1
F = (1000 psi ) (1 in 10 in ) {F } =
2
{d} = =
5000 d 3x d 3x
2
0 d 3 y d 3 y
1 x 4 5000 lb F = 5000 lb
5000 d 4 x d 4 x
Two Element Model with Equivalent Nodal Loads
0 d 4 y d 4 y
[k ] = t A [B ]T [D ][B ] Element 1 i = y j y m = 10 10 = 0
Element 1
1
A= b h = 100 in 2 m=2 j = y m y i = 10 0 = 10
2 j=3
i 0 j 0 m 0 m = y i y j = 0 10 = 10
1 i = x m x j = 0 20 = 20
[B ] = 1 0 i 0 j 0 m
2A j = xi xm = 0 0 = 0
i i j j m m

m = x j x i = 20 0 = 20
1 0

E
[D ] = 1 0 i=1 0 0 10 0 10 0
1 2
( ) 1
1 [B ] = 0 20 0 0 0 20
0 0
2 200
20 0 0 10 20 10
T
0 0 10 0 10 0 1 0 .3 0
30 10 6 psi
[B ] T [D ] = 0 20 0 0 0 20 0 .3 1 0
E = 30 10 psi 6
(200 )(0 .91 )
20 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 .35
= 0 .3 0 0 7 140 0 0 70 140 70
6 20 0 0 400 60 0 60 400
1 0
10 0

[B ] T [D ] = 30 10 psi
E
6
3
[D ] = 75000 0 60 100 60
(1 ) 2

1 0
1
(200 )(0 .91 ) 0
10 3
0 3 .5
7

[k ]
(1 )
=
0 .91 70 0
100
0
0
35 70 35

0 0
2 6 3 .5
20
140 60 100 70 240 130

1 0 .3 0 1 0 .3 0 400 35 130
[k ] = t A [B ] T [D ][B ] = 70 60 435
[D ] = 30 10 psi 30 10 6 psi
6
0 .3 1 0 = 0 .3 1 0
(
1 0 .3 2
) 1 0 .3 (0.91 )
0 0 .35
0
6
0 7
0 0 0 20 0
2 0 0 10 0 10 0
30 10 6 psi 10 3 0
(1 )(100 ) 0 20 0 0 0 20
(200 )2 (0 .91 ) 0 0 3 .5
10 20 0 0 10 20 10
3 7

6 20 3 .5
11
T
10 0 10 0 0 0 1 0 .3 0
Element 2 i = y j y m = 0 10 = 10 30 10 6 psi
[B ] T [D ] = 0 0 0 20 0 20 0 .3 1 0
(200 )(0.91 )
Element 2 m=3 j = y m y i = 10 0 = 10 0 10 20 10 20 0 0 0 0 .35
10 3 0
m = yi y j = 0 0 = 0 0
0 3 .5
i = x m x j = 20 20 = 0 [B ] T [D ] = 30 10 psi
6 10 0 20

(200 )(0.91 ) 0 20 10
j = x i x m = 0 20 = 20 0 0 20
2
m = x j x i = 20 0 = 20 0 20 0
i=1 j=4 [k ] = t A [B ] [D ][B ] =

T
10 0 10 0 0 0 10
0
3 0
3 .5
[B ] = 1 0 0 0 20 0 20
30 10 6 psi 10
0
0 20
10 0 10 0 0 0
200 (1)(100 ) 0 0 0 20 0 20
0 10 20 10 20 0 (200 ) (0 .91 ) 0 20 10
2
0 10 20 10 20 0
0 0 20

0 20 0
k 11
(1 )
+ k 11 (2) (1 )
k 13 (1)
k 12 + k 13
( 2) ( 2)
k 12

Assembly k (311 )
[K ] = (1 ) ( 2 )
k (331 ) k (321 ) 0
=
100 0 100 60 0 60 k 21 + k 31 k (231 ) k (221 ) + k (332 ) ( 2)
k 32
0
0
(2)
35 70 35 70 k 21 0 k (232 ) k (222 )

75000 100 130 140 60
[k ]
(2)
=
0 .91 60
70
35
240
130 435 70

400
k + k

(1)
11
(2)
11 k (1 )
13 k (1 )
12 +k (2)
13 k (2)
12

240 0 140 70 0 130 100 60
0 35
0 k (1) k (1 )
k (1 )
0 435 60 400 130 0 70
70 140 0

70 140
[K ] = (1) 31 ( 2 ) 33 32
140

60 240 130 100 71 0 0

60 0 60 400 0 400 k 21 + k 31 k (231) k (221) + k 33
(2) (2)
k 32 75000 70 400 130 435 60 35 0 0
0 .91 0 130 100 60 240 0 140 70
(2)
k (232 ) k (222 )
k 21 0 130 0 70 35 0 435 60 400
100 70 0 0 140 60 240 130

60 35 0 0 70 400 130 435
x
{} = y = [B ]{d} =
Applying the B.C.s and Solving:
xy Element 1
d 1x
d 3 x d
5000 240 0 140 70
0 x 0 30 .48 10 6 in
1y
0 0 d 0 0 10 0 10 1 0 .3
400 1 d 3 x
{} = y = [D ]{} = 30 10 psi
75000 435 60 3y 6
0 .3
0
0 20 0 0 0 20 =
= (200 ) d 3y 1 0
10
5000 0 .91 140 60 240 130 d 4 x 20 0 0 10 20
d 2 x
(0 .91 )

0 0 0 .35 0 .21 10 6 in
0 70 400 130 435 d 4 y
Element 1 d 2 y xy
0
d 3 x 609 .6 0 x 1005
d 0 0 10 0 10 0
3 y 4 .2 609 .6 10 in y = 301 psi
6
1
6 20
= 10 in (200 )
0 20 0 0 0
4 .2 10 6 in
=
2 .4
d 4 x 663 .7 10
20
xy
0 0 10 20
0
d 4 y 104 .1
0
Compare with : 6096 10 6 in 30 .48 10 6 in x
1
0 = 0 = y
PL (200 )
= = 670 10 6 in
6 6
42 10 in 0 .21 10 in xy
AE
12
10 0 10 0 0 0
Element 2
1
[B ] = 0 20 20
x
0 0 0
200
0 10 20 10 20 0 0
{} = y = [B ]{d}

d 1x 0
0
d 1y 10 0 10 0 0
Element 2 Element 2
d 4 x

{} = 1
0 0 0 20 0
663 .7 10 6 in
20
xy {d} =
200
0 10 20 10 20
104 .1 10 6 in
0
d 4 y 609 .6 10 6 in

d 3x
4 .2 10 in
6

d 3 y
Element 2
x
{} = y = [D ]{}

xy
x 995

y = 1 .2 psi
2 .4
xy
Plane Stress/Strain 112
13
x
x = + T
= E ( T ) E
Thermal Stresses 1
= [D ]
1
E
1 E
0 = T {} = [D ]1 {} + { T }
Linear stress/strain law with initial thermal strain. {} = [D ]({} { T })
Thermal Stresses 1 Thermal Stresses 2 Thermal Stresses 3
Strain Energy Strain Energy Strain Energy
1 1
1 T
(
U = {d } [B ] [D ][B ]{d } dV
T
)
{}T ({} { T }) 2 ({} { }) [D ]({} { })dV 2V
T
u0 = U= T T
2
( )
V
1
{} = [B ]{d} {d}T [B ]T [D ]{ T } dV
2 V

1
u 0 = ({} { T }) [D ]({} { T })
T
1
U = ([B ]{d} { T }) [D ] ([B ]{d} { T }) dV
T
2 2V
1
2 V
({ T }T [D ][B ]{d} dV )
U = u 0 dV 1
( )
U = {d} [B ] { T } [D ] ([B ]{d} { T }) dV
T T T
V 2V +
1
2 V
({ T }T [D ]{ T } dV )
Strain Energy Thermal Strain Matrix

U = UL + UT (one-dimensional bar):
U
{d}
=0 { T } = { x } = { T}
1
(
U L = {d} [B ] [D ][B ]{d} dV
T T
) T
2V U L
(
= [B ] [D ][B ]{d} dV
{d} V
T
)
({d} [B ] [D ]{ })dV
T T
UT = L
T
{f T } = A [B ]T [D ]{ T}dx
([B ] [D ]{ })dV = {f }
V U T T
=
( ) {d}
T T
1
{ T }T [D ]{ T } dV
0
2 V
Constant = V
1
Thermal Strain Matrix Thermal Strain Matrix
(one-dimensional bar): (two-dimensional element):
[D ] = E
Plane Stress
xT T Constant Thickness
{ T } =
[B ] = 1 1
yT = T
0

Constant Strain Triangle
L L xy T
{f T } = T 1 =
f E TA
Plane Strain
xT T
{f T } = [B ]T [D ]{ T }t A

f T 2 E TA { T } = y T = (1 + ) T
{ }
0
{ T } = x T = { T} xy T
Plane Stress : A = 4 in2

i Procedure E = 30 x 106 psi
= 7.0 x 10-6 (in/in)/oF

f Tix
i 1. Evaluate thermal force matrix and treat this as T = 50o F
an equivalent nodal force matrix.
2
f Tiy E t T j
1 3
2. Apply: {F}=[K]{d}-{F0}.
{f T } = = 3. If only thermal loads are present, then
1 2 x
M 2 (1 ) j {F0}=[K]{d}.
4 ft
4. Back-substitute known {d} to obtain element
f Tmy m nodal forces, stresses, and strains.
Find reactions at fixed ends and the axial stress due to a 50o F
temperature rise.
m
E TA 1 1 0 d1
For each element: Assembling Global Matrices:
AE
0 = 1 2 1 d 2
E TA E TA L 2
AE 1 1
[k ] = {f T } = E TA E TA = 0

E TA 0 1 1 d 3
L 2 1 1 E TA

E TA
1 1 0 B .C .
{f T } =
E TA

[K ] = AE 1 2 1 d1 = d 3 = 0
L 2
E TA 0 1 1 Solving
d2 = 0
2
Bar 1
Reaction Forces: Axial Stress: A = 12 x 10-4 m2
T = -10o C E = 70 GPa
only in Bar 1 = 23.0 x 10-6 (mm/mm)/oC
F1 x 0 E TA E TA 3
2
F2 x = 0 0 = 0 2
F 0 E TA E TA 42000 lb 1 2
3x = = 10500 p
psi 1
4 x
F1 x 42000 4 in 2 3
2m 2
F2 x = 0 lb 2m
F 42000 Bar 2 & 3
3x A = 6 x 10-4 m2
E = 100 GPa
= 20.0 x 10-6 (mm/mm)/oC
For element 1: For elements 2 & 3: Assembling Global Matrices:

[k ] = (12 10 )(70 10 ) [k ] = (6 10 )(100 10 )
4 6
1 1 4
1 6
1
1 1 1
2 2 1
( E TA )1 19 .32
1
[k ] = 42000
1 1 1
1
[k ] = 30000
1 1 1

(E TA )1

19 . 32

{f T } =
E TA E TA {f T } = =
{f T } = 0 0
E TA E TA

{f T } =
19 .32
{f T } =
0
0 0
19 .32 0
42 42 0 0 d1 19 .32 Reaction F1x 42 42 0 0 0 19 .32

Assembling Global Matrices: Forces:

F 42 102 30 30 1 . 89 10 4 19 .32
42 42 + 30 + 30 30 30 d 2

19 .32

2 x
= 1000

42 42 0 0 1000 = F3 x

0

30 30 0

0

0

0 30 30 0 d 3
0
F3 x 0 30 0 30 0 0
42 42 + 30 + 30 30 30
0 30 0 30 d 4 0
[K ] = 1000
0 B .C . F1x 11 . 38
30 30 0
d1 = d 3 = d 4 = 0
F 0

2 x
Solving = kN
0 30 0 30 F3 x 5 .69

d 2 = 1 .89 10 4 m
F3 x 5 .69
3
Axial Stresses: A = 2 in2
E = 30 x 106 psi 0 0 0 0
[k ] = (2 )(30 10 )
= 7.0 x 10-6 (in/in)/oF 6
1
y For element 1:
11 .38 kN 0 1 0
1 = = 9 .48 MPa 1
Node 2 - i
12 10 4 m 2 T = 75o F (8 12 ) 0 0 0 0
(in element 1 only) Node 1 - j
5 .69 kN 0 1 0 1
2 = = 9 .48 MPa = 90o
1
6 10 4 m 2 cos = 0.0 E TA
8 ft 2
sin = 1.0
{f T } = f 2 x =
5 .69 kN f 1 x E TA
3 = = 9 .48 MPa
6 10 4 m 2 6 ft 31500 f 2 x
{f T } =
2 3
=
x 31500 f 1 x
Convert Temperature force to global coordinates: Assembling Global Matrices:

For element 2:
Node 3 - i Node 1 - j
f 2 xT C S 0 0 f 2 xT
f S = 180o-53.13o =126.87o 0 .36 0 .48 0 0 0 0
2 yT C 0 0 f 2 yT cos = -0.6 sin = 0.8
f =
1 xT 0 0 C S f 1 xT 0 .48 1 .89 0 1 .25 0 0
0 .36 0 .48 0 .36 0 .48
f 1 yT C f 1 yT
[k ] = (2 )(30 10 )
0 0 S
6
0 .48
8 0 .6
64 0 64
0 .6 0 0 0 0 0 0
[K ] = 0 .50 10 6
f 2 31500 f 2 xT 0 (10 12 ) 0 .36 0 0 .36 0 .48 0 1 .25 0 1 .25 0 0

xT f 31500
f 2 yT 0 2 yT 0 .48 0 .64 0 .48 0 .64 0
= f = 0 0 0 0 .36 0 .48

31500 0
{f T } =
f 1 xT 1 xT 0
f 0 0 .48 0 .64
f 1 yT 31500
0 0 0 0
1 yT 0
Assembling Global Matrices:

Reaction Forces (Element 1):
0 B .C .

d 1x = d 2 x = d 3 x = 0
{f }= [k ]{d} {f }
31500

0
{ f T } =

d 2y = d 3y = 0 T
{d}= [T ]{d}

31500
*

Solving
0
(Eq . 3 .1 .14 )

0

d 1 y = 0 .0333 in

4
Reaction Forces (Element 2): Reaction Forces (Element 2):
Reaction Forces (Element 1):
0 0
( ) 0 0 31500
{f }= [k ]{d} {f }
f 2 x 2 30 10 6 1 1 0 1 0 ( )
f 2 x 2 30 10 6 1 1 0 .6 0 .8 0 0 0 31500
=
f1x (8 12 ) 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 31500 =
f1x (10 12 ) 1 1 0 0 0 .6
0 .8 0 31500

