STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE

SURROUNDINGS OF MUZAFFARABAD WITH

EMPHASIS ON NEOTECTONICS

Thesis Submitted to the National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University

of Peshawar, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOLOGY

By

SYED ALI TURAB

NATIONAL CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN GEOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
(2012)
 DEDICATION
Dedicated to my beloved
Family members

Syed Ali Turab

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x
ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 (INTRODUCTION) (1-10)

1.1. BACKGROUND 1
1.2. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA 2
1.3. ACCESSIBILITY 3
1.4. METHODOLOGY 3
1.4.1. Field Work 4
1.4.2. Lab Work 4
1.4.2.1. Preparation of the Geological Map 5
1.4.2.2. Preparation of Geological cross-section 5
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

CHAPTER 2 (REGIONAL TECTONICS) (11-28)

2.1. INTRODUCTION 11
2.2. NORTHWEST HIMALAYAS 12
2.3. TECTONIC SUBDIVISIONS 13
2.4. BOUNDARY FAULTS 18
2.5. HAZARA-KASHMIR SYNTAXIS (HKS) 19
2.5.1. The Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis; Core Structures 21
2.5.1.1. The Muzaffarabad Anticline 21
2.5.1.2. Muzaffarabad Thrust (The Jhelum Thrust) 22
2.5.1.3. NE-SW Refolding Structures 22
2.5.2. Structures Defining the Margins of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis 25
2.5.2.1. Northern and Eastern Limb 25
2.5.2.2. Western Limb 25
i
 2.5.2.2.1. Jhelum Fault 26
2.5.3. Tectonic Models for the Origin of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis 27

CHAPTER 3 (STRATIGRAPHIC SETUP) (29-41)

STRATIGRAPHY 29
3.1. PRECAMBRIAN 30
3.1.1. Hazara Formation 30
3.2. PALEOZOIC 31
3.2.1. Muzaffarabad Formation 32
3.3. MESOZOIC 34
3.3.1. Rara Formation 34
3.4. TERTIARY 35
3.4.1. Paleocene Rocks (Undivided) 35
3.4.2. Murree Formation 37
3.4.3. Kamlial Formation 40

CHAPTER 4 (STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY) (42-60)

INTRODUCTION 42
4.1. MAJOR STRUCTURES 42
4.1.1. Jhelum Fault 42
4.1.2. Muzaffarabad Thrust 46
4.1.3. Nathiagali Thrust 48
4.1.4. Muzaffarabad Anticline 49
4.2 OTHER TECTONIC STRUCTURES 50
4.3 CROSS SECTION AB (SUBSURFACE STRUCTURES) 56

CHAPTER 5 (NEOTECTONICS) (61-84)

NEOTECTONICS 61
5.1. NEOTECTONIC FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH JHELUM AND
ASSOCIATED FAULTS (MUZAFFARABAD-KOHALA SEGMENT) 62

ii
5.2. NEOTECTONIC FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE
MUZAFFARABAD THRUST 69
5.2.1. Sar Pain area, locations 5 and 6 71
5.2.2. Locations 7 and 8 78
5.2.3. Chikar Kas, location 9 79
5.2.4. Awan Pati, location 10 and Butlian village, location 11 80
5.2.5. Nisar Camp Muzaffarabad, location 12 81
5.2.6. Hattian Bala Landslide 83

CHAPTER 6 (DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS) (85-92)

6.1. DISCUSSION 85
6.2. CONCLUSIONS 91

REFERENCES 93

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Map showing regional geology and tectonics of the area (Treloar et 2
al., 2000). Box shows location of the project area.
JF = Jhelum Fault, MBT = Main Boundary Thrust, MT =
Muzaffarabad Thrust, NT = Nathiagali Thrust, PT = Panjal Thrust.
Fig. 2.1 Regional geological map of the Northwestern Himalayas, North 14
Pakistan showing location of the study area (boxed area). Nathiagalli
Thrust illustrates the boundary between the metamorphic (Internal)
and the non-metamorphic (External) zones (After Coward et al.,
1988).
Fig. 2.2 Geological map of Northwestern Himalayas in North Pakistan 15
(Hazara, Kaghan, Kashmir). Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis refolds all the
major thrusts except Indus Suture zone (MMT) (After Greco, 1989).
Fig. 2.3 Tectonic map showing refolding of the major Himalayan thrusts by 20
the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. MMT = Main Mantle Thrust; MCT =
Main Central Thrust; PT = Panjal Thrust; MBT = Main Boundary
Thrust; MT = Muzaffarabad Thrust; JF = Jhelum Fault; NT =
Nathiagali Thrust (Modified after Latif, 1970; Calkins et al., 1975;
Greco and Spencer, 1993; and this study).
Fig. 2.4 Map showing the refolding of first phase structures of HKS, oriented 23
almost at right angle to each other (After Greco, 1989).
Fig. 2.5 Map showing the continuation of refolding structures of HKS in 24
Kaghan area (After Greco, 1989).
Fig. 2.6 Steeply dipping Jhelum Fault exposed along River Jhelum between 27
Muzaffarabad and Kohala.
Fig. 3.1 Murree sandstone exposed along gorge sides near location 6. 38
Fig. 3.2 Cross beds in Murree sandstone near Kunhar-Jhelum Rivers Junction. 38
Stratigraphic younging direction is indicated by word Up. Photo
taken looking towards S60E.
Fig. 3.3 (a) Grey jointed sandstone of Murree Formation exposed along road 39
side. (b) Sole marks in Murree sandstone present at the lower face of
the exposed bed.

iv
Fig. 3.4 Channel lag breccia and overlying grey sandstone of Murree 39
Formation.
Fig. 4.1 Difference in relief across Jhelum Fault; Murree Formation (left) 43
forming low relief while Hazara Formation (right) forming high relief
topography.
Fig. 4.2 Steeply dipping fault plane of Jhelum Fault exposed along the left 44
bank of Jhelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kohala and its equal
area stereographic projection (Location 4, Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.3 Sharp contact (Jhelum Fault) between Murree Formation and Hazara 45
Formation exposed along the Muzaffarabad-Kohala road at location 1
(Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.4 Jhelum Fault crossing the Kunhar River, close to its junction with the 45
Jhelum River near the Rara village and its stereographic projection
(Location 2, Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.5 Jhelum Fault exposed at left bank of Jhelum River due to low level of 45
water flow in winter. For scale, arrow shows two persons standing on
outcrop of Hazara Formation.
Fig. 4.6 Geological map of the study area with location of section line (AB, 47
Fig. 4.12). White dots indicating different Locations.
Fig. 4.7 Structural map of the study area showing two phases of structures 52
formation. Structural trend of the area is determined from results of
this study, Greco (1989) and Published GSP maps.
Fig. 4.8 Fold and Thrust fault in Hazara Formation at Location 3. Equal area, 53
great circle plots of both bedding plane and fault plane are given at the
top corners.
Fig. 4.9 Stereoplots showing poles to the bedding planes and Great circles of 54
Domain 1.
Fig. 4.10 Stereoplots showing poles to the bedding planes and Great circles of 54
Domain 2.
Fig. 4.11 Satellite image of 2.5 m resolution and various structures and features 57
identified on it using Erdas Imagine 8.4. Black lines show different
structural features including bedding and fold axes, Blue lines indicate
stream offsets, Red lines indicate Faults while Green lines show

v
 Rivers and streams.
Fig 4.12 Cross section of the study area showing different subsurface structures 58
and detachement at depth.
Fig. 4.13 Bedding parallel striations on the bedding plane of sandstone in 59
Murree formation indicating flexural flow mechanism of folding.
Fig. 5.1 Google Earth Image of the study area showing major bends in the 63
flow pattern of Jhelum River near Muzaffarabad and Kunhar River
near Rara village signifying neotectonic effects of the Muzaffarabad
Thrust, Jhelum Fault and the inferred Rara Fault.
Fig. 5.2 Close-up view of the bends in Kunhar River Flow direction (Yellow 65
lines) in relation with the strike slip faults (Red lines). Dashed line
shows probable strike slip fault.
Fig 5.3 Google Earth Image showing trace of Jhelum Fault passing through 66
the Jhelum river bend, the PM Secretariate and the Parliament lodges
at Lower Chattar. a shows the location from where the Photo of
Figure 5.4 was taken and b shows location of the Figure 4.3.
Fig. 5.4 Field photograph of steeply cut fluvial terrace near lower chattar, 66
Muzaffarabad. Photo taken (from point a in Fig. 5.3 and point 1 in
Fig. 5.5), looking roughly towards South.
Fig. 5.5 Close-up view showing sharp bend in River Jhelum flow direction and 68
truncation of associated fluvial terrace. 1 shows the location from
where the Photo of Figure 5.4 was taken and 2 shows location of the
Figure 4.3.
Fig. 5.6 A satellite-image view showing tributary stream avulsion by the 68
Jhelum Fault in the Lower Jhelum Valley. Note Jhelum Fault (dashed
line) coinciding with faceted spurs-fluvial terrace interface (After Ali,
2011).
Fig. 5.7 Surface fault trace map of Muzaffarabad Thrust by Avouac et al. 69
(2006) using remote sensing image analysis.
Fig. 5.8 Geological map prepared by Kaneda et al. (2008) based on field 70
mapping techniques showing trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust that
ruptured in 2005 earthquake.
Fig. 5.9 A Google Earth view of the active tectonic feature (2005 Erathquake 70

vi
 Rupture-dashed line) and geomorphic features like fluvial terraces,
faceted spurs and hanging valleys along the northern slopes of the
Upper Jhelum River (Muzafarabad-Siran Segment; Muzafarabad
towards the lower left corner of the photograph) (After Ali, 2011).
Fig. 5.10 (a) Vertical separation of 3.3 meters observed in the field along the 72
fracture R8.
(b) View of the Earthquake Pond produced after 2005 Kashmir
earthquake when the ground to the right side of the fault trace
(hanging wall) was uplifted relatively to left side (foot wall). Photo
taken looking towards NW.
(c) Change in the Tree Line observed from a distance indicating
uplift. Houses visible are of Sar Pain village (Photo taken looking
towards west).
Fig. 5.11 This photograph shows the tilting of the ground surface after 2005 72
earthquake. Distant newer graves (at the top of photo) are of the
victims of Kashmir earthquake devastation, unquestionably built after
the earthquake, are positioned horizontally where as the older graves
at the fore front of this photo are tilted to the right side (Photo taken
looking towards SE).
Fig. 5.12 (a) Block diagram showing different data parameters recorded along 73
key rupture surfaces. d: displacement; dp: depth; l: length; w: width.
(b) An example showing typical rupture surface observed on a fluvial
terrace. Note, the data parameters described in a fit into the surface
geometry of the rupture.
Fig. 5.13 (a and b) photographs showing ground rupture features with vertical 75
displacements (d). These rupture zones were observed on fluvial
terrace on the left bank of the Jhelum River, location 5. Top
photograph shows at least four levels of scarp-lets within ~12m.
Arrows show normal shear sense.
Fig.5.14 (a) Photograph and (b) sketch showing fracture pattern associated with 76
the rupture, close to the survey point 15, photo taken looking towards
southwest. (c) En-echelon pattern with small rhombohedral grabens.
Fig. 5.15 Detailed map and a cross section of the fractures observed at location 77

vii
 5 near Sar Pain area. Density diagram is also provided (See text for
details).
Fig. 5.16 Detailed map and a cross section of the fractures observed at location 78
6 near Sar Pain area. Density diagram is also provided (See text for
details).
Fig. 5.17 (a) Location 7 shows fracture pattern along the metalled road. 79
Negligible vertical displacement was observed on the road with few
centimeters of opening or extension. Inset shows cracks in the brick
wall. The orientation of these cracks follows the rupture trend. (b)
Location 8, photograph showing the trace of rupture zone from
location 5. Note the fracture pattern is very similar as observed at
locations 5 and 6. Inset shows details of the fracture pattern. (c)
Location 9, Chikar Kas, where ground rupture is trending NW-SE and
is manifested as complete collapse of semi-concrete houses and tilting
of trees.
Fig. 5.18 (a) Reverse fault observed on the way to Awan Pati town, Location 81
10. The fault is observed in the bed rock. The attitude of the fault is
close to the main rupture trend. Note, 1) washing out of the road due
to fracturing and sinking, and 2) fault displaces recent colluvium and
vegetation. (b) Location 11, unusual bulge on terrace near Butlian
village as a consequence of 2005 Kashmir earthquake.
Fig. 5.19 Field photograph showing the Failure surface of landslide near Nisar 83
camp in the background and the bulging due to Muzaffarabad Thrust
in the foreground, complimented by tilting of trees and localization of
destruction along the crest of bulging.
Fig. 5.20 (a and b) Satellite images (2.5metre resolution) showing location of 84
the areas (5 to 11), where surface rupture, caused by the 2005 Kashmir
earthquake, was studied in detailed.
Fig. 5.21 Photograph showing the south eastern face of Dana Hill which slided 84
down and blocked Karli River forming Karli lake. Photo taken from
the high point on Landslide deposit and looking towards northwest.
Vehicles are shown for scale (Modified after Dunning et al., 2007).
Fig. 6.1 Bedding-Cleavage relationship as observed in outcrops of Murree 88

viii
 Formation along Muzaffarabad-Srinagar road near location 6.
Stereographic projection shows the orientation of intersection
lineation formed.
Fig. 6.2 Very steep foliation developed in shales of Murree Formation near 90
location 7 showing NE-SW directed stresses. Axial plane of small
kink folding is also visible (marker for scale).