T
{d}= [T ]{d}
0 .0333 0 .0333
f 2 x 10700 * f 2 x 13310
= lb
= lb f1x 13310
f1x 10700
1 = 6660 psi
1 = 5350 psi
t = 5 mm
Element 1
T = +50o C E = 210 GPa
= 0.30
Element 1:
4 = 12.0 x 10-6 (mm/mm)/oC x 1 = 0 .00 y 1 = 0 .00
3 x 2 = 0 .50 y 2 = 0 .00 1 0 2 0 5 0
1
3 x 5 = 0 .25 y 5 = 0 .25 [B ] = 0 1 0 2 0 5
2A
4 5 2
500 mm 1 = y 2 y 5 = 0 .25 1 1 2 2 5 5
2 = y 5 y 1 = 0 .25
0 .25 0 0 .25 0 0 0
1
0 .5
5 = y1 y 2 = 0
1 [B ] = 0 0 .25 0 0 .25 0
1 = x 5 x 2 = 0 .25 0 .125
1 2 2 = x 1 x 5 = 0 .25
0 .25 0 .25 0 .25 0 .25 0 .5 0
5 = x 2 x 1 = + 0 .50
500 mm
Element 1 Element 2
[k ] = t A [B ] [D ][B ]
T
x 2 = 0 .50 y 2 = 0 .00
0 1 x 3 = 0 .50 y 3 = 0 .50

4 .0625 0 .3125 4 .375 3 .75
[D ] = E 1 0
8 .4375 4 .0625 x 5 = 0 .25 y 5 = 0 .25
1 2 ( )

0 1
4 .0625
8 .4375 0 .3125 4 .0625 4 .375 12 .5 2 = 0 .25
2 0 [k ] =
4 .0625 0 .3125 8 .4375 4 .0625 4 .375 3 .75

3 = 0 .25
0 .3125 4 .0625 4 .0625 8 .4375 4 .375 12 .5 5 = 0 .5
1 .3 0 4 .375 4 .375 4 .375 4 .375 8 .75 0
2 = 0 .25
[D ] = 210 10 .3 1 0
9
3 .75 12 .5 3 .75 12 .5 0 25
(0 .91) 3 = 0 .25
0 0 0 .35 5 = 0
5
Continue process for elements 3 and 4.
Element 2 Calculate thermal force matrices for each element: Thermal force matrices for each elements 1 & 2:
[k ] = t A [B ] [D ][B ]
T
i 112500 + 112500
8 .4375 4 .0625 4 .0625 0 .3125 12 .5 4 .375 112500 112500
4 .0625
8 .4375 0 .3125 4 .0625 3 .75 4 .375 i
+ 112500 + 112500
E t T j {f } {f }
{f T } =
4 .0625 0 .3125 8 .4375 4 .0625 12 .5 4 .375 1
=
2
=
[k ] =
T T
112500 + 112500
12 .5
4 .375
4 .0625
3 .75
4 .0625
12 .5
8 .4375
3 .75
3 .75
25
4 .375
0
2 (1 ) j 0

225000

4 .375 4 .375 4 .375

m
4 .375 0 8 .75
+ 225000 0

m
Thermal force matrices for elements 3 & 4: Global Thermal Force Matrix:
f T 1 x 225000
+ 112500 112500 f
T 1 y 225000
+ 112500

+ 112500

f T 2 x + 225000

B .C .

112500 112500 f T 2 y 225000
{f }
3
= {f } 4
= f T 3 x + 225000 d 1x = d 4 x = 0
{f }
T T
+ 112500 112500 T = =
0 + 225000 f T 3 y + 225000

225000

0

f T 4 x 225000

d 1y = d 4 y = 0
f T 4 y + 225000
fT5x 0

f T 5 y 0
d 1x 0
d Stresses:
1y 0
d 2 x + 3 . 327 10 4 d ix

d 2 y 1 . 911 10
4
Stresses: x 1

0

i 0 j 0 m 0
d
iy

d jx
d 3 x 3 . 327 10
4 E
y = 1 0 1 0 i 0 j 0 m
{d} = = 4
m (
1
2
) 2 A d jy

{ } = [D ][B ]{d } [D ]{ T }
1 m
d 3 y 1 . 911 10 xy 0 0
2 i i j j m
d mx
Solving:
d 4 x 0 d my

d 4 y 0 1 0 T

d 5 x 2 . 123 10 4 E 1

0 T
( 1
2
) 1 0
d 5 y 6 . 654 10
9
0 0
2
6
Stresses: Stresses:
Element 1: Element 3:
x + 1 . 800 10 8 + 1 . 800 10 8 0 x + 1 . 800 10 8 + 1 . 800 10 8 0
8 8 7 8 8 7
y = + 1 . 342 10 + 1 . 800 10 = 4 . 57 10 Pa y = + 1 . 342 10 + 1 . 800 10 = 4 . 57 10 Pa
1 . 600 10 7 0 1 . 60 10 7 + 1 . 600 10 7 0 1 . 60 10 7
xy xy
Element 2: Element 4:
x + 1 . 640 10 8 + 1 . 800 10 8 1 . 60 10 7 x + 1 . 960 10 8 + 1 . 800 10 8 + 1 . 60 10 7
8 8 7 8 8 7
y = + 2 . 097 10 + 1 . 800 10 = 2 . 973 10 Pa y = + 5 . 880 10 + 1 . 800 10 = 1 . 212 10 Pa
2150 0 2150 2150 0 + 2150
xy xy
Thermal Stresses 55 Thermal Stresses 56
7
Degree of polynomial Number of Degree of polynomial Number of
terms terms
Linear Strain Triangular p n p n
QST
Elements 1 3
CST
3 10
LST
4 15
2 6
Linear Strain Triangular Elements 1 Linear Strain Triangular Elements 2 Linear Strain Triangular Elements 3
v3 u1
Basic 6 noded triangular element
1 constant
u3 d1 v1
3
x y linear v4
v5 d 2 u 2
u4
x2 xy y2 quadratic
4 v2 d 3 v 2
{d } = =
u5
x3 x2y y2
xy y3 cubic 5
d4 u 3
x4 x3y x2y 2 xy 3 y4 quartic v1 v6 u2

5 4 3 2 2 3 4 5
2 d5 M
x x y x y x y xy y fifth order u6
6 d 6 M
u1
Pascals Triangle
1 v 4
a1

a1
a
a2 2

a3 a3

a4

u (x , y ) = a 1 + a 2 x + a 3 y + a 4 x 2 + a 5 xy + a 6 y 2
a4

a
a5
5
1 0 a6
{ } =
u x y x2 xy y2 0 0 0 0 0
u 1 x y x2 xy y2 0 0 0 0 0 0 a6 = 2
{ } =
v 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x y x2 xy
y y a7
v (x , y ) = a 7 + a 8 x + a 9 y + a 10 x + a 11 xy + a 12 y
=
2 2 v
x y x2 xy y 2 a7
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
a8

a8

a9
a
9 a
10
{ } = [ M * ]{a }
a10
a 11
a
a11 12

a12
1
a1
a
a1
a
{ } = [ M * ]{a}
2 2 1
u1 1 x1 y1 x 12 x1y 1 y 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 a3 a3 1 x1 y1 x 12 x 1y 1 y 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 u1
u u
{a} = [ X ]1 {d}
2 1 x2 y2 x 22 x 2y 2 x 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 a4 a4 1 x2 y2 x 22 x 2y 2 x 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
M M M M M M M M M M M M M a5 a5 M M M M M M M M M M M M M
2 2 2 2
u 6 1 x6 y6 x x 6y 6 y 0 0 0 0 0 0 a6 a6 1 x6 y6 x x6y 6 y 0 0 0 0 0 0 u 6
= =
6 6 6 6
0
v1 0 0 0 0 0 1 x1 y1 x 12 x1y 1 y 12 a 7 a7
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x1 y1 x 12 x1y 1 y 12 v1
{ } = [ N ]{d}

v2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x2 y2 x 22 x2y 2 y 22 a 8 a8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x2 y2 x 22 x2y 2 y 22 v2
M
M M M M M M M M M M M M a9 a9
M M M M M M M M M M M M M

v 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x6 y6 x 62 x6y 6 y 62 a 10 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x6 y6 x 62 x6y 6 y 62 v
6 10 6
[N ] = [ M * ][ X ]1
a 11 a 11
a a
12 12
Strain/Displacement {} = [ M ]{a}
u
0 1 0 2x y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a1
{} = [B ]{d}
x x a 2
{ } = 0
{} = y = v
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 x 2y
M
y
xy u v
0 0 1 0 x 2y 0 1 0 2x y 0
a 12

{a} = [ X ]1 {d}
y + x

[B ] = [ M ][ X ]1
1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
1
x x [B ] = 1 2 3 4 5 6
[k ] = [B ] [D ] [B ] dV
T 0 0 0 0 0 0
2A
{} = y = [D ] y
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
v
i = i (x, y , x c , y c )
xy xy i = i (x, y, xc , y c )
2
u 1 = u (0 , 0 ) = a 1
Example 9.2 u 2 = u (b , 0 ) = a 1 + a 2 b + a 4 b 2
u 3 = u (0 , h ) = a 1 + a 3 h + a 6 h 2
u (x , y ) = a 1 + a 2 x + a 3 y + a 4 x 2 + a 5 xy + a 6 y 2
3
(0 , h ) b h b h b b h h
2 2
u4 = u , = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
4 b , h h h h
v (x , y ) = a 7 + a 8 x + a 9 y + a 10 x 2 + a 11 xy + a 12 y 2
u5 = u 0, = a1 + a 3 + a6
h 5 2 2 2 2 2
0,
2 2
b b b
u 6 = u ,0 = a1 + a 2 + a 4
2 2 2
1 6
2
(0 , 0 )
b (b , 0 )
,0
2
a1 = u1 a7 = v1
4u6 3u4 u 2 4v6 3v4 v2
a2 = a8 =
b b
4u5 3u1 u 3 4v5 3v1 v3 4u6 3u 4 u 2
a3 = a9 = u = u1 + x +
h h b
2 (u 2 2 u 6 + u 1 ) 2 (v 2 2 v 6 + v 1 ) 4u5 3u1 u 3 2 (u 2 2 u 6 + u 1 ) 2
a4 = a 10 = y + x +
b2 b2 h b2
4 (u 1 + u 4 u 5 u 6 ) 4 (v 1 + v 4 v 5 v 6 ) 4 (u 1 + u 4 u 5 u 6 ) 2 (u 3 2 u 5 + u 1 ) 2
a5 = a 11 =
bh bh bh xy + h2 y

2 (u 3 2 u 5 + u 1 ) 2 (v 3 2 v 5 + v 1 )
a6 = a 12 =
h2 h2
2 2
x y x x y y
N 1 = 1 3 3 + 2 + 4 + 2
b h b b h h
2
4v6 3v4 v 2 u1 x x
N 2 = + 2
v = v1 + x + b b
b v1 2
u N 1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N6 0 y y
N 3 = + 2
4v5 3v1 v3 2 (v 2 2 v 6 + v 1 ) 2 = u2 h h
y + x +
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N 6
x y
h b2 M

N 4 = 4
b h
4 (v 1 + v 4 v 5 v 6 ) 2 (v 3 2 v 5 + v 1 ) 2 v 6
y x y y
2
bh xy + h2 y N 5 = 4 4 4
h b h h
2
x x x y
N 6 = 4 4 4
b b b h
3
x1 = 0 y1 = 0 x y x x y
2
y
2
x x
2
N 1 = 1 3 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 N 2 = + 2
b h b b h h b b
x2 = b y2 = 0
N 1 (0 , 0 ) = 1 N 2 (0 , 0 ) = 0
x3 = 0 y3 = h N 1 (b , 0 ) = 0 N 2 (b , 0 ) = 1
N 1 (0 , h ) = 0 N 2 (0 , h ) = 0
b h b h b h
x4 = y4 = N1 , = 0 N2 , = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
h h h
N 1 0, = 0 N 2 0, = 0
x5 = 0 y5 = 2 2
2 b b
b N 1 ,0 = 0 N 2 ,0 = 0
x6 = y6 = 0 2 2
2
2
y y
2 y x y y
N 3 = + 2 N 5 = 4 + 4 4
x y h b h h
h h N 4 = 4
b h
N 3 (0 , 0 ) = 0 N 5 (0 , 0 ) = 0
N 4 (0 , 0 ) = 0
N 3 (b , 0 ) = 0 N 5 (b , 0 ) = 0
N 4 (b , 0 ) = 0
N 3 (0 , h ) = 1 N 4 (0 , h ) = 0
N 5 (0 , h ) = 0
b h b h
b h N4 , = 1 N5 , = 0
N3 , = 0 2 2
2 2 2 2
h h
h N 4 0, = 0 N 5 0, = 1
N 3 0, = 0 2 2
2
b b
b N 4 ,0 = 0 N 5 ,0 = 0
N 3 ,0 = 0 2
2
2
N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 =
x x
2
x y x y x x y y
2 2 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
N 6 = 4 4 4 1 3 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 1
b b b h b h b b h h [B ] = 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6
2 2 2A
x x y y x y
N 6 (0 , 0 ) = 0 + 2 + 2 + 4 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
b b h h b h
N 6 (b , 0 ) = 0 2 2
N 6 (0 , h ) = 0 y x y y x x x y i = i (x, y)
+ 4 4 4 + 4 4 4 =
h b h h b b b h
b h i = i (x, y)
N6 , = 0 y
2 2 1 + ( 3 1 + 4 ) + ( 3 1 + 4 ) +
h h
N 6 0, = 0 2 2
y x y
2
( 2 + 2 4 ) x + ( 2 + 2 4 ) + (4 + 4 4 4 )
b b h b h
N 6 ,0 = 1
2
N i = N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 = 1
4
N i
i = 2A i = 1,6
1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 x

[B ] = 1 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 2 A = bh
2A
1 3 4x 4y 4 hx
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 = bh + 2 + = 3 h + + 4y
i N i b b bh b
u = N 1u1 + N 2u 2 + L N 6u 6 = i = 1, 6 1 4x
2 = bh + 2

= h +
4 hx
2A x 3 = 0
b b b
u N 1 N 2 N 6
x = = u1 + u2 +L u6 4y
x x x x 4 =
bh
1 5 = 4 y
x = ( 1 u 1 + 2 u 2 + L 6 u 6 )
2A 4 8x 4y 8 hx
6 = bh 2 = 4h 4y
b b bh b
N i 4 x 16 mesh
i = 2A i = 1,6 Comparison of CST and LST Elements
y
48 in
4 by
1 = 3 b + 4 x +
h
2 = 0
12 in
4 by
3 = b +
h
4 = 4x
8 by Parabolic Load
5 = 4b 4x 40 kip (Total)
h 1 Linear Strain Triangle 4 Constant Strain Triangles
6 = 4 x 6 Nodes 6 Nodes
12 D-O-F 12 D-O-F
Tip Max
y-
Run D-O-F Deflection Stress x-location
location
(in) (ksi)
Test Run # of Nodes # of D-O-F # of Elements 1 160 -0.29555 67.236 2.250 11.250
4 x 16 Mesh 85 160 128 CST 2 576 -0.33850 81.302 1.125 11.630

Natural or Intrinsic Coordinates
8 x 32 Mesh 297 576 512 CST 3 160 -0.33470
0 33470 58 885
58.885 4 500
4.500 10 500
10.500 1D Elements
2x8 85 160 32 LST 4 576 -0.35159 69.956 2.250 11.250
4 x 16 297 576 128 LST

Exact Solution -0.36133 80.00 0 12
5
L
L
1 2
O P Natural coordinates: 1 = L1 / L
1 2 2 = L2 / L
x1 L2 L1
1 = L1 / L
1
x = 1x1 + 2x2 L1 + L2 = L
Not independent: 1 + 2 = 1
x2 = x1 + L 2 = L2 / L
1
is an arbitrary variable. For example, it

x = 1x1 + 2x2 could be displacement u.
e.g.
1 = 2 = 1/2
1
{} = [N ]
L
x = (x1 + x2)/2
O
2
3
1 2
[N ] = [ 1 2 ]
x1 L/2 L/2
1 1 1 1
=
x x 1 x 2 2
1 1 x 2 1 1 N 1 = 1
=
2 L x 1 1 x
N2 = 2
= a1 12 + a2 22 + a3 1 2
3 Write N1 directly:
1 2
N1 = 1 (2 1 -1) 1
1
3
2 1
3
2 N1 = 1 - N3/2
(2 1 -1)
N2 = 2 - N3/2
N2 = 2 (2 2 -1)
1
3
2 N1 = 1 (2 1 -1) N1 + N2 + N3 = 1 + 2 =1
1 = 1 at node 1 (2 1 -1) = 1 at node 1
1 = 1/2 at node 2 (2 1 -1) = 0 at node 2
3 N3 = 4 1 2 1 = 0 at node 3 (2 1 -1) = -1 at node 3
1 2
6
=u
[k ] = AE [B ]T [B ] dL
1 1 1 1
=
u = 1u 1 + 2 u 2 x x 1 x 2 2
L
u 1 1 x 2 1 1
x = =
x 2 L x 1 1 x
1 x2 x 1
u u 1 u 2 = = k! l!

k
= + 2 dL = L
l
x x L L
x 1 x 2 x
2
=
x x1 1
= L
1
(1 + k + l )!
u x x L L
= u1 0! = 1
1
u 1 1
= u2 x = u1 + u 2
2 L L
Natural Coordinates for a Triangular Element

(Area Coordinates)
i = A1/A
j = A2/A
3
y
Natural or Intrinsic Coordinates side 2 side 1

m= A3/A
A1
CST A2
A3
2 i + j + j = 1
side 3
1
x

(Area Coordinates)
1 1 1 1 1

x = x i xj xm 2 i i i
1
y y
i yj y m
3 [A ]1 = j j j
m = 1 2A
m m m
3 or m m = 0.75 1 1 1
m = 0.5 [A ] = x i xj

xm
2 A = (x j x 1 )(y m y i ) + (x m x 1 )(y 2 y i )
m = 0.25
y i y j y m
2 or j m = 0
1 1
1
= [A ] x
1 or i If i-j-m counterclockwise!
2
y
3
7
Derivatives by the chain rule.
i = x j y m y jx m j = xm y i ym xi m = xi y j yix j Shape Functions
i = y j ym j = ym yi m = y i y j i = Ni 1 2 3
= + +
i = xm x j j = xi xm m = x j xi j = Nj x 1 x 2 x 3 x
m = Nm 1 2 3
= + +
y 1 y 2 y 3 y
= Ni i + Nj j + Nm m
1 1
1
2 = [A ] x
= i y
i 3
1 2 j 3 i i i
= i = = m [A ]1 =
1
j j j
x 2A x 2A x 2A = j 2A
m m m
1 2 3 j
= i = i = i 1 =
1
( i + i x + i y )
y 2A y 2A y 2A
2A
= m 1
=
i + ix + iy

= i
m x x 2A 2A

(Area Coordinates)
l! n! p!
A i j m dA = 2 A (2 + l + n + p)!
l n p
3
y
Natural or Intrinsic Coordinates side 2 side 1

Centroidal Coordinates: A1
LST A2
x y dA = C
r s
r +s (
A x 1r y 1s + x r2 y s2 + x r2 y s2 ) A3
A 2
side 3
r+s 1 2 3 4 5 1
Cr+s 0 1/12 1/30 1/30 2/105
x
8
(Area Coordinates)
Natural Coordinates for a
Triangular Element
i = A1/A m = 1 (Area Coordinates)
j = A2/A 3 or m m = 0.75
m = 0.5
m= A3/A m = 0.25 Centroid:
2 or j m = 0
i = j= m = 1/3
i + j + j = 1 1 or i
Shape Functions
Can we write shape functions directly?
Node 1 2 3 Ni 1 2 3 4 5 6
_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 = 1 at node 1
2 0 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 1 = 0 at node 2
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 = 0 at node 3 N1 = 1 ( 21-1 )
4 0 1/2 1/2 1 = 1/2 at node 4
5 0 0 0 0 1 0
5 1/2 0 1/2 1 = 1/2 at node 5
6 0 0 0 0 0 1
6 1/2 1/2 0 1 = 0 at node 6
1 = 1 at node 1 2 = 0 at node 1 3 = 0 at node 1

1 = 0 at node 4 2 = 1/2 at node 4 3 = 1/2 at node 4
2 = 0 at node 1 3 = 0 at node 1 1 = 1/2 at node 5 2 = 0 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5
2 = 1 at node 2 3 = 0 at node 2 1 = 1/2 at node 6 2 = 1/2 at node 6 3 = 0 at node 6
2 = 0 at node 3 N2 = 2 ( 22-1 ) 3 = 1 at node 3 N3 = 3 ( 23-1 )
2 = 1/2 at node 4 3 = 1/2 at node 4
2 = 0 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5 N 4 = 4 2 3
2 = 1/2 at node 6 3 = 0 at node 6 N 5 = 4 1 3
N 6 = 4 1 2
9
Step 1 -Select Element Type Step 1 -Select Element Type
1 = s x1
y
2 = t x = a1 + a2s + a 3t + a4s + a5s t + a6t 2 2
x N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N6 0
1
x2
= y 2
N 6
3 = 1 s t y = a 7 + a 8 s + a 9 t + a 10 s 2 + a 11 s t + a 12 t 2 y 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0

M
x6

y 6
Step 1 -Select Element Type Step 1 -Select Element Type Step 1 -Select Element Type
Ni N i 1 N i 2 N i 3 N1 = 1 ( 21-1 ) N1 = s ( 2s - 1 )
= + + N2 = 2 ( 22-1 ) 1 = s
s 1 s 2 s 3 s
N3 = 3 ( 23-1 ) N2 = t ( 2t - 1 )
Ni Ni Ni
2 = t N3 = (1 - s - t) ( 1 - 2s - 2t)
= N 4 = 4 2 3
s 1 3 N 5 = 4 1 3 3 = 1 s t N4 = 4 t (1 - s - t)
Ni Ni Ni N 6 = 4 1 2
=
N5 = 4 s (1 - s - t)
t 2 3 N6 = 4 s t
Step 2 -Select Displacement Step 3 -Define Stress/Strain and

Function Strain/Displacement Chain Rule:
u1
u
v f f x f y
1 x x = +
u 2

u N 1
=
0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0 N6 0
v
N 6 2
{} = y = v
s x s y s
y
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 N5 0
f f x f y
M

xy u v
u 6
= +
y + x

v6
t x t y t
{} = [B ]{d }
10
Cramers Rule: Jacobian matrix: Strains in terms of an operator matrix:
f y x f
s s s s
x y ( )
f y x f 0
s x x
f
x
=
t
x
t
y
f
y
=
x
t t
y
[J ] = xs y
{} = y = 0 ( ) u

s s s s y v
( ) ( )
x y x y t t xy

t t t t y x
{ } = [D ][N ] {d }
( ) y ( )
( ) 1 y ( ) y ( ) y
t 0

= x s s t
x J t s s t 1
y = 0
x ( )

x ( )

u

y
t
( ) y ( )
0

s t t s s s t
J v
( ) ( )
( ) 1 x ( ) x ( ) xy x
s
( ) x ( )

y ( )

y ( )
[D ] = 1
0
x

x
= t t s t s s t J s t t s
y J s t t s x

( ) x ( )

y ( )

y ( )

s t t s t s s t
Step 4 -Derive Element Stiffness

Need to use numerical integration to
Matrix and Equations evaluate the element stiffness matrix.
[k ] = [B ] [D ] [B ] {f b } = [N ]T {X b } t
T
t dx dy J ds dt
A A
f ( x , y ) dx d = f ( s , t )
d dy J ds
d dt
W f ( )
n
f ( , 2 , 3 ) dA = , 2i , 2i
{f s } = L [N ] {T} t
A A 1 i 1i
T
[k ] = [B ] [D ] [B ]
T J dL A i =1
t J ds dt
A
11
1-point Gauss Formula 3-point Gauss Formula 3-point Gauss Formula
Wi = 1 Wi = 1/3 Wi = 1/3
1i = 1/3 1i = 1/3, 1/6, 1/6 1i = 1/2,
1/2 1/2
1/2, 0
2i = 1/3 2i = 1/6, 1/3 , 1/6 2i = 1/2, 0, 1/2
3i = 1/3 3i = 1/6 , 1/6, 1/3 3i = 0, 1/2, 1/2
4-point Gauss Formula 6-point Gauss Formula 7-point Gauss Formula

Wi = -0.56250 Wi = 0.12593 91805 44827
1i = 1/3 Wi = 0.10995 17436 55322 1i = 0.79742 69853 53087
2i = 1/3 1i = 0.81684 75729 80459 2i = 0.10128 65073 23456
2i = 0.09157 62135 09771 3i = 0.10128 65073 23456
3i = 1/3
3i = 0.09157
0 091 62135
6213 09771
09 1
Wi = 0.52083 33333 33333
Wi = 0.22338 15896 78011 Wi = 0.13239 41527 88506 Wi = 0.225
1i = 0.6, 0.2, 0.2 1i = 0.10810 30181 68070 1i = 0.47014 20641 05115 1i = 1/3
2i = 0.2, 0.6, 0.2 2i = 0.44594 84909 15965 2i = 0.47014 20641 05115 2i = 1/3
3i = 0.2, 0.2, 0.6 3i = 0.44594 84909 15965 3i = 0.05971 58717 89770 3i = 1/3
Pascals Triangle: Degree of polynomial Number of terms

= a i
q
1 r2 s3
Degree of polynomial i =1
p n q+r+s=p
0
1 1 3
1 Quadratic Triangle
x y n=6
2 2 6
p=2
x2 xy y2
3 n=
(p + 1 )(p + 2 )
x3 x2 y x y2 y3 3 10 2
x4 x3 y x2 y2 x y3 y4 4 = a 1 12 + a 2 22 + a 3 23 + a 4 1 2 + a 5 2 3 + a 6 3 1
x5 x4 y x3 y2 x2 y3 x y4 y5 5 4 15
Equivalent to :
= b 1 + b 2 x + b 3 y + b 4 x 2 + d 5 xy + b 6 y 2
12
Nodal Numbering Schemes: Quadratic Triangle Shape Functions
3
3 = a 1 12 + a 2 22 + a 3 23 + a 4 1 2 + a 5 2 3 + a 6 3 1
6 5
Ni 1 2 3 4 5 6
_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
Node 1 2 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 4 2 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0
3
2 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0
8
7 3 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 1 0
4 1/2 1/2 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 1
9
6 5 0 1/2 1/2
10
6 1/2 0 1/2
2
1 4 5
Can we write shape functions directly?

1 = 0 at node 3 N1 = 1 ( 21-1 ) 2 = 0 at node 3 N2 = 2 ( 22-1 ) 3 = 1 at node 3 N3 = 3 ( 23-1 )
1 = 1/2 at node 4 2 = 1/2 at node 4 3 = 1 at node 4
1 = 0 at node 5 2 = 1/2 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5
1 = 1/2 at node 6 2 = 0 at node 6 3 = 1/2 at node 6
1 = 1 at node 1 2 = 0 at node 1 3 = 0 at node 1 i = 1, 0, 1/3, 2/3

1 = 0 at node 2 2 = 1 at node 2 3 = 0 at node 2 Cubic Element
u N i
6 N1 = 1/2 1(3 1 -1)(3 1 -2)

1 = 0 at node 5 2 = 1/2 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5 X = = ui N2 = 1/2 2(3 2 -1)(3 2 -2)
1 = 1/2 at node 6 2 = 0 at node 6 3 = 1/2 at node 6 x i =1 x
N3 = 1/2 2(3 2 -1)(3 2 -2)
N4 = 9/2 1 2(3 1-1)
N5 = 9/2 2 1(3 2-1)
N i j
1)
N i 3

N6 = 9/2 2 1(3 1-1)
N 4 = 4 1 2
N 5 = 4 2 3
= N7 = 9/2 2 3(3 2-1)
N 6 = 4 3 1 x i =1 j x N8 = 9/2 2 3(3 3-1)
N9 = 9/2 1 3(3 1-1)
N10 = 27 1 2 3
13
1 = L1 / L
Natural or Intrinsic
Natural coordinates:
L
2 = L2 / L
Coordinates O
1
P
2 L1 + L2 = L
x1 L2 L1
Not independent: 1 + 2 = 1
x = 1x1 + 2x2
x2 = x1 + L
Natural Coordinates 1 Natural Coordinates 2 Natural Coordinates 3
x = 1x1 + 2x2
L
e.g. is an arbitrary variable. For example, it
1 = 2 = 1/2 could be displacement u.
1 2
x = (x1 + x2)/2
1
1 = L1 / L {} = [N ]
1
2
1 1
=
1 1 [N ] = [ 1 2 ]