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Table showing formation thicknesses used to construct cross-section 6

(Fig. 4.12).
Table 3.1 Table showing the composite stratigraphy of the study area (from 29
Calkins et al., 1975; Greco, 1989; Greco and Spencer, 1993; Kazmi
and Jan, 1997; Hussain et al., 2004; Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008; Shah,
2009).
Table 3.2 Table showing the stratigraphic comparison of Muzaffarabad with 33
Abbottabad and Kotli areas.
Table 4.1 Attitude data of the study area used for structural analysis. 55

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to ALLAH (Almighty), the source of all knowledge, wisdom within and
beyond our comprehension who enabled me to complete this work.
I wish to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Professor
Dr. M. Asif Khan, National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of
Peshawar, who really helped me and accompanied me all the time during the
fieldworks and during the thesis writing, map preparation, and digitization, for
which I am indebted to him. I am really grateful to my co-supervisor Dr. M. Sayab
who really provided help in fieldworks and mapping.
I also Thank Mr. M. Ahsan Afridi, Mr. S. Muntazir Abbas and Mr. Waqas Javed for
helping in preparation of Geological Map using ArcGIS.
I am very much thankful to Dr. S. Zahid Shah, Dr. Muhammad Zafar and Dr.
Muhammad Umer for reviewing my thesis and providing valuable comments which
greatly improved the quality of thesis.
At last but not the least my family members also deserve regards and special thanks
for their moral support throughout my research. May God bless them and may God
give me a chance to serve them better.

x
 ABSTRACT

The disastrous earthquake of 8th October, 2005 in Kashmir and surrounding regions
produced excellent neotectonic features on mesoscopic to regional scale hence
resulting in drawing attention of the global geoscientific community. The study area
of this research is defined by rocks of two tectonic realms i.e. Lesser Himalayas and
Sub Himalayas separated by Jhelum Fault (JF) / Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). These
rocks are folded on a regional scale around antiformal structure called Hazara
Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS) with rocks of lesser Himalayas exposed along the limbs and
apex where as that of sub Himalayas covering its core.

This earthquake ruptured Muzaffarabad Thrust between Balakot city in the NW and
Sudhan Gali in the SE. Detailed rupture mapping was carried out on 1:100 scale at
two small hillocks near Sar Pain area on Muzaffarabad-Srinagar road. Here the fault
trace is characterized by broad zone of fractures running through lose sediments of
fluvial terraces. Maximum vertical displacement recorded along these fractures is
3.3m. Other neotectonic features associated with 2005 earthquake, and hence
Muzaffarabad Thrust, include convex bulging of cultivated land close to its trace;
tilting of man-made features / structures; ponds formation on the footwall as hanging
wall was uplifted along Muzaffarabad Thrust and blocked the flow of streams running
across its trace; and change in a pre-earthquake straight tree-line across Muzaffarabad
Thrust indicating uplift. There were many associated landslides distributed along the
trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust but those at Nisar Camp and Hattian Bala locations are
note worthy.

Neotectonic features of the Jhelum Fault were studied using satellite image analysis
and field observations. Stream flow pattern was used as a major indicator of
neotectonic activity along Jhelum Fault on satellite images. A 140 bend in flow
pattern of Jhelum River near Muzaffarabad city is due to neotetonic activity along
Jhelum Fault. Stream avulsion of the western tributaries of lower Jhelum River is also
identified on satellite images. Field evidences of neotectonic activity along Jhelum
Fault include stream offset and dissected sedimentation bars. Another characteristic
feature is the change in topographic relief across the trace of Jhelum Fault.

Satellite image analysis was also used for identification of different lithologies and
structures exposed in the study area. The results displayed a good match with field
observations and previously published literature. Two distinct structural domains were
identified based on the strike data. Most of the structures lying in Domain 1 are
oriented more or less in NNE direction indicating that this area has taken up effect of
Jhelum Fault. Whereas Domain 2 is affected by NE-SW shortening, resulting in
formation of NW oriented structures almost parallel to Muzaffarabad Thrust.

xi
CHAPTER 1 (INTRODUCTION)

1.1. BACKGROUND

This study was carried out in Azad Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Hazara division,

Pakistan. The area captured special attention of the global geoscientific community

after the 8 October, 2005, Kashmir earthquake which almost wiped out an entire

generation of human being in Balakot, Bagh, Muzaffarabad and the adjoining areas.

Thousands of people lost their lives in a few seconds with many more left behind as

injured and homeless, thus reinforcing the need to better understand earthquakes, their

significance and processes of their occurrences and mitigating the risks. Therefore,

the surroundings of Muzaffarabad were selected for the structural and neotectonic

studies because it was worst affected by October 8, 2005 earthquake.

The city of Muzaffarabad lies close to the junction of two active faults, the

Muzaffarabad Thrust and the Jhelum Fault. The former is responsible for the deadly

earthquake of October 08, 2005; whereas the Jhelum Fault has been relatively inactive

in the recent past. It forms a part of the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

which is a major fold structure in Pakistani Himalayas (Fig. 1.1). This spectacular

structural feature of the Himalayas was first discussed in detail by Wadia (1931) who

referred to it as the Syntaxis of the Northwest Himalaya.

This research work was focused on identifying structural and neotectonic features

associated with Muzaffarabad Thrust and the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis (HKS) which comprises of Jhelum Fault and Nathiagali Thrust, and finally

correlating these features with the regional structural trend of the area. Special focus

was on recording both mesostructures as well as mega structures.

1
Fig. 1.1. Map showing regional geology and tectonics of the area (Treloar et al.,
2000). Box shows location of the project area.
JF = Jhelum Fault, MBT = Main Boundary Thrust, MT = Muzaffarabad
Thrust, NT = Nathiagali Thrust, PT = Panjal Thrust.

1.2. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA

Administratively, majority of the study area lies in Azad Jammu and Kashmir while a

small western portion covers Hazara division, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (Fig.

1.1). It includes predominantly the areas of the Survey of Pakistan toposheets No. 43

F/11 and 43 F/12 with minor area representing toposheets No. 43 F/7 and 43 F/8. The

study area lies between latitudes 34 05' 00" to 34 25' 00" and longitudes 73 25' 00"

to 73 45' 00". Southern boundary of the study area is just south of Kohala bridge on

Murree-Muzaffarabad road while northern extreme is marked by the location where

Paleocene carbonates in the northeastern limb of Muzaffarabad anticline are crossed

by Neelum River. Western margin of the study area is about 5 km to the west of

junction of Kunhar and Jhelum Rivers while Nathiagali and Thandiani lie about 3.5

and 5 Kms close to this margin respectively. Similarly the eastern limit is manifested

by Hatian town on Muzaffarabad-Srinagar road.

2
1.3. ACCESSIBILITY

The study area is mostly mountainous, increasing in height towards north and

contains good network of roads to major settlements as well as far-flung villages.

Muzaffarabad city, capital of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, is connected to Islamabad by

air and road. Its distance from Rawalpindi is 138 kilometers and is at about 76

kilometers from Abbottabad. Muzaffarabad can also be reached by road from

Mansehra via Balakot and then Garhi Habibullah. There are also few narrow roads

which lead to the western parts of the study area from the eastern parts of Abbottabad

e.g. Nathiagali and Thandiani etc.

Good cross-sectional exposures and traverse sites are accessible along the rivers and

streams flowing across the general strike of the area. The study area is crossed by

numerous such streams in addition to three major rivers which are having perennial

flow including Kunhar River, Jhelum River and Neelum River.

1.4. METHODOLOGY

Reconnaissance study of the area was done by studying satellite images using

computer softwares like Erdas Imagine 8.4 and ArcGIS 9.2. Combined with published

geological maps, satellite image analysis was used to delineate the major fold and

fault structures, and stratigraphic units prior to undertaking the field studies.

Neotectonic studies of the area were carried out, with focus on recording neotectonic

activities in Quaternary terrace deposits in the field and studying drainage patterns

and recognizing stream offsets using both satellite image analysis as well as field

checks.

3
1.4.1. Field Work

Field work was carried out in the area from Hatian to Muzaffarabad along the

Muzaffarabad Thrust, from Muzaffarabad to Kohala along the western limb of

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis and along Agar Nala to cover the area between the Jhelum

Fault and Muzaffarabad Thrust (Fig. 1.1). Traverses were also made to document

structural and neotectonic features along streams and gorges which provide good

exposures across the regional strike.

Two separate field visits were made to the area. First field work was carried out from

1st to 3rd February, 2008. This visit was intended to identify the vital areas for

comprehensive studies. Second field work was designed after a month from 29th

February to 3rd March 2008. In this field excursion, thorough study of Muzaffarabad

Thrust trace was done with meter-scale rupture mapping at Sar Pain. Attention was

also paid to record other features which evidenced the neotectonic nature of the fault

i.e. uplifting, bulging and tilting of the surface and their effects e.g. blocking of water

flow in stream(s) etc.

1.4.2. Lab Work

After collecting data in the field, it was transferred to computer and various

components were selected for further work. Following is a general procedure that was

adopted in the lab work:

i. Prior to the commencement of field work, Satellite images were first studied in the

lab to delineate the regional scale structural trend of the area.

ii. The data collected in the field was assembled in the lab.

iii. Data was then converted to acceptable formats for use in computer software for

stereographic projections

4
iv. Stereonet plots of the data were prepared in the lower hemisphere using Rick

Allmendingers StereoWin 1.2 software.

v. Based on stereographic projections various sub-groups of data set were

recognized, analyzed and used for interpretation.

vi. Geological map and a cross-section were then prepared from field observations.

vii. All maps, stereographic projections, cross-sectional profile and diagrams were

used in writing the final report and interpreting the results.

1.4.2.1. Preparation of Geological Map

Detailed geological map of the area was prepared using published geological maps of

Geological Survey of Pakistan as base maps. The study area is covered by Survey of

Pakistan toposheet Numbers 43 F/7, 43 F/8, 43 F/11 and 43 F/12. All the geological

maps are present in National Library of Earth Sciences (NLES), National Centre of

Excellence in Geology (NCEG), University of Peshawar, except the 43 F/8. Therefore

the geological map of Latif (1970) was used as base map to cover for the area of 43

F/8. Final layout of geological map with proper scale and legend was prepared in

ArcMap 9.2 software by integrating the field observations and satellite image

analysis.

1.4.2.2. Preparation of Geological cross-section

Geological cross-section was constructed across the structures in mapped area to

understand the subsurface geometry. Following are the general steps that were

followed for the construction of cross-section.

i. A section line was selected on the map that crossed maximum of lithologies and

structures at about right angle. A jog was thus inserted in the section line to

incorporate the southwestern syncline in the section.

5
ii. Profile was constructed from SRTM DEM file by using the computer software

Global Mapper 8.03.

iii. Cross section was finally constructed using 2DMove 5.0 software. Kink method

was followed for cross-section construction. Thicknesses of different formations

were taken from the published work of the study area (Table 1.1).

iv. Dip data used for the construction of cross-section shows an integration of data

from GSP maps and the field observations.

Table 1.1. Table showing formation thicknesses used to construct cross-section (Fig.
4.12).
Thickness
S. No. Formation Name Reference
(in meters)
Measured from cross-section
1 Kamlial Formation about 1500
(this study)
2 Murree Formation 1524 Calkins et al. (1975)
Paleocene Rocks Greco (1989), Greco and Spencer
3 200
(Undivided) (1993)
Muzaffarabad
4 762 Calkins et al. (1975)
Formation

1.5. LITERATURE REVIEW

The earliest work on geology of Hazara Kashmir region dates back to the 2nd half of

ninteenth century and continued into the first half of previous century. This work is

concentrated on the age determination, stratigraphic correlation and structural and

tectonic work. Examples of prominent work in this area include Verchre (1866 and

1867), Wynne (1873), Lyddekar (1883), Middlemiss (1896), Wadia (1928, 1931, and

1934).