2 = L2 / L x x 1 x 2 2
1
1 1 x 2 1 1 N1 = 1
=
2 L x 1 1 x N2 = 2
3 Write N1 directly:
1 2
N1 = 1 (2 1 -1) 1
L
3 3
O 1 2 1 2
3
1 2
x1 L/2 L/2
N2 = 2 (2 2 -1) (2 1 -1)
3
1 2 N1 = 1 (2 1 -1)
1 = 1 at node 1 (2 1 -1) = 1 at node 1
1 = 1/2 at node 2 (2 1 -1) = 0 at node 2
3 N3 = 4 1 2 1 = 0 at node 3 (2 1 -1) = -1 at node 3
1 2
= a1 12 + a2 22 + a3 1 2
1
1 1 1 1
=u =
u = 1u 1 + 2 u 2 x x 1 x 2 2
u 1 1 x 2 1 1
=
N1 = 1 - N3/2 x =
x 2 L x 1

1 x
u u 1 u 2
N2 = 2 - N3/2 =
x 1 x
+
2 x
1
x
=
x2 x

x L
=
1
L
N1 + N2 + N3 = 1 + 2 =1 u
1
= u1 2
=
x x1 1
=
u x x L L
= u2
2
1 1
x = u1 + u 2
L L

(Area Coordinates)
[k ] = AE [B ]T [B ] dL
3
y
L i = A1/A
side 2
A1
side 1
j = A2/A
k! l! A2
2 dL = L m= A3/A
k l
L
1
(1 + k + l )!
A3
0! = 1 2
side 3
i + j + j = 1
1
x
Natural Coordinates for a Triangular Element Natural Coordinates for a Triangular Element
(Area Coordinates) (Area Coordinates) 1 1 1 1 1

x = x i xj xm 2
m = 1 y y y m
i yj 3
m = 0.75 Centroid:
3 or m
1 1 1
m = 0.5 i = j= m = 1/3
m = 0.25
[A ] = x i xj

xm

2 or j m = 0 y i y j y m
1 or i 1 1
1
2 = [A ] x
y
3
2
i i i Shape Functions
[A ]1 =
1
j j j i = x j y m y jx m j = xm y i y m xi m = xi y j yix j
i = Ni
2A
m m m i = y j ym j = ym yi m = y i y j
j = Nj
i = xm x j j = xi xm m = x j xi
m = Nm
2 A = (x j x 1 )(y m y i ) + (x m x 1 )(y 2 y i )
= Ni i + Nj j + Nm m
If i-j-m counterclockwise!
Derivatives by the chain rule.

1 2 3 = i
= + + 1 2 j 3 i
x 1 x 2 x 3 x = i = = m
x 2A x 2A x 2A
1 2 3 = j
= + + 1 2 3 j
y 1 y 2 y 3 y = i = i = i
y 2A y 2A y 2A
= m
m
Pascals Triangle: Degree of polynomial

1 1 l! n! p!
i j m dA = 2 A
l n p
1
2 = [A ] x (2 + l + n + p)! 0
y A 1
3
1
i i i x y
1
[A ]1 = j j j
2A Centroidal Coordinates: 2
m m m x2 xy y2
3
1 =
1
( i + i x + i y ) x3 x2 y x y2 y3
( )
2A
x
4
1
=
i + ix + iy

= i
r
y dA = C r + s A x y + x y + x y
s r
1
s
1
r
2
s
2
r
2
s
2
x4 x3 y x2 y2 x y3 y4
x x 2A 2A A x5 x4 y x3 y2 x2 y3 x y4 y5 5
r+s 1 2 3 4 5
Cr+s 0 1/12 1/30 1/30 2/105
3
n
Degree of polynomial Number of terms

= a
i =1
i
q
1 r2 s3 Nodal Numbering Schemes:
3
p n q+r+s=p 3
1 3
6 5
Quadratic Triangle
n=6
2 6
p=2 2
2
1 1 4
n=
(p + 1 )(p + 2 ) 3
3 10 2 8
7
= a 1 12 + a 2 22 + a 3 23 + a 4 1 2 + a 5 2 3 + a 6 3 1
9
4 15 6
10
Equivalent to :
= b 1 + b 2 x + b 3 y + b 4 x + d 5 xy + b 6 y 2 2 2
1 4 5
Quadratic Triangle Shape Functions

= a 1 12 + a 2 22 + a 3 23 + a 4 1 2 + a 5 2 3 + a 6 3 1
Ni 1 2 3 4 5 6 Can we write shape functions directly?
_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 = 1 at node 1
Node 1 2 3 2 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 = 0 at node 2
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 = 0 at node 3 N1 = 1 ( 21-1 )
1 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 = 1/2 at node 4
2 0 1 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 = 0 at node 5
3 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 = 1/2 at node 6
4 1/2 1/2 0
5 0 1/2 1/2
6 1/2 0 1/2

2 = 0 at node 1 3 = 0 at node 1 1 = 0 at node 5 2 = 1/2 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5
2 = 1 at node 2 3 = 0 at node 2 1 = 1/2 at node 6 2 = 0 at node 6 3 = 1/2 at node 6
2 = 0 at node 3 N2 = 2 ( 22-1 ) 3 = 1 at node 3 N3 = 3 ( 23-1 )
2 = 1/2 at node 4 3 = 1 at node 4
2 = 1/2 at node 5 3 = 1/2 at node 5 N 4 = 4 1 2
2 = 0 at node 6 3 = 1/2 at node 6 N 5 = 4 2 3
N 6 = 4 3 1
4
Cubic Element i = 1, 0, 1/3, 2/3
u N i
6 N1 = 1/2 1(3 1 -1)(3 1 -2)
X =
x
=
i =1 x
ui N2 = 1/2 2(3 2 -1)(3 2 -2)
N3 = 1/2 2(3 2 -1)(3 2 -2)
N4 = 9/2 1 2(3 1-1)
N5 = 9/2 2 1(3 2-1)
N i N i j
3 1)

N6 = 9/2 2 1(3 1-1)
= N7 = 9/2 2 3(3 2-1)
x i =1 j x N8 = 9/2 2 3(3 3-1)
N9 = 9/2 1 3(3 1-1)
N10 = 27 1 2 3
Natural Coordinates 37 Natural Coordinates 38
5
Isoparametric Formulation Step 1 -Select Element Type
u1
v
Isoparametric Formulation The term isoparametric means that the 1
same shape functions are used to define the u 2
shape
h off th
the element
l t as are used
d tto d
define
fi
{d} = 2
v
displacements. They use natural or
u
3
intrinsic coordinate systems.
v3

u 4
v
4
Isoparametric Formulation 1 Isoparametric Formulation 2 Isoparametric Formulation 3
Rectangular Plane Stress Element Step 2 -Select Displacement Function Step 2 -Select Displacement Function
v4 y, v
v3
u (x , y ) = a 1 + a 2 x + a 3 y + a 4 xy { } = [ N ]{d}
v (x , y ) = a 5 + a 6 x + a 7 y + a 8 xy
b
u4
b
u3 N =
( b x )( h y )
3 1
4 4bh
(b x )(h y )u 1 + (b + x )(h y )u 2 ( b + x )( h y )
h

u (x , y ) =
1
N2 =
4bh + (b + x )(h + y )u 3 + (b x )(h + y )u 4 4bh
( b + x )( h + y )
h
1 (b x )(h y )v 1 + (b + x )(h y )v 2
x, u

v (x , y ) =
1 2
N3 =
u1 u2 4bh + (b + x )(h + y )v 3 + (b x )(h + y )v 4 4bh
v1 v2
N4 =
( b x )( h + y )
4bh
Step 2 -Select Displacement Step 3 -Define Stress/Strain and Step 3 -Define Stress/Strain and
Function Strain/Displacement Strain/Displacement
u 1
(h y ) 0 (h y ) 0 (h + y ) 0 (h + y ) 0
u1 [B ] = 0 (b x ) 0 (b + x ) 0 (b + x ) 0 ( b x )
4bh
v x x ( b x ) (h y ) (b + x ) (h y ) (b + x ) (h + y ) (b x ) ( h + y )
1 v
u 2 {} = y =
u N 1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4

0 v 2 y
= xy u + v [D] same as for triangular elements.
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4 u 3
y x
v 3

u 4 {} = [B ]{d}
v
4
1
Step 4 -Derive Element Stiffness Rectangular Plane Stress Element -
Isoparametric Formulation t
Matrix and Equations y
t 3
h b
[k ] = [ B ] [ D ] [ B ] t
T t = +1 t=1 4
dx dy
h b t=0 s
4 3 s = +1
{f } = [ N ] {X } dV + {P } + [ N ] {T} dS
T T s = -1
1
t = -1 1
V S s 2
s = -1
{f } = [k ]{d } 1 2
Parent Element
s=0
s=1
t = -1 x
Natural Coordinates s-t Step 1 -Select Element Type

Step 1 -Select Element Type
x = a 1 + a 2 s + a 3 t + a 4 st
x1
For rectangular element: y = a 5 + a 6 s + a 7 t + a 8 st y
1
x = xc + b s x 2

y = yc + h t 1 ( 1 s )(1 t ) x 1 + (1 + s )( 1 t ) x 2 x N1
=
0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 y 2

x=
Nodes are at ( 1, 1 ) in s t space 4 + (1 + s )( 1 + t ) x 3 + (1 s )(1 + t ) x 4 y 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4 x 3
y 3

1 (1 s )(1 t ) y 1 + ( 1 + s )(1 t ) y 2 x4
xc , yc - centroid y= y
4 + (1 + s )(1 + t ) y 3 + (1 s )(1 + t ) y 4 4
N1 N2
Step 1 -Select Element Type t t
N1 =
(1 s )(1 t )
4
N2 =
(1 + s )(1 t ) 1
s s
1
4
N3 =
(1 + s )(1 + t ) 1 2
4
N4 =
(1 s )(1 + t )
4
2
Step 2 -Select Displacement Function
N3 1 u1
1 N4 v
t 1
t u 2

u N 1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 v 2
3 4 =
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4 u 3
v 3
s s
u 4
v
4
Step 3 -Define Stress/Strain and

Chain Rule:
Strain/Displacement Coordinate transformation
is unique and invertible.
u f f x f y

x x

x = x (s , t ) s = s (x , y )
= +
v
{} = y =
s x s y s

y
xy u v y = y (s , t ) t = t (x , y ) f f x f y
y + x = +
{} = [B ]{d}

t x t y t
Cramers Rule: Jacobian matrix: Strains in terms of

an operator matrix:
f y x f
s s s s
f y x f
x y ( )
0

s x x
[J ] = xs
t t t t
f f
( ) u
x
=
x y x
=
x y y {} = y = 0
y v
s s s s xy ( ) ( )
x y x y t t
t t t t y x
3
{ } = [D ][N ] {d }
( ) 1 y ( ) y ( )
= y ( ) y ( )
x J t s s t x t s

s t
0 y ( ) y ( )
1 x ( ) x ( ) u t s

s t
0
( ) 1 x ( ) x ( ) y = 0
J s t t s v x ( ) x ( )
= x ( ) x ( ) y ( ) y ( ) [D ] = 1
J s t t s
xy 0
y J s t t s
s t
t t s t s s x ( ) x ( ) y ( ) y ( )

s t t s t s s t
Step 4 -Derive Element Stiffness

x = a 1 + a 2 s + a 3 t + a 4 st
Matrix and Equations
y = a 5 + a 6 s + a 7 t + a 8 st
[k ] = [ B ] [ D ][ B ] t w dxdy
T
[B ] = [D ] [N ] A
x=
1 (1 s )(1 t )x 1 + (1 + s )(1 t )x 2

4 + (1 + s )(1 + t )x 3 + (1 s )(1 + t )x 4
(3 8 ) (3 2 ) (2 8 ) f (x, y )dxdy = f (s, t) J dsdt
A A
1 (1 s )(1 t )y 1 + (1 + s )(1 t )y 2
y=
4 + (1 + s )(1 + t )y 3 + (1 s )(1 + t )y 4
1 1
[k ] = [ B ] [ D ][ B ] t w
T
J dsdt
1 1
1 (1 s )(1 t )x 1 + (1 + s )(1 t )x 2 1 (1 s )(1 t )y 1 + (1 + s )(1 t )y 2 0 1t ts s1

x= y=
4 + (1 + s )(1 + t )x 3 + (1 s )(1 + t )x 4 4 + (1 + s )(1 + t )y 3 + (1 s )(1 + t )y 4 s t
T t 1 0 s+1
J = {X c } {Yc }
1
y 1 8 s t s1 0 t+1
= ( (1 t )y 1 + (1 t )y 2 + (1 + t )y 3 (1 + t )y 4 )
x 1 s 4 1 s s+t t 1
= ( (1 t )x 1 + (1 t )x 2 + (1 + t )x 3 (1 + t )x 4 ) 0
s 4 y 1
= ( (1 s )y 1 (1 + s )y 2 + (1 + s )y 3 + (1 s )y 4 ) x1 y1
x 1 t 4 x y
= ( (1 s )x 1 (1 + s )x 2 + (1 + s )x 3 + (1 s )x 4 ) 2
t 4 {X c } = {Yc } = 2
x 3 y 3
x 4 y 4
4
[B (s , t )] = 1
[B 1 B2 B3 B4 ] (1 s )(1 t ) N 1 1(1 t ) (t 1) N 1 (1 s )( 1) = (s 1)
J N1 = N 1, s = = = N 1, t = =
4 s 4 4 t 4 4
a (N i ,s ) b (N i , t )
N 2 (1)(1 t ) (1 t ) N 2 (1 + s )( 1) = (s + 1)
0
N2 =
(1 + s )(1 t ) N 2,s =
s
=
4
=
4
N 2,t =
t
=
4 4
[B 1 ] = 0

c (N i , t ) d (N i ,s ) 4 N 3, s =
N 3
s
=
(1)(1 + t ) = (1 + t ) N 3,t =
N 3
t
=
(1 + s )(1) = (s + 1)
(1 + s )(1 + t )
4 4 4 4
c (N i , t ) d (N i ,s ) a (N i ,s ) b (N i ,t )
N 4 ( 1)(1 + t ) = (1 + t ) N 4 (1 s )(1) = (1 s )
N3 = N 4,s =
s
=
4 4
N 4,t =
t
=
4 4
4
N4 =
(1 s )(1 + t )
4
a = 1 4 [y 1 (s 1 ) + y 2 ( s 1 ) + y 3 (s + 1 ) + y 4 (1 s )] Gaussian Quadrature
1 1
{f b } = [ N ] {X b } t w
T
J dsdt
b = 1 4 [y 1 (t 1 ) + y 2 (1 t ) + y 3 (t + 1 ) + y 4 ( 1 t )] 1 n
1 1
c = 1 4 [x 1 (t 1 ) + x 2 (1 t ) + x 3 (t + 1 ) + x 4 ( 1 t )] f ( x )dx = W f ( x ) i i
{f s } = L [ N ] {T} t w i =1
T
J dL 1
d = 1 4 [x 1 (s 1 ) + x 2 ( s 1 ) + x 3 (s + 1 ) + x 4 (1 s )]
Gaussian Quadrature
Gaussian Quadrature
1
x (sin 2 x ) dx =
1 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x = 0 . 87079555
1
4 2
Order Abscissas Weights
n xi Wi
Order Abscissas Weights 1 0. 2. x W f(x) W*f(x) I
n xi Wi 0.000000000000000 2 0 0 0
2 1 3 1.
1 0.00000 00000 00000 2.00000 00000 00000 0.577350269189626 1 0.528087 0.528087 1.056174514
3 3 5 5 9 -0.577350269189626 1 0.528087 0.528087
2 0.57735 02691 89626 1.00000 00000 00000 0. 8 9
3 0.57735 02691 89626 0.55555 55555 55555 1 0.774596669241483 0.555556 0.774416 0.430231 0.860462143
3 + 2r 2 1 1 0.000000000000000 0.888889 0 0
0.00000 00000 00000 0.88888 88888 88888 4 -0.774596669241483 0.555556 0.774416 0.430231
7 2 6r
4 0.86113 63115 94053 0.34785 48451 37454 1
3 2r 2 1 1 0.861136311594053 0.347855 0.851276 0.29612
0.33998 10435 84856 0.65214 51548 62546 -0.861136311594053 0.347855 0.851276 0.29612 0.871055924
7 2 6r 0.339981043584856 0.652145 0.213768 0.139408
r = 1 .2 -0.339981043584856 0.652145 0.213768 0.139408
5
Using Gaussian Quadrature to Evaluate
n the Stiffness Matrix
W i f (s , t j ) dt
1 1 1

1 1
f (s , t ) ds dt = 1 j= 1
[k ] = [B ] [D ] [B ] t dx dy
T

W f (s, t ) ds = W W f (s ,tj )
1 n n n
1 1
[k ] = [B (s , t )]T [D ] [B ( s , t )] t
= j j i j i
1 j= 1 j= 1 j= 1
A J ( s , t ) ds dt
1 1
I = W1 W1 f (s 1 , t 1 ) + W1 W 2 f (s 1 , t 2 ) + W 2 W1 f (s 2 , t 1 ) + W 2 W 2 f (s 2 , t 2 )
f ( x , y ) dx
A
d = f ( s , t ) J ds
d dy d dt
d
A
I = W1 W1 f (s 1 , t 1 ) + W1 W 2 f (s 1 , t 2 ) + W1 W 3 f (s 1 , t 3 )
1 1
+ W 2 W1 f (s 2 , t 1 )I + W 2 W 2 f (s 2 , t 2 ) + W 2 W 3 f (s 2 , t 3 )
+ W 3 W1 f (s 3 , t 1 ) + W 3 W 2 f (s 3 , t 2 ) + W 3 W 3 f (s 3 , t 3 )
[k ] = [B ]T [D ] [B ] t J ds dt
1 1
Use a 2 x 2 Gauss Rule (4 Point)

Quadratic Quadrilateral Elements
I = W1 W1 f (s 1 , t 1 ) + W1 W 2 f (s 1 , t 2 ) + W 2 W1 f (s 2 , t 1 ) + W 2 W 2 f (s 2 , t 2 )
1 1
Can evaluate each term of [B] and |J| at si ,ti
[k ] = [B (s , t )]T [D ] [B (s , t )] t J ( s , t ) ds dt Then do matrix multiplications
1 1
1. Lagrangian Family of Elements
Multiply
p y by
y weights
g
[k ] = W1 W1 [B (s 1 , t 1 )]T [D ] [B (s 1 , t 1 )] t J (s 1 , t 1 ) + Then add results 2 Serendipity
2. S di it Elements
El t
W1 W 2 [B ( s 1 , t 2 ) ] [D ] [B ( s 1 , t 2 ) ] t J ( s 1 , t 2 )
T
+ W 2 W1 [B ( s 2 , t 1 ) ] [D ] [B ( s 2 , t 1 ) ] t J ( s 2 , t 1 )
T
+ W 2 W 2 [B ( s 2 , t 2 ) ] [D ] [B ( s 2 , t 2 ) ] t J ( s 2 , t 2 )
T
Lagrangian: Lagrangian Interpolation

At corner nodes:
t
L 0 (x ) =
(x x 1 )(x x 2 ) (s 1 )( s 0 ) ( t 1 )( t 0 ) (s 1 )st ( t 1 )
N 1 = =
(x 0 x 1 )(x 0 x 2 ) ( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) ( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) 4
7
(x x 0 )(x x 2 ) (s ( 1 ) )(s 0 ) ( t 1 )( t 0 ) (s + 1 )st ( t 1 )
L 1 (x ) = N 2 = =
4 3 (x 1 x 0 )(x 1 x 2 ) (1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 ) ( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) 4
8 9 6
L 2 (x ) =
(x x 0 )(x x 1 ) (s ( 1 ) )(s 0 ) ( t ( 1 ) )( t 0 ) ( s + 1 )st ( t + 1 )
N 3 = =
s (x 2 x 0 )(x 2 x 1 ) (1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 ) (1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 ) 4
1 (s 1 )(s 0 ) ( t ( 1 ) )( t 0 ) (s 1 )st ( t + 1 )
5 2 N 4 = =
p ( x ) = y 0 L 0 (x ) + y 1 L 1 (x ) + y 2 L 2 (x ) ( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) (1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 )
Parent Element 4
L0(x) has a value of one at x0 and a value of zero at x1 and x2.

6
At mid-side nodes: At mid-side nodes:
At corner nodes:
s 2 t 2 + st s 2 t st 2 N5 =
(1 s )(t 1 ) t
2
N1 = (s 1 )(s ( 1 ) ( t 1 )( t 0 ) (s 1 )( s + 1 ) t ( t 1 )
N 5 = = 2
(0 1 )(0 ( 1 ) ) ( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) 2
( )
4
N2 =
s 2 t 2 st s 2 t + st 2 (s ( 1 ) )(s 0 ) ( t 1 )( t ( 1 ) (s + 1 )s ( t + 1 ) ( t 1 ) s (s + 1 ) 1 t 2
4
N 6 =
(1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 ) (0 1 )(0 ( 1 ) )
= 2 N6 =
s 2 t 2 + st + s 2 t + st 2 ( )( ) ( )( ) = (s + 1 )( s 1 ) t ( t + 1 )
2
( )
s 1 s ( 1 t ( 1 ) t 0
N3 =
1 s (t + 1 ) t
N 7 =
(0 1 )(0 ( 1 ) ) (1 ( 1 ) )(1 0 )
2
4 2
s 2 t 2 st + s 2 t st 2 (s 1 )(s 0 ) ( t 1 )( t ( 1 ) (s 1 )s ( t 1 ) ( t + 1 )
N7 =
N4 = N 8 = = 2
( 1 1 )( 1 0 ) (0 1 )(0 ( 1 ) )
( )
2
s (s 1 ) 1 t 2
4
N8 =
2
( s 1 )( s ( 1 ) ( t 1 ) ( s 1 ) (s + 1) ( t 1 )
At middle node: Serendipity: N5 =

( 0 1 )( 0 ( 1) ) ( 1 1 )

=
2
N5 =
(1 s ) (1 t )
2
t 2
( s ( 1) ) ( t 1 )( t ( 1 ) ( s + 1 ) (t + 1) ( t 1 )
N6 = =
( 1 ( 1) ) ( 0 1 ) ( 0 ( 1) ) 2
(s 1 )(s ( 1 ) (t 1 )(t ( 1 ) (s 1 )( s + 1)( t + 1)(t 1 )
N 9 = = (1 + s ) (1 t 2 )
(0 1 )(0 ( 1) ) (0 1 )(0 ( 1 ) )
7
1 N6 =
( )( ) (
2
s2 1 t2 1
N 9 ==
1
)(
= s 1 t 1
2 2
) 4 3 At ( s 1 )( s ( 1 ) ( t ( 1) ) ( s + 1 ) (s 1) ( t + 1 )
N7 =
( 0 1 )( 0 ( 1) ) ( 1 ( 1) )
=
2
8 6
mid-side
s N7 =
(1 s ) ( t + 1 )
2
nodes: 2
1 5 2 ( s 1 ) ( t 1 )( t ( 1 ) ( s 1 ) (t 1) ( t + 1 )
N8 = =
Parent Element ( 1 1 ) ( 0 1 )( 0 ( 1) ) 2

(1 s ) (1 t 2 )
N8 =
2
Shape Functions for Quad Elements Transition from quadratic to linear elements:
At corner nodes: t
N1 =
1
(1 s )(1 t )
1
N5
1
N8 +
1
N9
4 2 2 4
N1 =
(s 1)(t 1) 1 (N + N5 )
N 2 = (1 + s )(1 t )
1
4
1
N5
2

1
2
N6
1
+ N9
4
N 3 = (1 + s )(1 + t )
8 1 1 1 1
N6 + N9
4 2 4 2 2
N7
4
(s + 1)(t 1) 1
4 3
1
(1 s )(1 + t ) 1 1 1
(N 5 + N 6 )
N4 = N6 N8 + N9
N2 = 4 2 2 4
4 2 N5 =
1
( )
1 s 2 (1 + t )
1
+ N9
s
(s + 1)(t + 1) 1 (N + N )
4 4
N6 =
1
(
(1 + s ) 1 t 2 ) 1
+ N9
N3 = 6 7
2 4 1 5 2
Parent Element
4 2 N7 =
1
( )
1 s 2 (1 + t )
1
+ N9
(s 1)(t + 1) 1 (N + N )
2 4
N4 = N8 =
1
2
(
(1 s ) 1 t 2 ) 1
+ N9
4
7 8
4 2 N9 = ( )(
1 s2 1 t2 )
7
Shape Functions for Element Transition from quadratic to linear elements: Shape Functions for Element
t
N1 =
1
(1 s )(1 t )
1
N5 N1 =
1
4
(1 s )(1 t )
1
2
N8
4 2
N2 = (1 + s )(1 t )
1 1
N5 N2 =
1
(1 + s )(1 t )
4
4 2 4 3
N3 =
1
(1 + s )(1 + t )
= (1 + s )(1 + t )
1
N3 8
4
4
s N4 =
1
(1 s )(1 + t )
1
N8
= (1 s )(1 + t )
1 4 2
N4 1 2
4 Parent Element N8 =
1
(
(1 s ) 1 t 2 )
N5 (
= 1 s 2 (1 t )
1
2
) 2
Elements of Pascals Triangle Serendipity Elements Cubic Serendipity Element: 12 Nodes

Used in Lagrangian Elements: Degree of Pascals Triangle: Degree of polynomial
polynomial
t
1 1 0
0
Linear Linear
x y x y 1
1
x2 xy y2 Quadratic
Q x2 xy y2 Quadratic
Q 2
2
x3 x2 y x y2 y3 Cubic x3 x2 y x y2 y3 Cubic 3
3
4 s
x4 x3 y x2 y2 x y3 y4 4 x4 x3 y x2 y2 x y3 y4
x5 x4 y x3 y2 x2 y3 x y4 y5 x5 x4 y x3 y2 x2 y3 x y4 y5 5 Parent Element
5
x6 x5 y x4 y2 x3 y3 x2 y4 xy5 y5 x6 x5 y x4 y2 x3 y3 x2 y4 xy5 y5 6
6
Cubic Lagrangian Element: 16 Nodes
Parent Element
Isoparametric Formulation 70
8
y Equations of Equilibrium
Three-Dimensional Stress xy x xy xz
Analysis yz + + + Xb = 0
xy x y z
zy
x
xy
y yz
zx + + + Yb = 0
xz
x y z
z
xz yz z
+ + + Zb = 0
Three-dimensional stress on an element. x y z
3D Problems 1 3D Problems 2 3D Problems 3
Stress-Strain Relationships 3D Stress-Strain Matrix

Strain Displacement
1 0 0 0
(u,v,w) are the x, y and z components of 1 0 0 0
displacement.
x 1 0 0 0 x E 1 0 0 0
u u v 1 [D] =
0 y
(1 2 )
x = xy = + 0 0 (1 + )(1 2 ) 0 0 0 0 0
y
2
x y x 0 (1 2 )
0
z E 1 0 0 0 z
0 0 0 2
v u w (1 2 )
= (1 2 ) 0 0 0 0 0
y = xz = + xy (1 + )(1 2) 0 0 0 0 0 xy 2
y z x 2
E
yz 0 0 0 0
(12 )
0 yz Note: G =
w w v 2(1 + )
2
(12 )
z = yz = + zx 0 0 0 0 0 2 zx
z y z
Tetrahedral Element Step 2 - Select Displacement Function

Step 1 - Select the Element Type 4
z,w Select Linear Functions:
3
1. Discretize Body into Four-Noded Tetrahedral
Elements. u( x, y , z ) = a1 + a 2 x + a 3 y + a 4 z
2. Three degrees-of-freedom per node. 1
3. These are x , y, and z displacements.