6
Wadia (1931) worked in detail on the Tectonics, Orogeny and stratigraphy of the

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. He referred to it as Syntaxis of the Northwest Himalaya

and presented the earliest model for its formation. He inferred an original horst or a

triangular promontory of Gondwanaland (which he termed The Foreland) to be the

main reason of formation of the syntaxis. According to him, the foreland is

tectonically overlain by The Autochthonous Fold Belt which itself is lying below the

The Nappe Zone. Wadia (1931) divided the area into eight major mappable

stratigraphic units, thus established the broad structural-stratigraphic relationships in

the area.

Latif (1970) mapped the southeastern Hazara and adjoining parts of Rawalpindi and

Muzaffarabad in great detail. He presented completely new stratigraphic

nomenclature for the rocks exposed in the area and recognized eight major

lithostratigraphic groups which were further classified into 21 different lithologic

subunits. Latifs map thus provides great structural and stratigraphic details.

Calkins et al. (1975) had mapped the area in detail and explained the stratigraphy and

structure of a sequence of rocks that range in age from Precambrian to Miocene. They

reported that the structural pattern of western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

developed in two phases of deformation. In the first phase, the tectonic transport was

towards south having strong east and southeast wards pressure while the second phase

demonstrates the west and southwest wards countermovement of rocks in the

compressed axial zone in response to the continued south and southwest wards

movement of rocks on the longer eastern limb. The major structural terminologies

used in this thesis are taken from Calkins et al. (1975) e.g. Muzaffarabad Anticline

7
and Hazara-Kashmir Synaxis. This work was done jointly by the Geological survey of

Pakistan and U.S. Geological Survey.

Bossart et al. (1984 and 1988) studied the tectonic structure of the Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis by integrating the rock deformation and regional scale tectonics. They

reported two sets of superimposed major folds with related minor structures. Hence

they presented a tectonic model for the formation of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis that the

syntaxis is formed as a result of early nappe formation by southwest ward thrusting of

metamorphosed Himalayan rocks, proceeded by development of large shear zone

structure and lastly by the overthrusting of rock units from northwest to southeast.

Greco (1989) and Greco and Spencer (1993) discussed the stratigraphical, tectonic

and metamorphic features of the area. They divided the area into four main tectonic

elements (i.e. Subhimalaya, Lesser Himalaya, Higher Himalaya and Kohistan

sequence) and correlated it with the Indian Kashmir Himalayas to the east. A tectonic

model is proposed based on detailed superficial structures including small scale

structures (stretching lineation, schistosity and crenulation cleavage), rock distribution

and petrographic studies. Geometrical superposition of deformational phases detected

by small and large scale structures and by pressure-temperature history of the

collected samples is also in accordance with this model. Greco (1989) gave the name

Rara Formation to a NS oriented, fault bounded package of rocks lying between

Murree Formation in the east and Hazara Formation in the west.

Bossart and Ottiger (1990) carried out paleomagnetic and structural analyses of three

sections of Murree Formation along the core of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. These

sections are located in Jhelum, Neelum and Kaghan valleys. Thus he reported 45 of

8
clockwise rotation of the axial zone of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis relative to the Indian

craton.

Treloar et al. (1992) worked on the large scale tectonic geometries of Northwest

Himalaya. Taking the dominant transport direction throughout the Himalayan history

as towards S or SSE, He came up with a model that the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis has

been formed by the mechanical impediment by the interference and thus pinning of

two converging Pakistani and Kashmir thrust sheets. This pinning resulted in the

rotation of these sheets forming the present geometry of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis.

Arbab and Shah (1996) of Geological Survey of Pakistan published a detailed

geological map of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Their map portrays good details and

explanatory notes on the stratigraphy, structure and economic geology of the area.

Avouac et al. (2006) determined displacement along Muzaffarabad Thrust based on

remote sensing analyses using sub-pixel correlation of ASTER images. According to

them, average displacement is around 4m with maximum value of 7 m northeast of

Muzaffarabad.

Kaneda et al. (2008) mapped in detail the surface rupture of causative fault of

Kashmir earthquake 2005. Vertical separation of ~ 7 m was recorded by them and

declared that this fault is not accommodating the main Himalayan contraction because

they calculated the shortening rate and recurrence interval for this fault to be 1.4-4.1

mm/yr and 1000-3300 years, respectively.

Gahalaut (2006) classified the October 08, 2005 Kashmir earthquake as either entirely

occurring in the updip part of Indus Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ) or involving some

part of detachment under Kashmir Himalayas but definitely not occurring in the

9
Kashmir gap. Rather, he feared that this earthquake may have increased the stresses in

Kashmir Himalayas.

Owen et al. (2008) studied the landslides triggered by October 08, 2005 Kashmir

earthquake. Based on different geomorphic-geologic-anthropogenic settings, they

divided these landslides into six different types and concluded that the earthquake-

triggered landslides are mostly restricted to particular zones related with lithology,

structure, geomorphology, topography and human presence.

Dunning et al. (2007) studied in detail the Hattian Bala Landslide, the largest

landslide triggered by October 08, 2005 earthquake. They classified the landslide as

Rock Avalanche, measured various parameters and gave their quantitative data such

as length, width, area and volumes of landslide deposit and dammed lakes

respectively.

Khan et al. (2003) mainly contributed on the structure, tectonics and stratigraphy of

the area. Based on residual gravity data in the area, they studied shallow geological

structure in the core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis.

Munir and Mirza (2007) worked on the stratigraphic aspects of the 2005 earthquake

and concluded that the decollement is marked by the under lying shales of Kuldana

Formation. He also identified two unconformities during this study.

10
CHAPTER 2 (REGIONAL TECTONICS)

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The project is located in a part of the western Himalayas, which marks a major bend

in the Himalayan trend termed as the Western Syntaxis (Wadia, 1957). East of this

syntaxis, the Himalayas have a NW-SE trend compared to the part of the Himalayas

west of the syntaxis which have a WSW-ENE trend. The western syntaxis, comprises

two syntaxial bends. One in the north, involving Higher Himalayas and the Kohistan

Block, is termed the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, while southern bend involving the Lesser

and the Sub-Himalayas is termed Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (Calkins et al., 1975). It is

the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, which marks the junction between the Kashmir

Himalayas in the east and the Hazara-Pothowar Himalayas in the west and most

significant to tectonic setting of the study area.

Himalayas owe their origin to plate tectonics and have resulted from the continent-

continent collision during Cretaceous-Early Tertiary between the Indian and Eurasian

plates, which sandwiched the Kohistan Island arc in collision between the two. This

era of collision tectonics and mountain-building is named as the Himalayan orogeny.

There are several regional scale faults which control the overall geology and

geomorphology of the Himalayas.

Deformation in Himalayas is propagating towards south. From north towards south,

the tectonic elements are: a) Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) or Shyok suture zone

which separates the rocks of Eurasian plate from the rocks of Kohistan Island Arc

(KIA), b) Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) or Indus suture zone which brings the rocks of

Kohistan Island Arc (Kohistan sequence) on top of the Higher Himalayan rocks

belonging to the Indian Plate, c) Main Central Thrust (MCT); separating rocks of the

11
higher Himalayas from lesser Himalayas and d) Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) is

present between rocks of lesser Himalayas and sub Himalayas.

The study area occupies the west-central part of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, which

comprises tectonic units belonging to the Lesser Himalayas in the limbs and those of

the Sub Himalayas in the core. Neotectonic activity is prominent along the western

limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis, where several faults merge into one another. This

part of western limb lies between Muzaffarabad and Balakot and is termed the

Balakot Shear Zone. This shear zone continues with the Jhelum Fault to the south of

Muzaffarabad, while the Muzaffarabad Thrust joins the shear zone to the northwest of

Muzaffarabad. The Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis is younger than MCT, MBT and PT, as

it folds these fault structures; however, the Muzaffarabad Thrust and the Jhelum Fault

are suspected to have reactivated several times after the formation of the syntaxis,

including the recent-most neotectonics associated with Kashmir Earthquake 2005.

In this chapter, the regional tectonic setting of the NW Himalayas will be analyzed

with special emphasis to the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). Since the Kashmir

Earthquake 2005 epicentred in the vicinity of the project site, it is felt pertinent to

fully analyze the tectonic models which explain the formation of this syntaxial bend.

It is noteworthy that Pakistan has about half a dozen of oroclinal bends (syntaxis), of

which at least three are distinctly related with active faulting and recent earthquakes

e.g., Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, and Quetta Syntaxis.

2.2. NORTHWEST HIMALAYAS

Since the Himalayas have formed from the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian

plate, thus it represents the deformed northern part of the Indian plate and shows that

the region to the south of the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) is included in the

12
Himalayas. The Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Syntaxis represents the most northern part

of the Himalayas in north Pakistan. In general, the northern parts of the Himalayas are

demarcated by the mountain ranges of Kashmir, Upper Kaghan (south of Babusar),

Upper Hazara (Allai Kohistan and to the south), Besham and Indus Syntaxis, lower

Swat (south of Mingora), Chakdara, and Bajaur-Mohmand with the Salt Ranges and

the Trans-Indus Ranges delineating its southern limits in north Pakistan.

2.3. TECTONIC SUBDIVISIONS

Coward et al. (1988) divided the northwestern Himalayas into internal (or hinterland)

and external (or foreland) zones. The internal zone is comprised of crystalline rocks of

Naran, Upper Kashmir, Upper Hazara, Besham and Swat lying immediately to the

south of the MMT (Fig. 2.1). Whereas the external zone is considered to be a type of

foreland thrust-fold belt, comprising of successions of sedimentary rocks of Hill

Ranges (e.g., Kohat, Kalachitta, and Margala), the Salt Ranges-Trans-Indus Ranges,

and Potwar-Kohat plateau. The tectonic boundary between the internal and external

zones is marked by the Nathiagalli-Khairabad Thrust.

Gansser (1964) divided the rocks of central and eastern Himalayas into Tethyan

Himalayas, Higher Himalayas, Lesser Himalayas and Sub Himalayas (Fig. 2.2). The

Tethyan Himalayas are best developed in eastern and central Himalayas but are absent

from the western Himalayas of north Pakistan. It is comprised of unmetamorphosed

stratified rocks of Precambrian- Eocene age. The rocks of Higher Himalayas are

abundantly exposed just to the south of the MMT in Kaghan, upper Kashmir, Hazara,

and Swat areas. These rocks are comprised of Proterozoic aged crystalline rocks

which are metamorphosed during Himalayan orogeny. The MCT shows the southern

boundary of the Higher Himalayas and distinguishes it from the Lesser Himalayas.

13
The segregation of Higher and Lesser Himalayas is uncertain in north Pakistan

because MCT is only well developed in eastern and central Himalayas and its

extension beyond Kaghan is controversial. In northern Pakistan, the counterparts of

the Lesser Himalayas are considered to be consisting of an inner (or Abbottabad) zone

and an outer (or Kalachitta) zone. The latter includes Kohat, Kalachitta, and Margala

Hill Ranges and comprises of unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks of Triassic to

Eocene age.

Fig. 2.1. Regional geological map of the Northwestern Himalayas, North Pakistan
showing location of the study area (boxed area). Nathiagalli Thrust
illustrates the boundary between the metamorphic (Internal) and the non-
metamorphic (External) zones (After Coward et al., 1988).

14
Fig. 2.2. Geological map of Northwestern Himalayas in North Pakistan (Hazara,
Kaghan, Kashmir). Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis refolds all the major thrusts
except Indus Suture zone (MMT) (After Greco, 1989).

15
Fig. 2.2. (Continued)

16
The Abbottabad zone overlie rocks which are variably metamorphosed and

interpreted as of Late Proterozoic age including Salkhala Formation, Tanawal

Formation, Hazara, Manki (Attock), Landikotal and Dakhner Slate Formations. This

zone consists of unmetamorphosed rocks of early Paleozoic age (e.g., Abbottabad

Group) (Latif, 1970). The counterpart of Abbottabad Group in the Peshawar Plain is

entitled as Nowshera Group which is overlain by a thick succession of fossiliferrous

rocks of Permian-Triassic age intercalated with basalt horizons. Hence Nowshera

Group is correlatable with Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic Panjal Group of Kaghan

and Kashmir.

MBT marks the southern boundary of the Outer Lesser Himalayas with the Sub-

Himalayas. MBT is basically a mountain front which is defined by a blind thrust

except west of the Indus river, or in Murree and Muzaffarabad areas where it is

emergent. The Potwar-Kohat Plateau comprising a thick succession of Miocene-

Recent molasse sediments of Rawalpindi and Siwalik Groups characterizes the Sub

Himalayas of northern Pakistan. The Lesser Himalayas are exposed twice in northern

Pakistan, once in Hazara area and the second time at Salt Ranges respectively. The

Salt Range Formation and its overlying Paleozoic strata are stratigraphically

comparable to the Hazara Slates and overlying Abbottabad group of Hazara area

(Pogue et al., 1992). The Salt Range marks the southern end of the Potwar plateau.

The entire sequence from Precambrian to Recent in the Salt Range is exposed at the

surface due to its thrusting along the Salt Range Thrust (SRT). SRT ramps along a

basement normal fault but primarily is gently dipping detachment mainly running

through the Salt Range Formation.

17
2.4. BOUNDARY FAULTS

The Himalayas of northern Pakistan are the structural expression of the continent-

continent collision and thus exhibit a variety of major structures. The internal zone of

northern Pakistan contains five main thrust sheets (Treloar et al., 1989). From east to

west they are Upper Kaghan, lower Kaghan, Hazara, Besham and Swat. All these

thrust sheets are bordered by fault structures and their emplacement is considered to

have been taken place in the last 45 Ma. (post-peak metamorphism).

A traverse in the Kaghan valley along the Kaghan River offers a symbolic

representation of the major structures in the Himalayas of northern Pakistan.Various

major boundary faults separating the aforementioned thrust sheets of markedly

diverse tectono-stratigraphic framework can be identified here in this region (Fig.

2.2).

A younger phase of N-S oriented folding have folded all the major thrusts in the

Internal Zone of the Himalaya producing the N-S oriented regional scale fold

structures such as the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, Besham-Darband Syntaxis and Hazara

Kashmir Syntaxis. This phase of N-S folding is younger than the MBT and thus it

took place in the last < 8 Ma. Hence the Quaternary fault structures are mostly

oriented N-S and are commonly associated with the limbs of these N-S oriented fold

structures for instance the Balakot Fault at the western limb of the Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis and the Raikot-Sassi Fault at the western limb of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis.

Similarly, the Besham Syntaxis is also cut across by numerous N-S faults including

the Puran, Chakesar and Darband faults.

18
To the south of the Main Boundary Thrust, the Kohat-Pothowar Plateau and the Salt

ranges are bounded at their southern margin by a major boundary fault termed the

Main Frontal Thrust, which is the youngest boundary fault in Himalayas.

2.5. HAZARA-KASHMIR SYNTAXIS (HKS)

The Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis is a NNW trending regional-scale antiform that folds

the Lesser- and Sub-Himalayas and also the Higher Himalayas to some extent. Unlike

the classical anticlines, where the core is occupied by the oldest rocks and the limbs

comprise successively younger rocks, the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis exposes the

youngest rocks (i.e., Mid Tertiary and younger molasses sediments of Rawalpindi-

Siwalik Group) in the core, and successively older rocks in the limbs. This owes to

crustal stacking due to thrusting prior to the development of the Hazara-Kashmir

syntaxial structure. This N-S oriented mega-fold structure is the youngest of the

tectonic features in the region. Except for the Himalayan Frontal Thrust, all the major

thrusts including MBT, Panjal Thrust and MCT are refolded by this structure. Like

Nanga Parbat syntaxis, the western margin of the HKS is characterized by strong

neotectonic activity manifested in the form of Kashmir Earthquake 2005. Several

boundary thrusts, some of which are off course equivalent to the PT and the MBT are

involved in folding related with the HKS. These include the Mansehra Thrust, Oghi

Shear, Murree Thrust, Nathiagali Thrust, Muzaffarabad Thrust and the Jhelum Fault

(Fig. 2.3). Because of varying nomenclature, and looping together of several fault

structures, it is at time confusing to fully appreciate the tectonics of the HKS.

Therefore, an attempt is made below to clarify this tectonic set up.

19
Fig. 2.3. Tectonic map showing refolding of the major Himalayan thrusts by the
Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. MMT = Main Mantle Thrust; MCT = Main
Central Thrust; PT = Panjal Thrust; MBT = Main Boundary Thrust; MT =
Muzaffarabad Thrust; JF = Jhelum Fault; NT = Nathiagali Thrust (Modified
after Latif, 1970; Calkins et al., 1975; Greco and Spencer, 1993; and this
study).

20
The structures in the HKS are divided into two groups for the sake of description: the

core structures and the limb structures.

2.5.1. The Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis: Core Structures

There are three structures in the core of the HKS that are most significant. 1)

Muzaffarabad Anticline, and 2) Jhelum Thrust, 3) NE Trending Refold Structures. In

the following these three structures will be elaborated in detail.

2.5.1.1. The Muzaffarabad Anticline

The overall structure in the HKS, especially in its northern part, north of the Jhelum

River can be visualized as a large doubly plunging southwest-verging anticline, with a

well developed NE limb and a highly tectonized and attenuated SW limb. The core of

this structure is exposed near Muzaffarabad, and hence the structure is appropriately

termed as the Muzaffarabad Anticline (Calkins et al., 1975; Bossart et al., 1984;

Hussain et al., 2004).

The doubly plunging anticline exposes the deepest stratigraphic levels in a 30 km long

stretch between Muzaffarabad and Balakot, where the core is occupied by carbonates

of Muzaffarabad Formation. In the eastern outer limbs of the anticline, immediately

overlying the Muzaffarabad Formation, there is another set of carbonate rocks of

Paleocene-Eocene age. It is marked by unconformable lower contact with the

Muzaffarabad Formation and unconformable upper contact with the Murree

Formation. The Murree Formation occupies the entire eastern limb of the

Muzaffarabad Anticline as well as the northern apex of the syntaxis.

The western limb of the Muzaffarabad anticline is highly attenuated because of

involvement in and reworking by the faults marking the western limb of the HKS.

21
2.5.1.2. Muzaffarabad Thrust (The Jhelum Thrust)

The Muzaffarabad Thrust marks contact of the Muzaffarabad Formation with the

Murree Formation at the western limb of the Muzaffarabad anticline (Calkins et al.,

1975). It is a steep thrust (25o-50o) exposed immediately east of Muzaffarabad. The

thrust is refolded along the Neelum River, before it stretches NW towards the

Balakot, where it merges with Panjal Thrust and MBT at the western margin of the

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (Fig. 2.3). The 2005 Kashmir Earthquake ruptured the

Muzaffarabad Thrust as well as its southeastern extension (Tanda Fault of Nakata et

al., 1991) in an over 100 km stretch between Balakot in the north to Bagh in the SE,

that established existence of a major thrust along this stretch.

2.5.1.3. NE-SW Refolding Structures

The Muzaffarabad Anticline and related structures, including the Muzaffarabad

Thrust, which mark the first phase of structures in the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis, are

refolded through a subsequent phase of deformation. The structures related with this

folding are oriented ENE-WSW, almost at right angle to first-phase structures and

thus result in their refolding. About three such folds refold the core of the

Muzaffarabad Anticline in the vicinity of Muzaffarabad (Fig. 2.4). The largest of

these refold structure is defined by the Neelum reentrant, whereby the axis of the

Muzaffarabad Anticline as well as the Muzaffarabad Thrust form a NE trending fold

structure around the Neelum River as it enters Muzaffarabad (Fig. 2.3). Greco (1989)

have shown that this phase of folding is widespread in the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis

as well as in the Lesser and Higher Himalayas in the Kaghan area (Fig. 2.5).

22
Fig. 2.4. Map showing the refolding of first phase structures of HKS, oriented almost
at right angle to each other (After Greco, 1989).

23
Fig. 2.5. Map showing the continuation of refolding structures of HKS in Kaghan
area (After Greco, 1989).

24
2.5.2. Structures Defining the Margins of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis

The Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis is a half-window structure which is typically exposed

through erosion of the overlying thrust sheets. The remnants of these thrusts are now

confined to the margins of the syntaxis in the form of a NNW oriented loop. As

mentioned above, the western margin of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis is more

tectonized than its northern apex or eastern limb. In the following, the margins of the

syntaxis will therefore be described in two separate sections.

2.5.2.1. Northern and Eastern Limb

The margin of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis north of Balakot and its further extension

towards the SE is primarily bounded by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). Although

the MBT is classically defined as the thrust contact between the Mesozoic-Eocene

carbonate platform and the Miocene molasse sediments of the Murree Formation, this

condition is met only locally in the Kaghan valley near Paras. In this part of the

Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis, a tectonic sliver (~ 2 km thick) containing carbonates from

Jurassic to Eocene age, is in contact with the Murree Formation in the Hazara

Kashmir Syntaxis core. Elsewhere the Murree Formation is in direct tectonic contact

with the Permian-Triassic aged Panjal Formation. The Panjal Thrust, in this part of

the syntaxis is a separate entity following the outer part of the syntaxial margin

defining a tectonic boundary between the Panjal Formation and overlying

Precambrian Salkhala Formation.

2.5.2.2. Western Limb

The western margin of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis is far more complex than the

eastern margin. The MBT and the Panjal Thrust, which remain as separate entities on

the eastern margin as well as the northern apex of the syntaxis, merge with each other

25
some five kilometers north of Balakot and continue southwards as a single fault. The

rock units on the either side of the fault are also variable. In the vicinity of Balakot,

the fault separates the Murree Formation occupying the syntaxis core from the

Precambrian Salkhala Formation in the west. The Salkhala Formation pinches out to

the south of Balakot and is replaced by the Precambrian Hazara Formation. On the

inner side in the syntaxis, although the fault is predominantly lined by the Murree

Formation, but at places, especially between Garhi Habibullah and Balakot, it is the

Muzaffarabad Formation which occupies the faulted contact. Minor slivers of

Paleocene-Eocene carbonate rocks locally intervene between the fault and the

Muzaffarabad Formation.

To the south of Muzaffarabad, much of the continuity of the fault marking the western

margin of the syntaxis runs along the Jhelum River as an upright strike-slip fault.

2.5.2.2.1. Jhelum Fault

Jhelum Fault is a NS oriented upright strike slip fault, marking the southern

continuation of western limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis from Muzaffarabad (Fig.

2.6). As mentioned earlier, it almost runs along the Jhelum River from Muzaffarabad

to Kohala. It separates Precambrian Hazara Formation in the west from the Miocene

molasse sediments of Murree Formation in the east in an area between Muzaffarabad

and Rara, a small village situated near the junction of Kunhar River and Jhelum River.

Further south of Rara village, it demarcates Murree Formation from the dolomites,

quartzites and limestones belonging to Mesozoic Rara Formation (Greco, 1989).

26
Fig. 2.6. Steeply dipping Jhelum Fault exposed along River Jhelum between
Muzaffarabad and Kohala.

2.5.3. Tectonic Models for the Origin of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

1. Wadia (1931) stated that the horst on the Indian plate is responsible for the

formation of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS). He identified a SSE-ward

transport direction on the western side of the HKS contradicting with a

southwest-ward transport direction on the eastern limb.

2. Calkins et al. (1975) also recognized different transport directions on each

limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis and mentioned that a second, west-directed,

movement direction resulted in the west-vergent shape of the anticlinal

syntaxis.

3. Bossart et al. (1984, 1988) proposed that the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

developed in response to anticlockwise rotation of the Indian Plate during the

Late Tertiary. According to this model the foreland thrust-fold belt in Pakistan

27
 Himalayas developed kink structures with sinisterly slip. Continued rotation

and contraction associated with the Indian-plate underthrusting resulted in

development of the kink-structures into the crustal-scale antiformal fold

structure.

4. Bossart and Ottiger (1990) based on the paleomagnetic studies reviewed

Bossart et al. (1988) model. Their findings suggested that whereas the western

limb did rotate anticlockwise in Tertiary, the eastern limb rather rotated

clockwise, opposite to the rotation of the western limb.

5. Treloar et al. (1992) suggested that Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis developed as a

consequence of interference between two active and converging thrust sheets;

Kashmir Himalayas in the east and Hazara-Pothowar Himalayas in the west.