2 v(x, y , z ) = a 5 + a 6x + a 7 y + a 8z
4. ui - x displacement at ith node. y,v
w ( x , y , z ) = a 9 + a 10 x + a 11 y + a 12 z
5. vi - y displacement at ith node.
6. wi - z displacement at ith node. 1-2-3 counterclockwise when viewed form 4.
x,u
1
u1
V = Volume of tetrahedron.
v1

w1 1 ( 1 + 1 x + 1 y + 1 z ) u 1 + ( 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z ) u 2 +
u( x, y , z ) =
u2 6 V ( 3 + 3 x + 3 y + 3 z ) u 3 + ( 4 + 4 x + 4 y + 4 z ) u 4

v2

1 x1 y1 z1
w 2 1 ( 1 + 1 x + 1 y + 1 z ) v 1 + ( 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z ) v 2 +
{d } =
v( x, y , z ) =
u3 6 V ( 3 + 3 x + 3 y + 3 z ) v 3 + ( 4 + 4 x + 4 y + 4 z ) v 4 1 x2 y2 z2

v3

6V =
w 3

w(x, y , z ) =
1 ( 1 + 1 x + 1 y + 1 z ) w 1 + ( 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z ) w 2 + 1 x3 y3 z3

u4 6 V ( 3 + 3 x + 3 y + 3 z ) w 3 + ( 4 + 4 x + 4 y + 4 z ) w 4

v4

1 x4 y4 z4
w 4
x2 y2 z2 1 y2 z2
x1 y1 z1 1 y1 z1 x1 y1 z1 1 y1 z1
1 = x3 y3 z3 1 = 1 y3 z3
2 = x3 y3 z3 2 = 1 y3 z3 3 = x2 y2 z2 3 = 1 y2 z2
x4 y4 z4 1 y4 z4
x4 y4 z4 1 y4 z4 x4 y4 z4 1 y4 z4
1 x2 z2 1 x2 y2
1 x1 z1 1 x1 y1 1 x1 z1 1 x1 y1
1 = 1 x3 z3 1 = 1 x3 y3
2 = 1 x3 z3 2 = 1 x3 y3 3 = 1 x2 z2 3 = 1 x2 y2
1 x4 z4 1 x4 y4 1 x4 y4 1 x4 y4
1 x4 z4 1 x4 z4
x1 y1 z1 N1 =
( 1 + 1 x + 1 y + 1 z )
1 y1 z1
6V
4 = x2 4 = 1
y2 z2 y2 z2 u1
v N2
( + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z )
= 2
x3 y3 z3 1 y3 z3 1
u N 1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0 0 w1 6V

v =
w
0

0
N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4
0 M
N 4 u 4 N3
( + 3 x + 3 y + 3 z )
= 3
1 x1 z1 1 x1 y1 0 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0

v4 6V
4 = 1 x2 z2 4 = 1 x2 y2
w 4
( + 4 x + 4 y + 4 z )
1 x3 y3 N4 = 4
1 x3 z3 6V
2
u
x
v

Step 3 - Define
x
y
w
Strain/Displacements and
y
[B ] = [B 1 B4 ]
z
Stress/Strain Relationships { } = = u
z
v

xy
y
+
x

B2 B3

v w
yz
+
xz
z y
w u
+
x z
N 1,x 0 0 1 0 0
0 Stress/Strain
N 1,y 0 0 1 0
x 1 0 0 0 x
0 0 N 1,z 1 0 1
1 0 y
[B 1 ] =
0 0
[B 1 ] =
0 y
z
=
E

1 0 0 0 z

N 1,y N 1,x 0 6 V 1 1 0
xy (1 + )(1 2 ) 0 0 0
(12 )
2 0 0 xy
yz 0 0 yz
0 N 1,y
(12 )
0 1
0 0 0
N 1,z 1
2
(12 )
zx 0 0 0 0 0 2 zx

N 1 , z 0 N 1 , x 1 0 1
[B] and [D] are constant, therefore: Body Forces

Step 4 - Element Stiffness
[B ] [D ] [B ] dV {d} = {f }
T
V [k ] = [B ]T [D ] [B ] V {f b } = [N ] {X} dV
T
[k ] = [B ]T [D ] [B ] dV
V
V
3
Surface Forces Uniform pressure on surface 1-2-3 p x
p
y
{f s } = [N ]T {T} dS
p z

{f s } = [N ]T {T} dS
p x
S p y

S 123 p z
{fs } = S 123 = Area of surface 123
p x
3 p x
S p y

p z
{f s } = [N ]T evaluated on p y dS
0

S surface 1, 2 , 3
0
p 0

z
Volume Coordinates
1
At a point P, four tetrahedrons can be drawn, 1 = V1/V
P-2-3-4, P-1-3-4, P-1-2-4, and P-1-2-3.
2 = V2/V
4
Let V be the volume of tetrahedron 1-2-3-4. 3 = V3/V
P Let V1 be the volume
ol me of tetrahedron P
P-2-3-4.
234 4 = V4/V
Let V2 be the volume of tetrahedron P-1-3-4.
z Let V3 be the volume of tetrahedron P-1-2-4.
Let V4 be the volume of tetrahedron P-1-2-3. 1 + 2 + 3+ 4 = 1
2
y
x 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 Shape Functions: Integration

x x x 4
1 x2 x2 2
=
y y 1 y2 y3 y4 3 1 = N1
k! l! m! n!
2 = N2 l2 3m n4 dV = 6 V
k
z z1 z2 z3 z4 4
(3 + k + l + m + n)!
1
3 = N3 V
1 1 1 1
4 = N4
x1 x2 x2 x4
6V =
y1 y2 y3 y4 = N1 1 + N22 + N3 3 + N4 4
z1 z2 z3 z4
4
Centroidal Coordinates 1 = s Chain Rule
x y z dV = 20 x y z
r s t V 4
r
i
s
i
t
i
2 = t
=
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x
r s i =1
3 = z
x y
(if r + s + t = 2 and centroid is at x = y = z = 0 ) 1 2 3 4

= + + +
y 1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y
4 = 1 s t z
=
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
z 1 z 2 z 3 z 4 z
Chain Rule: f y z x f z x y f Jacobian matrix:

s s s s s s s s s
f f x f y f z
f
t
y
t
z
t
x
t
f
t
z
t
x
t
y
t
f
t x y z
= + + s s
f y z x f z x y f
r x s y s z s f
x
=
z
x
z
y
z
z
f
x
=
z
x
z
y
z
z
f
x
=
z
x
z
y
z
z s
f f x f y f z [J ] = x y z
s s s s s s s s s
= + + x y z x y z x y z
s x t y t z t
t
x
t
y
t
z
t
x
t
y
t
z
t
x
t
y
t
z t t s
z z z z z z z z z x y z
f f x f y f z
= + +
t x z y z z z z z z
( ) y z x ( ) z
Strains in terms of an operator matrix:
s s s s s s Hexahedral elements
( ) 1 ( ) y z ( ) 1 x ( ) z
( ) = =
x 0 x J t t t y J t t t
( ) ( ) y z x ( ) z
x 0 Linear element
y z z z z z z
y ( ) u
8 corner nodes
x y ( )
{} = z = ( ) ( )
z
v
Natural Coordinates s , t, z
xy w s s s Corners at 1
yz y x ( ) 1 x y ( )
( ) ( ) =
xz z J t t t
z y

( ) ( ) x y ( )
z x z z z
5
t
Ni =
(1 + s s i )(1 + t t i )(1 + z z i )
3 x N i 0 0 xi 4
0
0 y i
7 8
4 y = Ni i =1
z i =1
N i z i s i = 1
8
0 0
s t i = 1
2
(1 + s s i )(1 + t t i )(1 + z z i ) z i = 1
6
Ni =
(1 s )(1 t )(1 + z )
1
5 4
z Ni =
4
f y z x f z x y f
Jacobian matrix: s s s s s s s s s
Strains in terms of an operator matrix:
f y z x f z x y f ( )
x y z t
f
t
y
t
z
t
x
t
f
t
z
t
x
t
y
t
f
x

0
( )

s s s
f
=
z z z f
=
z z z f
=
z z z x 0
y

x x y z x x y z x x y z y ( ) u
[J ] = x y z s s s s s s s s s
x y z x y z x y z {} = z = ( ) ( )
z
v
t t t t t t t t t xy w
t t s yz y x
x y z x y z x y z
( ) ( )
x y z
z z z z z z z z z xz
z y

( ) ( )
z x
z z z
( ) y z x ( ) z 3 20
7
s s s s s s
( ) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 x ( )
11 15
y z z
= =
x J t t t y J t t t Gaussian Quadrature can be 10
17 8 14
( ) y z x ( ) z performed in three dimensions
4
z z z z z z in a manner similar to that which was 2 19

( )
6
x y previously
i l discussed
di d 12
16
s s s 9
( ) 1 x ( )
13
y
= See Table 12-1
z J t t t 1
5
( )
18
x y
z z z
20-Noded Quadratic Element
6
Corner Nodes: Mid-side Nodes (si = 0): Mid-side Nodes (ti = 0):
Ni =
(1 + s s i )(1 + t t i )(1 + z z i ) (s s
8
i + t t i + z z 2 )
Ni =
(1 s )(1 + t t )(1 + z z )
2
i i
Ni =
(1 + s s i )(1 t 2 )(1 + z z i )
4 4
Mid-side Nodes (zi = 0):
Stiffness Matrix 60 x 60
Ni =
(1 + s s i )(1 + t t i )(1 z 2 ) 3 x 3 x 3 Quadrature Rule.
27 Integration points
points.
4
180 + 30 =210 terms to evaluate.
3D Problems 58 3D Problems 59
7
Spring-Mass system subjected to
a time dependent load. Free-body diagram of the mass.
Structural Dynamics
k
F(t) T = kx F(t) ma = m &x&
=
m m m
Structural Dynamics 1 Structural Dynamics 2 Structural Dynamics 3
Solution of D.E. is sum of

homogeneous and
particular solutions: Let :
F (t ) k x = m &x& Homogeneou s :
2 =
k
m
F (t ) = 0 Th :
Then
m &x& + k x = F (t ) &x& + 2 x = 0
m &x& + k x = 0 2 is the natural circular frequency
Displacement due to simple harmonic motion.
2 One Dimensional
=
xm

Bar Element
is the period (measured in seconds)
1
Step 2 - Select a
Step 1 - Select Element Type Displacement Function Step 3 - Define Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships
u = a 1 + a 2 x
d 1 x 1 2 d 2 x { x } = u = [B ] d
x
{}
x u = N 1d 1 x + N 2 d 2 x
ff 1ex (t ) f2ex (t ) x [B ] = 1 1

L L
N1 = 1
L L
E - modulus of elasticity
x
{d }= dd

1x
A - cross-sectional area
N2 = 2x
- mass density
L { } = [D ]{ x } = [D ][B ]{d }
NODAL EQUILIBRIUM
Step 4 - Derive Element Stiffness Newtons Second Law EQUATIONS
and Mass Matrices and Equations
r r 2 d 1x
f = ma
f e
1x = f1x + m 1
With time dependent
p loading
g
t2
f 1 x f 2 x 2 d 2 x
f e
2x = f 2 x + m2
t2
m1 and m2 are obtained by Lumped Mass Model Equilibrium in Matrix Form

lumping the total mass of the
bar equally at the two nodes d 1 x
d 1 x 1 2 f 1ex f 1 x m 1 0 t 2
AL d 2 x
e = +
m1 = m1 x m2
f 2 x f 2 x 0 m 2 d 2 x
2 f 1ex (t ) f 2ex (t )
t 2
AL L
m2 =
2
2
Equilibrium in Matrix Form Defining Terms Consistent Mass Matrix
{X }= {u&&}
{ff (t )}= [kk ]{dd }+ [mm ] { }
[k ] = AE 1 1 e
L 1 1
Element Stiffness Matrix
e &&
d
d [m ] = AL 1 0
2 0 1
Element Lumped Mass Matrix {f b } = [N ]T {X } dV
{}d Nodal Displaceme nts V
{}
&& 2 d
d =
{}
t2
Nodal Accelerati ons {f b } = [N ]T {u&&}dV
V
Consistent Mass Matrix

Consistent Mass Matrix Consistent Mass Matrix Bar Element
{u} = [N ]{d } { }dV [m ] = [N ] [N ] dV

T
{f b } = [N ]T [N ] d&&
{}
V
1 x
{u& }= [N ] d& {}
V
[m ] = L 1 xx
x L
xx dV
{f b } = [m ] d&& V L
{}
L
{u&&}= [N ] d&& [m ] = [N ]T [N ] dV L 1
x
[m ] = A x L 1 x x d x
V 0 L L
L

Bar Element
STEP 5 - Assemble the Global
Equations and Apply B.C.s
{F (t )} = [K ]{d} + [M ]{d&&}
1 x 1 x 1 x x
{F (t )} = [K ]{d} + [M ]{d&&}
L
[m ] = A L L L L d x Now must solve coupled set of

0 1
x x
x x ODEs instead of set of linear

L L L L algebraic equations!
[m ] = A L
2 1
6 1 2
3
Beam Element Shape Functions
y , v N1 =
1
(2x 3 3x 2 L + L3 )
[m ] = [N ]T [N ] dV
L3
1 , m 1
1 xx 2 2 , m 2
N2 =
L3
(x 3 L 2x 2 L2 + xL3 )
1
V
L
N3 =
1
L3
( 2x 3 + 3x 2 L )
f 1 y , d 1 y f 2 y , d 2 y
N4 =
1
L3
(x 3 L x 2 L2 )
Shape Functions Lumped Mass Matrix

1.000
N1 N3 [m ] = [N ]T [N ] dV 1 0 0 0
L2
m 0 0 0
0.500 V
[m ] = 0
N2
156 22 L 54 13 L 210
L 22 L 4 L2 13 L 3L2 2 0 1 0
0.000
N4 [m ] = m 0 L
2
0
420 54 13 L 156 22 L 0 0
210
-0.500 13 L 3L2 22 L 4 L2
Lumped Mass Matrix Consistent Mass Matrix - CST Consistent Mass Matrix - CST
[m ] =
Q 0
Q
2 0 1 0 1 0
2nd and 4th terms account for rotary inertia. 0 0 2 0 1 0 1
= 0 if this is ignored.
m
2 1 1 u1
= 17.5 if mass moment of inertia of bar [Q ] = 1 u 2
1 2
At 1 0 2 0 1 0
spinning about one end is selected 12
1 1 2 u 3 [m ] =
m L
2 12 0 1 0 2 0 1
For each degree of freedom 1 0 1 0 2 0
2 2
I =
3 0 1 0 1 0 2
4
Lumped Mass Matrix - CST Lumped Mass Matrix - CST Consistent Mass Matrix - Quad
1 0 0 0 0 0 [m ] = 0
Q 0
0 Q
[m ] =
Q 0
1 0 0 0 0
0 Q 4 2 1 2
At 0 0
[m ] =
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 u 1
[Q ] =m 2 4 2
[Q ] = m 0 0 1 u 2 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 36 1 2 4 2
3
0 0 1 u 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 4
m = At
0 0 0 0 0 1
Consistent Mass Matrix - Quad HRZ Lumping