28
CHAPTER 3 (STRATIGRAPHIC SETUP)

STRATIGRAPHY

The study area falls in the domain of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS) and

exposes rocks of Precambrian age to Recent fluvial deposits. A larger part of the

study area occupies core of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis while a lesser portion

includes area at the western limb of the Syntaxis. The stratigraphy of the area has long

been established by many workers and following is the age-wise division of the

exposed stratigraphy (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1. Table showing the composite stratigraphy of the study area (from Calkins
et al., 1975; Greco, 1989; Greco and Spencer, 1993; Kazmi and Jan, 1997;
Hussain et al., 2004; Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008; Shah, 2009).

Age Formation Lithological Description

Medium to coarse grained sandstone
Kamlial Formation interbeded with hard shale and
intraformational conglomerate
Miocene
Thick monotonous fluvial sequence of
Murree Formation clay and sandstone with subordinate
intraformational conglomerate
Nodular limestones and calcareous
Paleocene rocks shales with intercalations of marls. 4 m
Paleocene
(Undivided) thick coal bed accompanied by Bauxite
soil at the base
Mainly composed of dolomites,
quartzites and limestones with
Jurassic Rara Formation
alternating carbonaceous slates and few
sandstone and siltstone layers
Stromatolitic limestone and dolomite
with minor conglomerate bed near the
Cambrian Muzaffarabad Formation
base and shale horizon in the middle
part
Highly deformed Slate, Phyllite and
Shale with minor occurrences of
Precambrian Hazara Formation
Limestone, Graphite, Gypsum and
Sandstone

29
3.1. PRECAMBRIAN

There is one formation exposed in the study area that belongs to Precambrian age.

3.1.1. Hazara Formation

In the western part of the study area, highly deformed argillaceous rocks, with

intercalations of carbonaceous rocks, are exposed. These rocks belong to Precambrian

Hazara Formation.

Hazara Formation represents Hazara Slate Formation of Marks and Ali (1961),

Slate Series of Hazara of Middlemiss (1896), Hazara Group of Latif (1970) and

Hazara Formation of Calkins et al. (1975) and Greco and Spencer (1993). As the

formation also includes rocks other than slates, the name Hazara Formation is thus

adopted by many workers and is therefore used here in this thesis.

Hazara Formation consists primarily of slate, phyllite and shale. Some minor

occurrences of limestone, graphite, gypsum and sandstone are also found at few

places. Slates and phyllite are rusty brown and dark green on weathered surfaces

while grey to greenish grey or black on the fresh surfaces. Bedding in slate and

phyllite is identifiable at few places and are thin to medium bedded whereas intense

deformation has obliterated the depositional features at most places and hence

bedding is not clear. Shale layers, few centimeters to few feet thick, are present as

precursor lithology where degree of metamorphism is low. Fine to medium grained

and thick bedded Sandstone is also present at some places. Limestone observed near

Charhkapora chowk on Muzaffarabad-Kohala road is thin bedded, internally

laminated, jointed and fractured, yellowish black in color with almost vertical

bedding. Minor folding is also developed and bedding parallel calcite veins are found.

This limestone is non-fossiliferous and micritic. Gypsum is found in a 100 to 400 feet

30
thick zone along with calcareous phyllite (Calkins et al., 1975). The contact of this

zone with the surrounding slates is sharp and probably tectonic in origin (Greco,

1989).

Thickness of the Hazara Formation is not established yet due to two reasons; i)

Hazara Formation is strongly deformed and forms many isoclinals folds., and ii) the

base of the Hazara Formation is not exposed. However, its broad outcrop exposure

means large thickness. Contact of the Hazara Formation in the study area is faulted

with Rara Formation and Murree Formation.

Marks and Ali (1961) categorized the Formation as turbidite deposit but Calkins et al.

(1975) opposed their concept and emphasized that occurrence of limestone, gypsum

and graphite in turbidite sequence is uncertain. According to Calkins et al. (1975),

most of the rock units of Hazara Formation were possibly deposited as shallow-water

argillaceous sequence. Due to the presence of evaporites, Latif (1973) correlated

Hazara Formation with the Salt Range Formation whereas Calkins et al. (1975)

correlated it with Dogra Slates of Kashmir which are overlain by fossiliferous

Cambrian rocks. For this reason, Calkins et al. (1975) gave Precambrian age to the

Hazara Formation. Crawford and Davies (1975), using Rb/Sr method, analyzed three

samples from the Hazara Formation for age determination. Results of the two samples

gave the age of 765 20 million years, while the third one showed the age of 950

20 million years, therefore both these results confirm the age of Hazara Formation as

Precambrian.

3.2. PALEOZOIC

There is one formation exposed in the study area that belongs to Paleozoic age.

31
3.2.1. Muzaffarabad Formation

Muzaffarabad anticline exposes Cambrian carbonates at the surface near

Muzaffarabad city. Calkins et al. (1975) called these rocks as Triassic Kingrialli

Formation but frequent occurrence of stromatolitic limestone implies its correlation

with the Precambrian Langrial Unit of the Hazara Formation, Khyber Limestone and

Utch Khattak Formation because in Pakistan Precambrian limestones are

characterized by stromatolitic nature. Hussain et al. (2004) thus assigned a

Precambrian age to these carbonates and grouped them as Muzaffarabad Formation.

Muzaffarabad Formation shows a good correlation with Abbottabad Formation

because both of the formations have similar lithology, also containing a conglomeratic

bed at the base. It is almost identical to the carbonates exposed at nearby Kotli area.

Thus based on this correlation, Muzaffarabad Formation may well be given Cambrian

age because both Abbottabad Formation and Kotli carbonates are considered

Cambrian in age (Table 3.2). Another reason for correlating Muzaffarabad Formation

with the Abbottabad Formation is that many workers have grouped the carbonates

exposed in the core of Muzaffarabad anticline with Abbottabad Formation (e.g.

Kazmi and Jan, 1997; Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008; Shah, 2009).

Muzaffarabad Formation mainly contains brown to dark gray, hard, rubbly and

stromatolitic limestone and dolomite showing light grey color on fresh surface. Near

the base of the Formation, a minor conglomerate bed is also present at some localities.

The Formation is largely cherty and thin to thick bedded. It contains a distinct black-

colored carbonaceous limestone and shale horizon in the middle part (Hussain et al.,

2004). According to Calkins et al. (1975), combined thickness of this black limestone

and black calcareous shale is 400-450 feet. North east of Muzaffarabad city, thickness

of the Muzaffarabad Formation is 833 m (Marks and Ali, 1962).

32
In the eastern limb of Muzaffarabad anticline, Muzaffarabad Formation is overlain by

Paleocene rocks and the contact is unconformable. Whereas in the western limb,

Muzaffarabad Formation has unconformable contact with Paleocene rocks at some

places, and where Paleocene rocks are missing, it has faulted contact with Murree

Formation. Similarly, where both the Paleocene rocks and Murree Formation are

absent, the Muzaffarabad Formation has faulted contact with the Precambrian Hazara

Formation.

Table 3.2. Table showing the stratigraphic comparison of Muzafarrabad with

Abbottabad and Kotli areas.

Abbottabad(Latif1970&1974) Muzaffarabad(This Kotli(Choudhry

Age
Group Formation Member Study) &Ashraf,1981)
Quaternary Havelian (Alluvium) (Alluvium) Alluvium
KamlialFormation Siwalik
Miocene Rawalpindi Murree
MurreeFormation Murree
Kuldana
Lora
MargalaHill MargallaHill
Eocene Hiatus
Limestone Limestone
Galis
KuzagaliShale
Mari PaleoceneRocks
Paleocene PatalaFormation
Limestone Undivided
chanali
limestone
Cretaceous Hothla Giumal Hiatus
sandstone
Spitishale
Sikhar
Jurassic Thandiani Limestone RaraFormation
Maira
ic

Hazira
ss
ia
Tr

Hiatus
Tarnawai
n
ia

Galdanian
rm
Pe

Sirban
Mirpur
d

Mahmda Muzaffarabad Abbottabad

ba

Cambrian
tta

Kakul Gali Formation Group

bo
Ab

SangarGali
Tanakki MBT-Panjal Thrust
Precambrian Hazara HazaraFormation DograSlates

33
3.3. MESOZOIC

Mesozoic in the study area is represented by a narrow extension of rocks in a north-

south orientation along Jhelum River. These rocks belong to Rara Formation.

3.3.1. Rara Formation

Greco (1989) used the name Rara Formation for a fault bounded package of rocks

that is sandwiched between Murree Formation and Hazara Formation. He suggested

this new name because of the easily distinguishable nature of constituent lithologies

i.e. the presence of in situ fossiliferous limestone associated with the quartzites,

dolomites and carbonaceous slates near the village of Rara. Wadia (1928) called this

package of rocks as Giumal Series and gave it cretaceous age. Other workers have

classified it as part of the Precambrian Hazara Formation (e.g. Latif, 1970 and Calkins

et al., 1975) or Miocene Murree Formation (e.g. Hussain et al., 2004).

This rock sequence is mainly composed of dolomites, quartzites and limestones with

alternating carbonaceous slates. According to Greco (1989), Rara formation has a

total thickness of 100 m. The lower 50 m of which, separated from the Murree

Formation in the east by Jhelum Fault, is dominantly dolomite and alternating layers

of quartzite with few slates, sandstone and siltstone beds. Dolomite is thickly bedded,

fine grained, light grey on fresh surface and rusty brown on weathered surface where

as quartzite is pure, thinly bedded and white in colour. Similarly, the overlying 50 m

of Rara Formation are composed of thinly bedded, bioclasts-bearing, grey limestone

with alternating carbonaceous slates. These slates exhibit black colour on fresh

surfaces whereas brown on weathered surfaces and are found near the top along with

white quartzites. This upper contact with the Hazara Formation in the west is defined

34
by Nathiagali Thrust and is manifested by the first occurrence of non-carbonaceous

slates and thinly laminated, pyrite-bearing limestone (Greco, 1989).

Greco (1989) has correlated Rara Formation to various formations using different

correlating criteria. He correlated it with the several Triassic and Jurassic formations

using the environment of deposition as basis for correlation. These formations include

Lower Triassic Mianwali Formation (Gee, 1945), the Liassic (Jurassic) Maira

Formation (Latif, 1970), the Early Jurassic Datta Formation (Danilchik, 1961), and

the Upper Jurassic Samana Suk Limestone (Calkins et al., 1975). The Rara Formation

does not exactly correspond to any of the above mentioned formations. Using tectonic

position as a base, Greco (1989) correlated Rara Formation with the Thandiani Group

which according to the map of Latif (1970), is exposed between the Hazara and

Murree Formations southwest of Kohala bridge, and forms the stratigraphical base of

Jurassic to Eocene rock sequence. Hence, Greco (1989) tentatively assigned Jurassic

age to Rara Formation but advised to find more decisive evidence(s).

3.4. TERTIARY

It is clear from the geological map (Fig. 4.6) that Tertiary rocks cover most parts of

the project area and are exposed in the core of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis.

Paleocene rocks and Rawalpindi Group (Murree and Kamlial Formations) represents

Tertiary rocks in the study area.

3.4.1 Paleocene Rocks (Undivided)

Paleocene limestones and marls are exposed in the northeastern limb of Muzaffarabad

anticline. A good outcrop exposure of these rocks is present along the main road to

Neelum valley. Almost all the workers are agreed upon the fact that these rocks

belong to early Tertiary age. Many workers have correlated these rocks to different

35
formations but no one has been able to divide it into individual formations e.g.

Calkins et al. (1975) called these rocks as Kala Chitta Group, Greco (1989) termed

these Paleocene to Eocene Formations, Greco and Spencer (1993) described them

as Paleocene Formations, Arbab and Shah (1996) considered these as Paleocene

and Eocene rocks and called them Patala Formation and Margalla Hills Limestone

(Undifferentiated), Hussain et al. (2004) grouped these rocks as Paleocene Rocks

(Undivided) whereas Iqbal et al. (2004) considered them Early Eocene to

Paleocene and gave the name Patala Formation and Lockhart Limestone

(Undifferentiated). The name Paleocene Rocks (Undivided) of Hussain et al.

(2004) is preferred in this report because most of the people have correlated these

rocks to the Paleocene Lockhart and Patala Formations.

In the investigated area, Paleocene Rocks (Undivided) is represented by a sequence

of grey to dark grey and black limestone and dark-grey shales with intercalations of

marls. The limestone is generally bedded and nodular while shales are calcareous and

the sequence contains abundant Foraminifera (Calkins et al., 1975; Greco and

Spencer, 1993; Hussain et al., 2004). Greco (1989) reported that a 4 meters thick layer

of black, graphitic, coal beds accompanied by bauxite soils is present at the base of

these Paleocene rocks. He also gave a 200 m thickness for this sequence of alternating

silty marls and limestones. In the overturned southwestern limb of Muzaffarabad

anticline, Paleocene nodular limestone is found in patches between Muzaffarabad and

Murree Formations (Greco, 1989). Bossart (1986) gave upper Paleocene age to this

sequence on the basis of abundant macrofossil fauna. He correlated these rocks with

the Lockhart Limestone and Patala Formation of the Kala Chitta Zone (Tahirkheli,

1982).

36
These rocks are marked by an unconformable lower contact with the Cambrian

Muzafarabad Formation and unconformable upper contact with the Murree Formation

(Table 3.2).

3.4.2. Murree Formation

Murree Formation represents the basal part of the Rawalpindi Group of Pinfold

(1918) (Cheema et al., 1977). According to Shah (2009), Murree Formation is the

formal name given by Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan to Mari Group of

Wynne (1874), Murree Beds of Lydekker (1876) and Murree Series of Pilgrim

(1910).

The Murree Formation is comprised of a thick monotonous fluvial sequence of dark

red and purple clay and red, brown to greenish grey sandstone with subordinate

intraformational conglomerate (Kazmi and Jan, 1997; Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008; Shah,

2009). Beds of calcareous sandy conglomerate in places are intercalated with the

sandstone (Calkins et al., 1975) especially in the basal part of the formation (Shah,

2009). In the mapped area the Murree Formation is exposed to the east of Jhelum

Fault (Fig. 4.6) and is found only in the axial zone of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis.

Good exposures of Murree Formation can be found along the road cuts and steep

gorges (Fig. 3.1). The Formation is composed of a large number of fining upward

cycles of deposition, containing sandstones, shales and siltstones. Siltstone is the chief

constituent of the formation and is composed of red and green argillaceous silts. The

sandstone is green, grey and red, moderately sorted, medium to coarse grained, often

cross-and graded-bedded. West dipping sandstone beds of the Murree Formation,

exposed near the junction of Kunhar and Jhelum Rivers, show cross bedding (Fig.

3.2). Younging direction determined from these cross beds indicate that the beds have

37
been overturned at this location. At some places, the sandstone is jointed (Fig. 3.3a)

and containing sole marks (Fig. 3.3b). The sandstone beds are characterized by

channel lag breccia (Fig. 3.4) usually at the base of sandstone bodies. (Kazmi and

Abbasi, 2008).

Fig. 3.1. Murree sandstone exposed along gorge sides near location 6.

Fig. 3.2. Cross beds in Murree sandstone near Kunhar-Jhelum Rivers Junction.
Stratigraphic younging direction is indicated by word Up. Photo taken
looking towards S60E.

38
Fig. 3.3. (a) Grey jointed sandstone of Murree Formation exposed along road side. (b)
Sole marks in Murree sandstone present at the lower face of the exposed
bed.

Fig. 3.4. Channel lag breccia and overlying grey sandstone of Murree Formation.

The exact thickness of the Murree Formation at the study area is undecided because of

intense folding (Fig. 3.1). East of Lachi Khan, some 8 miles north of Muzaffarabad,
39
5,000 feet (1524 m) thick, undisturbed section of Murree Formation is exposed

(Calkins et al., 1975). In the study area, the formation is lying unconformably on top

of Peleocene rocks (Undivided). Its upper contact is transitional with the Kamlial

Formation.

Based on the presence of nummulitic-bearing limestone as intercalation with the

sandstone and shale, Bossart and Ottiger (1989) have assigned Eocene age to these

sediments and named them Balakot Formation. Najman et al. (2001, 2002)

however, showed that the molasses sediments had detrital micas with K/Ar ages as

young as Miocene, which annulled the possibility of Eocene age for these sediments.

They also showed that the limestone bands are not depositional intercalations but are

tectonically incorporated with the molasses sediments. Murree Formation is poorly

fossiliferous and only few plant remains, silicified wood, fish remains, frog and

mammalian bones have been recorded (Kazmi and Jan, 1997; Shah, 2009). This fauna

indicates an Early Miocene age for the Murree Formation.

3.4.3. Kamlial Formation

Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan has given the name Kamlial Formation to the

Kamlial beds of Pinfold (1918) and Kamlial stage of Pascoe (1964). Wynne

(1874, 1877) described the Kamlial Formation as part of the Mari Group which is

now days called Murree Formation. Several people have shown the Kamlial

Formation as a part of Murree Formation including Wadia (1928), Calkins et al.

(1975), Greco (1989), Greco and Spencer (1993) and Arbab and Shah (1996).

However, Iqbal et al. (2004) and Akhtar et al. (2004) have differentiated it from the

Murree Formation in geological maps of the area prepared for the Geological Survey

of Pakistan.

40
The Formation is comprised of medium to coarse grained purple-grey and dark brick-

red sandstone interbeded with hard purple shale and yellow and purple

intraformational conglomerate (Iqbal et al., 2004; Shah, 2009). Kazmi and Abbasi

(2008) have classified the Kamlial Formation as 75% of the formation is sandstone,

20% is siltstone and 5% is intraformational conglomerate. It contains high amount of

intraformational conglomerate usually at the base of large sandstone bodies. The

sandstone is fine to medium grained, cross-bedded and intercalated with lenses of

intraformational conglomerate or thin layers of clay. Sandstone of Kamlial Formation

is distinguished from the sandstone of underlying Murree Formation by its usually

spheroidal weathering, abundance of tourmaline and lack of epidote which is

abundantly present in Murree sandstone (Shah, 2009).

The thickness of the Kamlial Formation is not exactly known in the study area. It is

650 m thick at Soan Gorge, 580 m at Khaur, 90 m at Kamlial, and 60 m at Ling River

near Rawalpindi whereas its thickness in the subsurface is 150 m at Pamal Domeli,

100 m at Balkasar and 180 m at Jhatla (Shah, 2009). Lower contact of the Kamlial

Formation with Murree Formation is broadly transitional whereas its upper contact in

the study area is not exposed but elsewhere with the Chinji Formation, of Siwalik

Group, is conformable. A number of mammalian fossils have been reported from the

Kamlial Formation and on the basis of this fauna the formation is given the middle

Miocene age (Kazmi and Abbasi, 2008; Shah, 2009). Johnson et al. (1985) also

reported middle Miocene age for the Kamlial Formation when he carried out the

Paleomagnetic dating of a section in Gabir River near Chinji Village in Talagang

District. His results gave 18.3 million years to 14.3 million years age for the Kamlial

Formation which means middle Miocene age.

41
CHAPTER 4 (STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY)

INTRODUCTION

Structure of the study area shows variations in size and style. It is dominated by the

HazaraKashmir Syntaxis, which is a fold structure formed by the Main Boundary

Thrust (MBT) having Tertiary clastics of Murree Formation in its footwall (Calkins et

al., 1975; Greco and Spencer, 1993; Arbab and Shah, 1996). Other rocks exposed

within the syntaxis include dolomites and siliclastics of the Cambrian Muzaffarabad

Formation, Paleocene Lockhart Limestone and shales of the Paleocene aged Patala

Formation. Structurally, the Precambrian metasedimentary rock sequence of the

Hazara and Tanawal Formations and the Cambrian Mansehra Granite form the

hanging wall of MBT (Owen et al., 2008).

4.1. MAJOR STRUCTURES

There are numerous faults and folds in the study area ranging in size from centimeter

scale to tens of kilometers. It is very difficult to describe every single structure, so

here only major structures are discussed in details.

4.1.1. Jhelum Fault

To the south of Muzaffarabad, two major fault structures bifurcate from the Balakot

Shear Zone; 1) the Jhelum Fault, which marks the southern continuation of the

western limb of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis and 2) the Muzaffarabad Thrust, which

traverses obliquely through the core of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis along the Upper

Jhelum River. As far as the Jhelum Fault is concerned, it mostly follows the western

bank of the Jhelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kohala.

42
The Jhelum Fault has a general N-S orientation from Muzaffarabad to Kohala running

almost parallel to the Jhelum River, where it separates the Murree Formation in east

from the Hazara and Rara Formations in the west. Another notable feature of the

Jhelum Fault is the topographic difference across its strike. Murree Formation

consisting of sandstones, shales and clays is susceptible to erosion as compared to the

metasediments of Hazara Formation which are harder. Hence slates of the Hazara

Formation form high relief mountains on the western side of the Jhelum Fault as

compared to the Murree Formation forming low relief topography on the eastern side

(Fig. 4.1). It exhibits a left-lateral strike slip sense of motion and is upright to steeply

dipping towards East (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.1. Difference in relief across Jhelum Fault (JF); Murree Formation (left)
forming low relief while Hazara Formation (right) forming high relief
topography.

43
Fig. 4.2. Steeply dipping fault plane of Jhelum Fault exposed along the left bank of
Jhelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kohala and its equal area
stereographic projection (Location 4, Fig. 4.6).

After crossing Chathar area in Muzaffarabad, Jhelum Fault runs parallel to the Jhelum

River in N-S direction and exhibits a sharp contact at most of its exposures (Fig. 4.3,

Location 1). At Location 2 (Fig. 4.6), it crosses the Kunhar River near the Rara

village where the fault plane is almost vertical (Fig. 4.4). To the further south, for

about 1-2 Kilometres, Jhelum Fault runs through channel of the River Jhelum in

summer season and may get exposed at its left bank in winters due to low level of

water flow (Fig. 4.5). Southward it runs on the right bank of River Jhelum.

44
Fig. 4.3. Sharp contact (Jhelum Fault) Fig. 4.4. Jhelum Fault crossing the
between Murree Formation Kunhar River, close to its
and Hazara Formation junction with the Jhelum River
exposed along the near the Rara village and its
Muzaffarabad-Kohala road at stereographic projection
location 1 (Fig. 4.6). (Location 2, Fig. 4.6).

Fig. 4.5. Jhelum Fault exposed at left bank of Jhelum River due to low level of water
flow in winter. For scale, arrow shows two persons standing on outcrop of
Hazara Formation.

45
4.1.2. Muzaffarabad Thrust

After separation from the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Muzaffarabad

Thrust passes through interior of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis having NW-SE

orientation along the Upper Jhelum River (Fig. 4.6). The Muzaffarabad Thrust has

emerged at the surface over a distance of ~100 km with an earthquake of 7.6

magnitude in 2005 proving its seismically active nature (Singh et al., 2006). The trace

of the thrust occupies northern bank of the Upper Jhelum River from Muzaffarabad

up to the village Naushahra. The trace crosses the river at Dhallian, passes through the

Siran village and follows the Baghsar Katha towards Chikar.

The vergence of the anticline towards southwest suggests an inherited steepness of the

upright to overturned western limb, which in essence is a thrust fault, most

appropriately can be termed as the Muzaffarabad Thrust (Calkins et al., 1975). It

marks the western contact of the Muzaffarabad Formation with the Murree Formation

at the western limb of the Muzaffarabad anticline. It dips at 25o-50o towards NE and is

exposed immediately east of Muzaffarabad. Muzaffarabad Thrust is refolded along

the Neelum River near Nisar camp area, before it extends towards the Balakot in the

NW, where it joins MBT and Panjal Thrust at the western limb of the Hazara-

Kashmir Syntaxis.

To the southeast, the Muzaffarabad Thrust was previously not mapped beyond the

termination of exposures of the Muzaffarabad Formation. Nakata et al. (1991) did

show an active fault along the upper Jhelum River between Muzaffarabad and Garhi

Dopatta, which he termed as the Tanda Fault. The 2005 Kashmir Earthquake ruptured

the Muzaffarabad Thrust along with its southeastern extension (Tanda Fault) between

Balakot in the NW to Bagh in the SE, thus establishing the existence of a major thrust

46
in an over 100 km stretch. Unlike Jhelum Fault, the Muzaffarabad Thrust did not

show sharp contact in the field, rather it covers a broad zone. One of its reasons is that

it separates the same lithology.

Fig. 4.6. Geological map of the study area with location of section line (AB, Fig.
4.12). White dots indicating different Locations.

Although, the existence of a thrust fault at the rupture site of the Kashmir Earthquake

2005, southeast of Muzaffarabad was not previously recognized, several workers did

speculate its existence. Ghazanfar et al. (1986) discussed possibility of extension of

the Muzaffarabad Thrust to the southeast and its joining with Raisi Thrust from

47
Indian Kashmir. In doing so, these authors named this fault as the Kashmir Boundary

Thrust. In some regional maps, the Himalayan Frontal Thrust exposed in Indian

Himalayas (Kashmir and to the east) has been tentatively extended to NW and is

joined with the Muzaffarabad Thrust. A careful survey of the literature shows that

neither the Raisi Thrust joins the Muzaffarabad Thrust nor does the Main Himalayan

Thrust. Tapponier et al. (2006) used the name Jhelum Thrust for Muzaffarabad

Thrust, but it confuses with Jhelum Fault which is altogether a different structure.