Hybrid Methods
4 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1. Hinton, Rock, and Zienkiewicz
0 2
4 0 2 0 1 0 Attempts have been made to combine 2. Compute the diagonal terms of consistent mass
2 0 4 0 2 0 1 0 matrix.
consistent and lumped mass approaches to
3. Compute
p total mass of element,, m
m 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 1 achieve some of the benefits of each!
[m ] = 4. Compute s by adding diagonal coefficients
36 1 0 2 0 4 0 2 0
associated with translational D-O-F that are in
0 1 0 2 0 4 0 2 same direction.
2 0 1 0 2 0 4 0 5. Scale all diagonal coefficients by multiplying by
m/s
0 2 0 1 0 2 0 4
HRZ - Bar Element HRZ - Beam Element HRZ - Beam Element
[m ] = A L
2 1 156 22 L 54 13 L
6 1 2
m 22 L 4 L2 13 L 3L2 420
[m ] = 312 156 0 0 0 39
m =AL 420 54 13 L 156 22 L
420
0 4 L2 0 0 L2
s = 4
AL 13 L 3L2 22 L 4 L2 [m ] = m 312 = m
420 420 78 39
6 m = AL 0 0
312
156 0
m 3
L
2
= AL 420
4 L2
s = 312
0 0 0
312
s 2 420
[m ] = A L
3 0 m = 420
6 0 3 s 312
5
HRZ Quadratic Serendipity HRZ Quadratic Lagrangian % error in natural frequencies of a thick
simply-supported plate.
3 1 1 1 Half of the plate modeled with 8-noded 24
36 36 d-o-f elements
76 36
Mode Type of Mass Matrix
m n Consistent (%) HRz Lumping (%) Ad Hoc Lumping (%)
16 8 4 16 16 4
1
2
1
1
0 11
0.11
0.4
0 32
0.32
0.45
0 32
0.32
0.45
76 36 36 36 36 36 2 2 0.35 2.75 4.12
3 1 5.18 0.05 5.75
3x3 2x2 3x3 2x2
3 2 4.68 2.96 10.15
3 3 13.78 5.18 19.42
Gauss Rule Gauss Rule Gauss Rule Gauss Rule 4 2 16.88 1.53 31.7
Optimal Lumping Three noded bar element

Let p be the highest order complete p=2
Only translational d-o-f polynomial in shape function N m=1
Based on consistent mass matrix let m be the highest order derivative in
2(p-m) = 2
Use appropriate quadrature rule Three p
point q
quadrature rule.
strain energy (m = 1 elasticity
elasticity, m = 2
Newton -Cotes has points at the nodes.
Chose integration points to coincide with bending)
(Simpson Rule)
nodal locations Chose quadrature rule with degree of
[m] will be diagonal precision 2(p-m) b
1 4 b+a 1
f ( x )dx = (b a ) 6 f (a ) + 6 f
a
+ f (b )
2 6
1 Serendipity Lagrangian
m ij = A N i N jdx = N N i j J d
1
1 1
L
J= 12 36
2
m ij = A
L
(1 ( 1 )) 1 N i ( 1)N j ( 1) + 4 N i (0 )N j (0 ) + 1 N i (1 )N j (1)
2 6 6 6
1 4 1
i j m ij = 0
3 9 9
1 0 0 1 3 2
[m ] = AL 0 1 0
6
0 0 4
6
Mass Matrices Mass Matrices Best Type ?
Product [m]{a} must yield the correct total force on an Special treatment may be needed to handle
element (F = ma) when {a} represents a rigid-body 1. Consistent matrices usually more
translational acceleration. the last two cases. accurate for flexural problems.
Co
Consistent
s ste t mass
ass matrices,
at ces, [[m]] a
and
d [[M]] a
are
e pos
positive
t e 2. Consistent matrices give upper
definite. bounds on natural frequencies.
Lumped mass matrix is positive semi-definite when zero
terms appear on main diagonal.
Lumped mass matrix is indefinite when negative terms
appear on main diagonal.
Best Type ? Damping Types of Damping Models

1. Structural damping is not viscous.
1. Lumped matrices usually give natural Phenomenological Damping Methods
frequencies less than exact values. 2. Due to mechanisms such as hysteresis and slip
in connections. (models actual dissipative mechanisms)
2. Simpler to form. Elastic-Plastic Hysteresis Loss
3. Mechanisms not well understood.

3
3. O
Occupy less
l storage.
t Structurall Joint Friction
4. Awkward to incorporate into structural dynamic
4. Require less computational effort. Material Micro-cracking
equations.
5. Usually more important in time-history than in Spectral Damping Methods
5. Makes equations computationally difficult.
vibration problems. Introduce Viscous Damping
6. Effects usually approximated by viscous
damping. Relies on Fraction of Critical Damping
Critical Damping Critical Damping Ratio

Rayleigh or Proportional Damping
Fraction of Critical Damping 0 .5 % 5 % Steel Piping Damping matrix is a linear combination of
=1 Critical Damping 2 % 15 % Bolted or riveted steel structures stiffness and mass matrices:
2 % 15 % Reinforced or Prestresse s Concrete
[C ] = [K ] + [M ]
Critical Damping marks the transition between
oscillatory and non- oscillatory response of a structure
Actual value may depend on stress level.
7
If critical damping ratio is known at Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
Undamped, Unforced Response
Rayleigh or Proportional Damping two frequencies then:
1 {D } = {D }sin t
[C] is orthogonal damping matrix. =
Modes may be uncoupled by eigenvectors 2 {D& } = {D }cos t
associated with undamped problem
problem.
( 2 2 1 1 ) {D&& } = {D }sin t
2
=2 {D }
1 ( 2
2 12 )
amplitudes of nodal d - o - f
circular frequency
= ( 1 2 21 )
2 = 21 2
( 2
2 12 ) f =
2
( Hz )
Results in generalized eigenproblem Trivial Solution: Nontrivial Solution:
([K ] [M ]){D } = {0 } [ K ] [M ] 0 [K ] [M ] =0
= 2 {D } = 0 {D } 0
Natural Frequencies
[K] and [M] n x n then there are n eigenvalues and n
eigenvectors
i Roots of Characteri stic [K] and [M] positive definite then eigenvalues are all
i Natural Frequencie
q s positive
P l
Polynomial
i l (eigenvalu
( i l es)) Mii = 0 infinite eigenvalue
{D }i Associated Eigenvecto rs {D } i Normal Modes Mii < 0 negative eigenvalue - imaginary frequency
Use condensation to remove ith equation if Mii = 0
8
Rayleigh Quotient Rayleigh Quotient Modal Methods
=
{D } [K ]{D }
T When [K], [C], [M] are known and time
independent the problem is linear.
{D } [M ]{D }
T
mini
{v } [K ]{v }
T
[K ] symmetric {v }T [M ]{v } max

[M ] positive definite min smallest eigenvalue [M ]{D&& }+ [C ]{D& }+ [K ]{D } = {R ext }
{D } approximat ion to i eigenvecto r th
max l arg est eigenvalue {D& (0 )}, {D (0 )} given as initial conditions
approximat ion to i th eigenvalue
Modal Methods Eigenvectors are linearly independent
{D } [M ]{D } = 1 [ ] = matrix
Assume orthogonal damping, such as Rayleigh T
Damping. Modes can be uncoupled: i i
of eigenvecto rs
{D } [M ]{D }
T
i j =0
{D } [K ]{D } =
T 2 (
(mode shapes)
p )
{D } [K ]{D }
T
=0
i i i
{D} = [ ]{Z}
i j
{D } [C ]{D } = 2
T
{Z}
{D } [C ]{D }
T
i j =0
i i i i modal amplitudes
i j
Substitute into: Mode Displacement Method
[M ][ ]{Z&& }+ [C ][ ]{Z& }+ [K ][ ]{Z } = {R ext }

[M ]{D&& }+ [C ]{D& }+ [K ]{D } = {R } ext
[ ]{Z& ( 0 ) } = {D& (0 )} [I ]{Z&& }+ [ ]{Z& }+ [ 2 ]{Z } = {p }
{D& (0 )}, {D (0 )} given [ ]{Z ( 0 ) } = {D (0 )} given
9
Mode Displacement Method Mode Displacement Method Mode Displacement Method
Pre-multiply by []T
[ ]T [M ][ ]{Z&& }+ [ ]T [C ][ ]{Z& } [ ]T [M ][ ] = [I ]
+ [ ] [K ][ ]{Z } = [ ] {R ext }
T T
[ ]T [C ][ ] = [ ] [I ]{Z&& }+ [ ]{Z& }+ [ 2 ]{Z } = {p }
[ ]{Z& ( 0 ) } = {D& (0 )} [ ]T [K ][ ] = [ 2 ]
[ ]{Z ( 0 ) } = {D (0 )} given
Reduce size of problem:

Modes Uncouple: [ ]{Z& ( 0 ) } = {D& (0 )}
[ ]{Z ( 0 ) } = {D (0 )}
[ ] [M ][ ]{Z& ( 0 ) } = [ ]T [M ]{D& (0 )}
T m << n eq
[I ]{Z&& }+ [ ]{Z& }+ [ 2 ]{Z } = {Z } [I ] {Z& ( 0 ) } = [ ]T [M ]{D& (0 )} m
&& + 2 Z& + 2 Z = p
Z i i i i i i i = 1, n {Z& ( 0 ) } = [ ]T [M ]{D& (0 )} {D } = { }i Z i
i =1
{Z ( 0 ) } = [ ]T [M ]{D (0 )}
Mode Acceleration method

Error Estimate:
In many structural dynamics Method
problems, more modes participate
in the quasi-static
{R } [M ]{D&& } [C ]{D& } [K ]{D }
ext
[I ]{Z&& }+ [ ]{Z& }+ [ 2 ]{Z } = {p }

e(t) = response than in the dynamic
{R } extt
response. For a small m value, the
For an accurate analysis : mode displacement method may
e ( t ) 1% have difficulty in predicting the
quasi-static response.
10
Modal transformation only on
inertial and damping terms
[K ]{D } = {R ext } [M ][ ]{Z&& } [C ][ ]{Z& }
[M ][ ]{Z&& }+ [C ][ ]{Z& }+ [K ]{D } = {R ext } {D } = [K ] {R } [K ]
1 ext 1
([M ][ ]{Z&& } [C ][ ]{Z& })
[ ]T [M ][ ] = [I ]
[ ]{Z& ( 0 ) } = {D& (0 )} [M ][ ] = [ ] T
[ ]{Z ( 0 ) } = {D (0 )} given
[ ]T [K ][ ] = [ 2 ]
{D } = [K ] 1 {R ext } [K ] 1 ( [ ] T {Z&& } [C ][ ]{Z& }) [ ]T [K ][ ][ 2 ]1 = [I ] {D} = [K ] 1{R ext } [K ] 1[ ] T {Z&& }+ [K ] 1[C ][ ]{Z& }
[K ][ ][ 2 ]1 = [ ] T [I ] = [ ] T {D} = [K ] 1{R ext } [ ][ 2 ]1 {Z&& }+ [K ] 1[C ][ ]{Z& }
[ ][ 2 ]1 = [K ] 1 [ ] T
Solve for Z terms as before:

{D } = [K ] 1 {R ext } [ ][ 2 ]1 ({Z&& }+ [ ]{Z& })
{D} = [K ] {R } [K ] [ ]
1 ext 1 T
{Z&& }+ [K ] 1[C ][ ]{Z& } 1 && 2 i &
{D } = [K ] 1 {R ext } { }i
m
Zi + Z i
{D} = [K ] 1{R ext } [ ][ 2 ]1 {Z&& }+ [K ] 1[ ] T [ ]T [C ][ ]{Z& } i =1
i
2
i && + 2 Z& + 2 Z = p
Z i = 1, n
i i i i i i
{D} = [K ] 1{R ext } [ ][ 2 ]1 {Z&& }+ [ ][ 2 ]1 [ ]{Z& }
First term on RHS represents quasi-static response,
the second term represents corrections for inertia
and viscous effects.
11
Mass Condensation Guyan Reduction Guyan Reduction
m - master degree of freedom
Reduces number of d-o-f.
s - slave degree of freedom
Reduces expense of computing K mm K ms M mm M ms D m 0

eigenvalues. KT =
ms K ss M ms
T
M ss D s 0 Basic Assumption:
Detrimental to accuracy. For lowest frequency modes the inertial forces
Not used with optimal lumping. on slave d-o-f are less important than elastic
m - master degree of freedom forces transmitted by master
s - slave degree of freedom d-o-f. Thus we ignore all mass except Mmm
Guyan Reduction
Guyan Reduction Guyan Reduction
K mm K ms M mm 0 D m 0 D m
( [K r ] [M r ] ){D m } = {0 }
= [T ]{D m }

K ms
T

K ss 0
=
0 D s 0

D s [K r ] = [T ]T [K ][T ]
{D } = [K ] [K ] {D }
s ss
1
ms
T
m

[T ] = 1 T
I [M r ] = [T ]T [M ][T ]
K ss K ms
Both [Kr] and [Mr] are generally full.

[Mr] contains both mass and stiffness terms
Guyan Reduction Compute Slaves Choosing Master D-O-F

Choose d-o-f where inertia is most important
These are characterized by large mass to stiffness
[C r ] = [T ] [C ][T ] T
ratios.
{R rext } = [T ]T {R ext } {D }
s i
= [K ss i M ss ]1 [K Tms i M Tms ]{D } m i Each d-o-f that has a time varying applied load
should be chosen.
[M r ]{D&& m }+ [C r ]{D& m }+ [K r ]{D m } = {R rext } Master d-o-f should not be clustered.
Process can be automated
12
Process for Choosing Master D-O-F
Number of Master D-O-F
Choose cut-off frequency c
Scan diagonal coefficients of [K] and [M]. Take this to be about three times the highest
Choose d-o-f for which Kii/Mii is largest. frequency of interest.
This becomes first slave. Terminate selection of master d-o-f when Kii/Mii <
c2
Condense [K] and [M] by one order.
Can combine manual and automatic selection (i.e.
Repeat process using condensed matrices till a
Choose each d-o-f that has a time varying applied load
user specified number of d-o-f remain.
and then automatically select others.)
These are Master d-o-f chosen in near optimal
Number of Master d-o-f may be 10% - 20% of total d-
way.
o-f.
Structural Dynamics 109 Structural Dynamics 110
13
Types of Nonlinear Problems Linear Problem
Introduction to Nonlinear
Problems
1. Material nonlinearity [K ]{D} = {R }
a.
b
b.
Plasticity
Nonlinear elasticity
[K ] [K ({D})]
2. Geometric nonlinearity
a. Large deflections
{R } {R ({D})}
b. Large rotations Stiffness and Forces are not functions of
displacements.
Nonlinear Problems 1 Nonlinear Problems 2 Nonlinear Problems 3
Nonlinear Problem Difficulty! Nonlinear Effects

[K ]{D} = {R } Nonlinear problems can cost as 1. Nonlinear stress-strain behavior
[K ] = [K ({D})] much as 10 to 100 times as much

to sol
solvee as corresponding linear
2. Gaps opening or closing
3 Mating parts
3.
{R } = {R ({D})} problems! We often try to

approximate nonlinear solutions
1.
2.
Stick
Slip
4. Phase changes
Stiffness and Forces are functions by linear solutions
of displacements. 5. Buckling
Typical Nonlinear Problem