Since the name Muzaffarabad Thrust is previously used for this structure in literature

(e.g., Calkins et al., 1975), and the Muzaffarabad city was most devastated by

rupturing of this thrust in 2005 Kashmir Earthquake, I preferred to retain the name

Muzaffarabad Thrust for this structure.

4.1.3. Nathiagali Thrust

On a regional scale, the Himalayas have been divided into internal (or hinterland) and

external (or foreland) zones (Coward et al., 1988). MMT marks the northern limit of

the internal zone which comprises of crystalline rocks of Naran, Upper Kashmir,

Upper Hazara, Besham and Swat (Fig. 2.1). The external zone, which is a type of

foreland thrust-fold belt, is comprised of successions of stratified rocks of Hill Ranges

(e.g., Kohat, Kalachitta, and Margala), the Salt Ranges-Trans-Indus Ranges and

Potwar-Kohat plateau. The tectonic boundary between the northern internal and

southern external zones is demarcated by The Nathiagalli-Khairabad Thrust.

Nathiagali Thrust branches off towards the western side from the Jhelum Fault near

the village of Rara which is situated some 5 kilometers south of Muzaffarabad along

Muzaffarabad-Kohala road (Greco and Spencer, 1993). From Rara it almost runs

parallel to the Jhelum Fault in North-South direction separating Hazara Formation

48
from the Rara Formation. The Rara-Kohala segment of the Nathiagali Thrust exhibits

strike slip behavior. Near Kohala, Nathiagali Thrust takes turn along the Bakot Nala

and runs towards southwest direction where it thrusts the Precambrian slates over the

Mesozoic formations and upto Tertiary Kuldana Formation (Burg et al., 2005).

4.1.4. Muzaffarabad Anticline

The Muzaffarabad Anticline can be visualized as a large doubly plunging southwest-

verging anticline covering the overall core area of HKS, especially in its northern

part, north of the Jhelum River. Muzaffarabad Anticline is characterized by a well

developed NE limb and a highly tectonized and attenuated SW limb. The core of this

structure is exposed near Muzaffarabad, and hence the structure is appropriately

named as the Muzaffarabad Anticline (Calkins et al., 1975; Bossart et al., 1984;

Hussain et al., 2004). Bossart et al. (1984) showed that the fold axis of the

Muzaffarabad anticline passes NE of Muzaffarabad and plunges to the NW near

Balakot. To the south, the fold axis runs parallel to the upper Jhelum River through

Garhi Dopatta towards Chikar and Bagh further to the southeast. As mentioned above,

the mega anticlinal structure is highly tectonized at its SW limb due to its involvement

in the active faulting including the Panjal Thrust and the MBT, marking the western

limb of the syntaxis. Especially between Muzaffarabad and Balakot, the SW limb of

this anticline is truncated obliquely by the Panjal-MBT faults resulting in the

beheading of the NW plunging axis of the Muzaffarabad anticline.

Core of this doubly plunging anticline exposes the Cambrian carbonates in a 30 km

long stretch between Muzaffarabad and Balakot. In the eastern limb of the anticline,

there is another set of carbonate rocks of Paleocene age immediately overlying the

Muzaffarabad Formation. These carbonates are marked by unconformable lower

49
contact with Muzaffarabad Formation and unconformable upper contact with Murree

Formation. The Murree Formation is exposed in the entire eastern limb of the

Muzaffarabad Anticline as well as the north-central area of the syntaxis.

As tectonism of the faults marking the western limb of the HKS have highly

attenuated the western limb of the Muzaffarabad anticline, hence resulting in, at

places, complete absence of the Paleocene carbonates and direct thrust contact

between the Muzaffarabad Formation and the Murree Formation. Elsewhere, at

western limb of the syntaxis both the Paleocene carbonates as well as the Murree

Formation are attenuated and the Muzaffarabad Formation is in direct faulted contact

with the Precambrian Hazara Slates (Fig. 2.2; Greco, 1989).

4.2. OTHER TECTONIC STRUCTURES

In addition to the aforementioned structures, there are numerous other tectonic and

sedimentary structures present in the study area. These structures provide good

information about the tectonic forces of the area that have remained active in the past

history.

Two phases of folds development were identified based on published maps of Greco

(1989) and Geological Survey of Pakistan and results of this study (Fig. 4.7). Grecos

interpretation was used for the northwestern parts of the study area whereas structures

of the remaining study area covering core of the HKS were taken from the field

observations during this study as well as GSP maps, covering most of the study area.

Results of the satellite image interpretation given in Figure 4.11 were also

incorporated to confirm the results (for details see later in this chapter). Figure 4.7

shows that the core area of the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis (eastern-central parts of

study area) has suffered only single phase of deformation whereas the western to

50
northwestern parts of the study area, close to Jhelum Fault in the west and its junction

with Muzaffarabad anticline in the north, have experienced two phases of fold

formation (Fig. 4.7).

There is a large syncline present in the lower core area of the Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis (Fig. 4.6), having its axis parallel to both upper Jhelum river and

Muzaffarabad Thrust i.e. SE-NW. It is an open syncline with its limbs dipping at

about 30-55 towards each other. Its eastern limb is cut by Muzaffarabad Thrust near

Chikar khas area. This syncline exposes the younger rocks of Kamlial Formation in its

core. There is another syncline in the southern parts of the study area near Kohala,

where too, Kamlial Formation is exposed in the core. Its axis is oriented in N-NNW

direction, parallel to lower Jhelum River and Jhelum Fault.

There are several other small scale anticlines and synclines exposed alternatively

throughout the study area. One such series of small scale anticlines and synclines is

exposed along a tributary of Agar Nala near Nurpur village having their fold axis

oriented in NW-SE direction. Hence it shows that these folds are formed due to the

effect of NE-SW shortening. Such folds are also present in an area between

Muzaffarabad and Rara village to the east of and adjacent to Jhelum Fault which are

oriented in NS and NE direction. Some outcrop scale faults were also observed in the

area (Fig. 4.8). Figure 4.8 shows a low angle thrust fault, observed at Location 3,

cutting through the limb of a fold in Hazara formation. Attitude of both this fold and

fault is in complete accordance with the stresses direction responsible for the

movement of Jhelum Fault, left lateral strike slip fault, because Hazara formation

would have moved southwards relative to core of HKS, thus resulting in north-

dipping low angle thrust fault and the associated fold.

51
Fig. 4.7. Structural map of the study area showing two phases of structures
formation. Structural trend of the area is determined from results of this
study, Greco (1989) and Published GSP maps.

52
Fig. 4.8. Fold and Thrust fault in Hazara Formation at Location 3. Equal area, great
circle plots of both bedding plane and fault plane are given at the top
corners.

Two different structural domains are identified in the study area based on the

published data of Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) which was analyzed in

StereoWin 1.2, a software by Richard W. Allmendinger for plotting and analyzing

structural data. For this purpose, only the data lying between Muzaffarabad Thrust

and Jhelum Fault was taken to study the effect of both these structures on this data. A

total of 109 Strike orientations of beddings were first calculated using Global Mapper

8.03 software from the published GSP maps (43 F/7, 43 F/11 and 43 F/12). These

orientations were then plotted on stereonet for further analysis and hence two domains

were recognized.

Domain 1 shows less concentrated data and bedding planes are of wide range of strike

and dip values (Fig. 4.9). This structural Domain encompasses the area between

Muzaffarabad in the north, Rara village in the south along Jhelum Fault and Paprusa
53
village in southeast along Muzaffarabad Thrust. Most of the structures lying in this

domain are oriented more or less in NNE direction indicating that this area has taken

up effect of Jhelum Fault. Whereas Domain 2 is affected by NE-SW shortening,

resulting in formation of NW oriented structures almost parallel to Muzaffarabad

Thrust. The data in Domain 2 is more concentrated and shows a particular pattern of

orientation (Fig. 4.10). This Domain covers the area to the south and southeast of

Domain 1.

Fig. 4.9. Stereoplots showing poles to the bedding planes and Great circles of
Domain 1.

Fig. 4.10. Stereoplots showing poles to the bedding planes and Great circles of
Domain 2.
54
Table 4.1. Attitude data of the study area used for structural analysis.

S.No. Strike DipDirection Dip S.No. Strike DipDirection Dip S.No. Strike DipDirection Dip S.No. Strike DipDirection Dip
1 201.1 111.1 74 29 181.1 271.1 60 57 138.2 48.2 50 85 142.5 52.5 70
2 203.3 113.3 50 30 108.6 198.6 45 58 131.8 41.8 45 86 142.7 232.7 50
3 175.6 85.6 65 31 144.6 234.6 45 59 159.8 249.8 50 87 149.4 59.4 40
4 178.1 88.1 70 32 138.7 48.7 35 60 138.5 48.5 60 88 142.3 232.3 55
5 226.3 316.3 62 33 142.5 232.5 50 61 129.7 39.7 50 89 139.9 49.9 45
6 230.2 320.2 65 34 143.4 53.4 23 62 125.4 35.4 30 90 146.8 56.8 45
7 221.2 311.2 30 35 161.2 71.2 30 63 119.1 209.1 40 91 142.9 52.9 70
8 217.3 127.3 58 36 315.2 225.2 45 64 124.6 34.6 45 92 146.1 56.1 50
9 219.6 129.6 65 37 125 215 47 65 152 62 50 93 154.5 64.5 50
10 230.7 320.7 45 38 122.9 212.9 60 66 148.6 58.6 50 94 340.2 250.2 45
11 211.4 121.4 60 39 136.7 226.7 53 67 139.7 49.7 45 95 145.7 55.7 65
12 225.2 135.2 40 40 144.4 54.4 45 68 136.9 226.9 30 96 144.5 234.5 60
13 169 79 45 41 304 214 50 69 335.3 245.3 55 97 144.1 54.1 35
14 113.8 203.8 50 42 122.3 212.3 40 70 139.2 229.2 52 98 115.8 25.8 45
15 192.5 102.5 45 43 116.5 206.5 50 71 137 227 35 99 141.3 51.3 75
16 188.3 98.3 75 44 136.8 46.8 25 72 140.1 50.1 37 100 144.8 54.8 70
17 174.2 264.2 75 45 136.4 46.4 30 73 140.2 50.2 40 101 138 48 55
18 178 268 36 46 121.3 211.3 55 74 146.5 56.5 50 102 150 240 30
19 174.8 84.8 88 47 136 46 50 75 146.2 56.2 45 103 158.8 248.8 35
20 194 104 50 48 138.8 48.8 37 76 130.8 40.8 35 104 180.3 90.3 40
21 158 248 30 49 134.7 44.7 30 77 133.5 43.5 60 105 182.7 92.7 50
22 194.8 104.8 60 50 135.5 225.5 40 78 299 29 40 106 120.6 30.6 50
23 196.6 106.6 50 51 155.3 245.3 50 79 148.2 238.2 45 107 133.2 43.2 45
24 192 102 65 52 136.2 46.2 35 80 152.2 62.2 50 108 139.2 49.2 45
25 234.3 144.3 70 53 139.7 49.7 40 81 147.6 57.6 40 109 142.1 52.1 50
26 183.8 93.8 40 54 135.8 45.8 70 82 142.7 52.7 50
27 142.5 232.5 30 55 133.1 43.1 65 83 142.3 232.3 37
28 172.5 262.5 34 56 139 49 60 84 327.8 237.8 55

55
Satellite image of the study area having 2.5 m resolution was analyzed in detail using

ERDAS Imagine 8.4 and hence various structures were identified (Fig. 4.11).

Structures recorded in the field and thus displayed on geological map of the study area

are in complete accordance with many of these structures that are identified using

satellite image analysis.

4.3. CROSS-SECTION AB (SUBSURFACE STRUCTURES)

A structural cross section was constructed for the study area using kink method (Fig

4.12). Bedding parallel striations (Fig. 4. 13) observed in the field also supported the

kink method of cross section construction. These striations show that the beds have

been folded by flexural slip (inter layer slip) mechanism of folding which is one of the

basic assumption of kink style construction (Suppe, 1983; Wojtal, 1988). Traverse

line was selected in such a way that it cuts maximum structures, almost orthogonally.

Therefore a strike-parallel Jog was also incorporated in this section line to display

maximum structures on the cross section without any effect on the validity of cross

section. Total length of cross section thus becomes 24.62 kilometers.