Some Solution Methods 1 D-O-F Problem Statement
1. Direct Substitution
(k 0 + k N )u = P
k u
2. Direct Substitution with Relaxation

P
3
3. Newton-Raphson
Newton Raphson (N (N-R)
R)
4. Modified Newton-Raphson
k = k0 + kN
k N = f (u)
5. Incremental Methods
k0 constant Given P find u.
6. Quasi-Newton Methods (Inverse Broyden)
kN function of u Assume f(u) is a known function.
1
P
(kN = 0)
Direct Substitution Method Sequence of Operations
Hardening
kN > 0 1. Let load PA be applied to a softening spring (kN<0)
2. Assume kN = 0 for the first iteration. u1 = k 01PA
Slope k0 3. Compute first approximation to displacement: u1 =
PA/k0 (
u 2 = k 0 + k N1 ) 1
PA
4. Use u1 to compute new stiffness:
4
= (k )
Softening 1
kN < 0 k = k0 +f(u1) u3 0 + k N2 PA
5. Compute next approximation to displacement: u2 =
PA/k
M
u 6. Generate sequence of approximations. (
u i +1 = k 0 + k N i )1
PA
P P Essentially a secant method P
a a b
PA PA PA a b c
2 3
P1 1 2
k0 k0 1 1
k0+kN1
u1 u u1 u2 u u1 u2 u3 u
Example:
Load - Deflection
P P= 0.006 0.020
k u Del u 0.018
0.2000000000 0.0300000000
0.1700000000 0.0352941176 15.00000000%
k = 0 .2 u
0.015
PA a b c 0.1647058824 0.0364285714 3.11418685%

0.1635714286 0.0366812227 0.68877551% 0.013
3 0.1633187773 0.0367379679 0.15445930%

2
P = 0 .006 0.1632620321 0.0367507370 0.03474506% 0.010
P
1 0 1632492630
0.1632492630 0 0367536116 0.00782121%
0.0367536116 0 00782121%
0.1632463884 0.0367542587 0.00176085%
u1
0.008
0.1632457413 0.0367544045 0.00039645%
0.1632455955 0.0367544373 0.00008926% 0.005
0.1632455627 0.0367544447 0.00002010%
0.1632455553 0.0367544463 0.00000452% 0.003
0.1632455537 0.0367544467 0.00000102%
u1 u2 u3 uA u 0.1632455533 0.0367544468 0.00000023% 0.000
0.1632455532 0.0367544468 0.00000005% 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
u
2
Direct Substitution Alternative
Sequence of Operations
P
1. Let load PA be applied to a softening spring.

2. Assume kN = 0 for the first iteration.
u 1 = k 0 1 PA PA
(PA k N 1u 1 )
a
1
3. Compute first approximation to displacement: u1 = u2 = k 0 P1 1
PA/k0 k0
4. Take nonlinear term to other RHS. u 3 = k 0 (PA k N 2 u 2 )
1
5. Compute next approximation to displacement: u2 =

(PA-kN1u1)/k0 M
u i + 1 = k 0 1 (PA k Ni u i )
6. Generate sequence of approximations. u1 u
P Example Comparison
i u
I 0 0.0000000000
PA kN1u1 a b k = 0 .2 u 1 0.0300000000 1. First approach requires [K] to be
2 0.0345000000 formulated and reduced in each step.
P1
k0 1 2 P = 0 .006 3
4
0.0359512500
0 0364624619
0.0364624619 2. Seco
Second
d app
approach
oac requires
equ es 1 formulation
o u at o
u1 5 0.0366475556 and reduction of [K0]
6
7
0.0367152167
0.0367400357
3. Second approach usually has more
8 0.0367491511 iterative cycles than first approach.
u1 u 9 0.0367525005
10 0.0367537315
i u i u Under-Relaxation Newton-Raphson Approach

0 0.0000000000 0 0.0000000000
(k 0 + k NA ) u A = PA
1 0.0300000000
u i +1 = u i + ( u i )
1 0.0300000000
2 0.0352941176 2 0.0345000000
3 0.0364285714 3 0.0359512500
4 0.0366812227 4 0.0364624619 u i = u i +1 u i k NA = f ( u A )
5 0.0367379679 5 0.0366475556
u i +1 = u i +1 + (1 )u i
6 0.0367507370 6 0.0367152167
One Term Taylor Series :
f ( u A + u1 ) = f ( u A ) + dP u1
7 0.0367536116 7 0.0367400357
8
9
0.0367542587
0.0367544045
8
9
0.0367491511
0.0367525005
0< <1 du A
10 0.0367544373 10 0.0367537315
3
Newton-Raphson Approach Newton-Raphson Approach Newton-Raphson Approach
Seek :
f ( u A + u1 ) = f ( u A ) + dP u1 u 1 such that :
du A
dP = d (k u + k u ) = k + d (k N u ) f (u A + u 1 ) = PB (k t )i u i = PB Pi
N
du du 0 du u i+1 = u i + u i
0
Tangent Stiffness PB = PA + (k tA ) u 1
dP = k (k tA ) u 1 = PB PA
t
du PB - PB - Load imbalance PB - Pi - Load imbalance
kt - Tangent stiffness
Newton Raphson
P P
b uA uB kNA kt PA PB DEL u
a a
PB PB 0.0000000000 0.0300000000 0.000000 0.200000 0.000000 0.0060 0.0300000000
0.0300000000 0.0364285714 -0.030000 0.140000 0.005100 0.0060 0.0064285714
2
0.0364285714 0.0367536116 -0.036429 0.127143 0.005959 0.0060 0.0003250401
P1 1 P1 1
0.0367536116 0.0367544468 -0.036754 0.126493 0.006000 0.0060 0.0000008352
0.0367544468 0.0367544468 -0.036754 0.126491 0.006000 0.0060 0.0000000000
PA PA
u1 u2
uA u1 uB u uA u1 uB u
Modified Newton-Raphson
Newton-Raphson Approach
P
Approach NR
a
(k )u
PB
Do not update kt every iteration! t ( old ) i = PB Pi P1 1
u i +1 = u i + u i PA
u1
uA u1 uB u
PB - PB - Load imbalance
4
Comparison Incremental Approach
P
Modified N-R
PB
a b 1. Modified N-R has less calculations per 1. Apply loads in a number of small
iteration. increments.
2
2. Modified N 2. Iterate and Converge for each increment.
P1 1
N-R
R has more iterations.
PA 3. Create entire load-displacement history.
u1 u2
uA u1 uB u
Eulers Method Eulers Method

P
Start at P = 0 and u = 0
P = f (u ) Euler' s Method
u 1 = 0 + (k t )0 P1 where (k t )0 = k t at u = 0
1
k t = dP u 2 = u1 + (k t )1 P2 where (k t )1 = k t at u = u1
1
du u 3 = u 2 + (k t )2 P3
1
where (k t )2 = k t at u = u 2
M M
u Load increments : P u i +1 = u i + (k t )i Pi +1
1
where (k t )i = k t at u = u i 1
Purely incremental approach with no corrections.
Incremental with Load Correction P 1-D Elastic-Plastic Analysis

u i +1 = u i + (k t )i [ Pi +1 + (Pi PiR )]
1 d p d e
P
Et
Pi = 1 Externally Applied Load d B
Y
PiR = (k 0 + k N i )u i
A
Resisting Load of the Sprin g E D d E
Y C
u
B
Incremental approach with Load Corrections. p e =
E
5
Plastic Flow (
d = E d d p ) Yield Criterion
d = E t d
1. Yielding has occurred. 1. Defines the onset of yielding
2. Strain increment d takes place. d = Hd p 2. || = y
3
3. d= de + dp Et 3
3. y - yield stress in uniaxial tension
H =
4. Write stress increment in various ways: 1 (E t E ) 4. Trecsa
(
d = E d d p ) E 5. von Mises
E t = E 1
d = E td E+H
d = Hd p
Flow Rule Hardening Rules

B
B
1. Relates stress increment {d} to strain 1. Kinematic Y Et
increment {d} after yielding. 1. Yield surface retains size and shape and E E
2. Uniaxial
U a a case:
case d = Et d translates in stress space. 2 Y
2. Isotropic
3. Prandtl-Reuss often used.
Yield surface retains shape but increases in B
4. Associated - ductile materials. 1.
size. Kinematic Et
5. Nonassociated - soil or granular materials.
Isotropic Et
3 Isotropic Hardening 3 Kinematic Hardening 3
Yield Surface Yield Surface
Yield Surface
2 2 2
1 1 1
6
Elastic-Plastic Action in Uniaxial Tension
One Dimensional Elastic-Plastic Analysis
d
1. Stress reaches yield value (onset of yielding).
2. Subsequent plastic deformation may alter the stress E= < Y
needed to produce renewed or continued yielding. d
3. If Et > 0 this stress will exceed y. d p d e
4
4. Fl
Flow R
Rule:
l dd = Et d.
d Et
d
5. Prior to onset of yield or during unloading: d = E d. Y
B
d
A
6. Complete unloading from B to C results in permanent E D d E
strain p.
Et = after yielding
7. Behavior does not have to be bilinear. Et need not be
constant.
Y C
B
d
p e =
E
Rounding the corner - going from D to A:

Tangent Stiffness Method
E ep = mE + (1 m )E t 1. For the first computational cycle (i = 1),
AE ep 1 1
[k t ] = 1 1 D
m= Y
assume Eep = E for all elements. Apply the first
load increment {R}1
L A D 2. Using the current strains, determine the
current Eep in each element.
element Obtain the [kt]n for
E ep = E before yielding or each element n. Obtain the current structure
tangent stiffness [Kt]i-1 Solve [Kt]i-1 { D}i =
or during unloading * = E A {R}i From { D}i obtain the current strain
increment i for each element
E ep = E t Y D
after yielding m=
* D
Tangent Stiffness Method P

Improve Results
3. If any element makes the elastic-to-plastic
transition revise Eep Return to previous step and EXACT
1. Smaller load increments
P3
repeat & until convergence. Define
convergence as < (_%) .
2. Exercising Step 3
P2
4 Update {D}i = {D}i-1 + { D}i , i = i-1 +
4. i i = 3
3. Use Corrective Loads
P1= P1
i-1 + i -1 D2 D3 4. Can attempt to choose load increments so
5. Apply next load increment and return to step . only one ( or a few) elements yield in
6. Stop when sum of incremental loads equals the each load step.
total load. D1= D1 D
7
We seek the strain B associated with B One Dimensional Elastic-Plastic Analysis
Initial Stiffness Method

C
1. Avoids having to formulate tangent C = C
C
stiffness matrix for each load increment. E
E p
2. Can converge slowly if plastic strains are C = B + E p e
B Et
B
large or widespread. 1 1
p = = Et Y
A
H H E p
= e + p

E E
p = = 1 t
E+H E
Y B
Tangent Stiffness Method Tangent Stiffness Method

C 3. Update displacements: {D}new ={D}old+ { D}
1. Compute the elastic stiffness matrix [K]. Solve
[K]{D}={R} where {R} is proportional to the 4. In each element, calculate the strain increment
B Et actual loads but of arbitrary value. Scale {R} so associated with { D}. Update element stresses by
B
A
that it becomes {RY} which causes yielding to adding to existing stress , using = E if
Y impend. Scale {D} and call it {Dold}. Choose < Y and = Et if > Y For elements that
p2
E 1p subsequent load increments to be greater of make the elastic-to-plastic transition by the addition
0.5{RY} or (Et/E) {RY} . Initailize supplementary of , evaluate m and recompute as = E m
loads to { Rs} =0.
2. Solve [K]{ D} = {R}+ { Rs} for { D}
1 2 B
Tangent Stiffness Method Tangent Stiffness Method Small-Strain Elasticity Relations

5. For all elements that display plastic strains (|| > 6. (continued) Solve [K]{D}={Rs} and
Y), calculate the plastic strain increments by p = return to step .
(1-Et/E) or = (1-Et/E) (1-m) for elements
p Use engineering definition of shear strain:
making the elastic-to-plastic transition. Generate the 7. Repeat steps to until convergence.
s pplementa loads by
supplementary b summing
s mming element Then apply another load increment {R} xy = v , x + u , y
contributions: and return to step
8. Stop when {RY} + {R} reaches the total Do not use the tensor definition of shear strain:
{ R s } = { rs } load. v ,x + u , y
xy =
L
{ rs } = [B ]T E p A dx
0 2
8
Plasticity Theory Yield Criterion Yield Criterion
Possible values of F:
1. Yield Criterion Define a yield function F, which is a function of F < 0 - elastic range
stresses {} and parameters {} and Wp
2. Flow Rule F = 0 - yielding
associated with the hardening rule. F > 0 - impossible
3 Hardening Rule
3.
F ({ }, {}, Wp ) = 0
Possible values of dF:
dF < 0 - unloading
F ( , , Wp ) = 0
dF = 0 - continued yielding
dF > 0 - impossible
Flow Rule Flow Rule Flow Rule

Q
Define a plastic potential Q, d px = d
which is a function of stresses
{} and parameters {} and
Q = Q ({}, {}, Wp ) x Q=F associated flow rule.
Wp associated with the Q QF nonassocia ted flow rule.
d =p
d
hardening rule. Also define a
scalar d that may be called a
{d }= {Q}d
p y
y associated flow rule - ductile materials
plastic multiplier. Plastic nonassocia ted flow rule - granular materials (soils)
strain increments are given
M
by: Q
d pxz = d
xz
Incremental Stress-Strain Relation

Hardening Rule Hardening Rule
T T
F F F
The parameter {} locates the center of the yield The parameters {} and Wp are given by: dF = 0 = {d } + {d } + dW p
surface in stress space. Before any yielding occurs {} {} Wp
{{}} = 0. In kinematic hardeningg the yyield surface {} = C {d p } {d } = C {d p }
moves in the direction of plastic straining, so {}
Wp = {} {d p } dW p = { } {d p }
0. The parameter Wp describes how the yield T T
surface grows. For isotropic hardening, {} = 0
throughout the analysis and Wp 0.
Where C can be assumed to be a material {d } = [E ]{d e } = [E ]({d } {d p })
constant.
9
Incremental Stress-Strain Relation Incremental Stress-Strain Relation
F=0 and dF = 0

d = {C } {d }
T
{d} = [E ] {d} Q d
{} [E ] = [E ] {Q}{C } T
{d} = [E ep ]{d}
ep
F
T
[E ]
{C }T = {} F < 0 and dF < 0
[E ] = [E] {Q}{C } T
[E ep ] = [E ]
T T
F Q F Q
[E ] C
F
{}T Q ep
{} {} {} {} Wp {}
[k t ] = [B ]T [E ep ][B ]dV
V
10

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