56
Fig. 4.11. Satellite image of 2.5 m resolution and various structures and features identified on it using Erdas Imagine 8.4. Black lines show
different structural features including bedding and fold axes, Blue lines indicate stream offsets, Red lines indicate Faults while Green
lines show Rivers and streams.
57
Fig 4.12. Cross section of the study area showing different subsurface structures and detachement at depth.
58
Fig. 4.13. Bedding parallel striations on the bedding plane of sandstone in Murree
formation indicating flexural flow mechanism of folding.

Cross section along line AB (Fig. 4.12) shows the structural geology of the area from

location near the hajimar katha, east of village Dholemar, on the northern bank of

upper Jhelum river to a location close to the junction of Agar Nala with one of its

tributaries near village Dhachha, in NE-SW direction. At this location, a Jog is

inserted towards SE direction almost parallel to the strike of the structures as there

happens to be very little or no change in the structures along the strike. Hence the

south western portion of cross section after the Jog represents the structures from

upper parts of Agar Nala to a location near lower Jhelum River in the same NE-SW

direction.

Rocks of Murree Formation are exposed along the majority of section line with

Kamlial Formation in the core of two synclines. Subsurface geology is taken from the

rocks exposed in the nearby region. This cross section demonstrates that the area has

59
undergone intense and continued deformation as it shows a sequence of folds and

thrust faults. The only major fault exposed at the surface along section line is

Muzaffarabad Thrust. There is no sharp and distinctive exposure of Fault plane at the

surface, rather it displays a broad zone of deformation. USGS determined focal

mechanism of the Muzaffarabad Thrust from body waves of 2005 Kashmir

earthquake which showed a dip of 29 towards NE (Avouac et al., 2006; Rao et al.,

2006; Jayangondaperumal and Thakur, 2008). Most of the surface effects of

Muzaffarabad Thrust, especially post-October 08 2005 earthquake, are discussed in

greater detail in the next chapter.

As the basement is at 6-8 km depth in the study area (Khan and Ali, 1997; Khan and

Farooq, 2001; Grelaud et al., 2002; Monalisa and Khwaja, 2005; Ahsan and

Chaudhry, 2008), so in order to extend the geology of the area to the sub surface using

the available data, several faults have to be accommodated at depth following the

standard cross section construction procedures. As a result we get a thrust fault at the

base of Muzaffarabad formation, which is extended through the entire length of cross

section. There is a duplex structure at depth below the area between two synclines that

expose kamlial formation in their cores at the surface. This duplex is formed by

thrusting of Kamlial formation on top of itself and hence the horse is composed

entirely of Kamlial formation. In the footwall of Muzaffarabad Thrust there is a small

splay as blind thrust from the major thrust at the base of kamlial formation. This blind

thrust forms an anticlinal structure of Muzaffarabad formation and its underlying

thrust fault in the footwall of Muzaffarabad Thrust. The strata between the base of the

duplex structure and the basement is lying horizontally in an undeformed state.

60
CHAPTER 5 (NEOTECTONICS)

NEOTECTONICS

This study covers an area which is lying in a tectonically very important region, the

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. Study area contains several seismically active faults which

along with their associated neotectonic features are discussed below in detail.

Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis is one of the youngest structures in NW Himalayas (Bossart

and Ottiger, 1990). Being a N-S trending antiformal fold, the structure refolds a stack

of thrusts including Main Central Thrust (MCT), Panjal Thrust (PT), and Main

Boundary Thrust (MBT) (Treloar et al., 1992). MBT has been dated to be as young as

< 10 Ma (Meigs et al., 1995) that suggests an even younger age for the Hazara-

Kashmir syntaxis. The Kashmir Earthquake 2005 that ruptured western limb of the

syntaxis from Balakot to Muzafarabad and the Muzafarabad Thrust from

Muzafarabad to Bagh traversing obliquely across the core of the syntaxis, resulted in a

whole new set of neotectonic features in the studied area.

This chapter describes neotectonic features observed not only along the 2005

earthquake rupture along the Muzafarabad Thrust but examines other structures in the

area for signs of neotectonic activity. These include MBT exposed on the eastern limb

of the HKS and the Jhelum Fault exposed on the western limb of the syntaxis. We

have used analyses of satellite images for detecting abrupt changes in drainage

patterns of rivers and streams together with field observations to examine the

neotectonic character of these structures in the part of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis

subject of this study.

61
5.1. NEOTECTONIC FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH JHELUM AND

ASSOCIATED FAULTS (MUZAFARABAD-KOHALA SEGMENT)

The Jhelum Fault has not ruptured in recent past and there is no recorded or historic

earthquake known to be explicitly associated with this fault. However, our field

observations complemented by satellite-image analysis suggest active nature of the

Jhelum Fault. The evidence for neotectonic activity of the Jhelum Fault includes 1)

consistent offset of streams forming tributaries to the Jhelum River from the western

side (Fig. 4.6), and 2) offset of the Jhelum River itself and its associated

sedimentation bar near Muzaffarabad.

It becomes quite clear, by studying satellite image of the study area, that Jhelum River

takes a major bend near Muzaffarabad in its overall flow direction (Fig.5.1). In the

study area, the upper Jhelum River flows in a more or less 320 direction i.e., NW,

that is itself controlled by neotectonic activity associated with the Muzafarabad Thrust

(see later). After reaching Muzaffarabad, it takes a turn of about 140 in its flow

direction to the south. This drastic change in the overall flow direction of Jhelum

River is attributed to the Jhelum Fault. The lower Jhelum River and its western

tributaries are under the influence of Jhelum Fault where lower Jhelum river flows

more or less parallel to Jhelum Fault and several of its western tributaries, flowing

across this fault, show bend in their flow channel. These bends are in accordance with

the movement of left lateral Jhelum (strike slip) Fault (Pathier et al., 2006).

62
Fig. 5.1. Google Earth Image of the study area showing major bends in the flow
pattern of Jhelum River near Muzaffarabad and Kunhar River near Rara
village signifying neotectonic effects of the Muzaffarabad Thrust, Jhelum
Fault and the inferred Rara Fault.

In this context, the area covering the Kunhar River-Lower Jhelum River confluence

shows features which suggest neotectonic control. The Kunhar River, a western

tributary of the Jhelum River forms a prominent bend near its junction with Jhelum

River close to village Rara on Muzaffarabad-Kohala road (Fig. 5.2). Adjacent to the

junction, a segment of the Kunhar River attains a linear trend in SSW direction sub-

parallel to the Jhelum River, before making a 90 loop to join with the Jhelum River

(Fig. 5.2). Both the western and the eastern limbs of the south-verging river Kunhar

loop are controlled by active faults. The western limb is considered to be controlled

by a newly defined fault termed Rara Fault in this study. On the satellite imageries,

the Rara Fault is a distinct lineament trending SSW-NNE for a distance of 8.5 km

west of Muzaffarabad. Calkins et al. (1975) and Greco (1991) mapped a thin

63
gypsiferous limestone band extending southwest of Muzaffarabad and passing

through south-oriented loop of the Kunhar River just before its confluence with the

Jhelum River. Whereas the previous authors defined lithological control for this

lineament, this study defines it as a neotectonic fault. The evidences for the

neotectonic nature of the Rara Fault include: 1) distinct lineament nature of the

feature on satellite images, 2) alignment of this lineament along a segment of the

Kunhar River, and 3) highly competent, resistant nature of the gypsiferous band. It is

worth noting that gypsiferous limestone should be normally an incompetent lithology,

which should be easily erodible. Instead, in the studied area this gypsiferrous

limestone band forms a prominent linear ridge line. Hence it is interpreted that this

band represents a fault material hardened by fault related aqueous material. The

displacement of the Kunhar River course suggests a right-lateral sense of movement

along the Rara Fault, which is opposite to that of the Jhelum Fault.

The eastern limb of the south-verging Kunhar River loop (with northward flow

direction of the Kunhar River), immediately before the Kunhar-Jhelum Loop does not

follow the Jhelum Fault proper. However, the river follows the contact between the

Hazara Formation and the Rara Formation (Fig. 5.2), a unit representing the Outer

Lesser Himalayan Hill Range Sequence (Margala, Kalachitta, Samana) (Greco, 1989).

If so this contact marks the Nathiagali Thrust (Coward et al., 1988). The river

morphology represented by the Kunhar River, therefore suggests neotectonic behavior

of the Nathiagali Thrust in this area.

64
Fig. 5.2. Close-up view of the bends in Kunhar River Flow direction (Yellow lines) in
relation with the strike slip faults (Red lines). Dashed line shows probable
strike slip fault.

The Jhelum Fault proper has several evidences of neotectonic activity south of

Muzafarabad. A prominent neotectonic feature is displayed by the Chattar loop at its

eastern end. Jhelum River makes a west directed loop at Muzaffarabad after its

confluence with the Neelam River. After encircling the Chattar area of Muzaffarabad,

the loop takes a sharp south turning at its southern end, immediately to the south of

the PM Secretariat. The Jhelum Fault exposed on the Muzafarabad-Kohala road (Figs.

4.3; 5.3) passes through the eastern bend of the loop before passing through the PM

Secretariate and the Parliament lodges at Lower Chattar. Field evidence of tectonic

activity of Jhelum Fault is provided as a field photograph in Figure 5.4 taken near

Lower Chattar, Muzaffarabad. This photo shows sharply cut river terrace with

residential houses on top of it by the steep Jhelum Fault and thus making the eastern

face of the terrace towards the river sharp and steep. This phenomenon is also evident

from the study of satellite image (Fig. 5.5) which shows the sharp bend in the River

Jhelums flow direction at the location where it is cut by the fault and truncation of its

associated sedimentation bar.

65
Fig 5.3. Google Earth Image showing trace of Jhelum Fault passing through the
Jhelum river bend, the PM Secretariate and the Parliament lodges at Lower
Chattar. a shows the location from where the Photo of Figure 5.4 was
taken and b shows location of the Figure 4.3.

Fig. 5.4. Field photograph of steeply cut fluvial terrace near lower chattar,
Muzaffarabad. Photo taken (from point a in Fig. 5.3 and point 1 in Fig.
5.5), looking roughly towards South.
66
Further towards the south, the Jhelum River partially follows the Jhelum Fault but

mostly flows parallel to the fault exposed on its western side. In this segment, the

geomorphology of the western valley face of the Jhelum River displays several

neotectonic features. Firstly, the valley face is truncated by the fault resulting in a

major topographic contrast across the fault. The valley face west of the fault is

characterized by markedly high elevations compared to the valley face east of the

fault. Secondly, the valley face west of the fault has steep fall and is characterized by

faceted spurs, a geomorphological feature characteristic of the active faults. Thirdly,

all the western tributaries of the Jhelum River, when crossing the fault trace, show

strong northward deflection. The stream avulsion associated with the Jhelum Fault is

best displayed by the Bakot Nala near Bakot Sharif (Kohala) (Fig. 5.6). The stream

takes a sharp bend of about 90 and starts flowing in northward direction for about 2

km and then follows a north-eastward course to meet with Jhelum River near Barsala,

north of Kohala (Fig. 5.6). From Kohala northward, all the western tributaries of the

Jhelum show this stream avulsion as they cross the fault before joining the Jhelum

River. There is however greater displacement of the stream courses near Kohala

successively decreasing to the north. This suggests that the neotectonic activity

associated with the Jhelum Fault is at its maximum in its southern segment near

Kohala compared to its northern segment near Muzaffarabad.

67
Fig. 5.5. Close-up view showing sharp bend in River Jhelum flow direction and
truncation of associated fluvial terrace. 1 shows the location from where
the Photo of Figure 5.4 was taken and 2 shows location of the Figure 4.3.

Bakot Nala

Fig. 5.6. A satellite-image view showing tributary stream avulsion by the Jhelum
Fault in the Lower Jhelum Valley. Note Jhelum Fault (dashed line)
coinciding with faceted spurs-fluvial terrace interface (After Ali, 2011).

68
5.2. NEOTECTONIC FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE

MUZAFFARABAD THRUST

As the Muzaffarabad Thrust has ruptured in 2005, active tectonic features associated

with this thrust are abundant especially in a linear array from Balakot to Chikar. The

rupture has been mapped in details by numerous workers using both the field mapping

(Kaneda et al., 2008) as well as by remote sensing image analysis (Avouac et al.,

2006; Pathier et al., 2006). Figures 5.7 and 5.8 show the regional maps of the 2005

earthquake rupture associated with the Muzafarabad Thrust. Geomorphology of the

Muzaffarabad Thrust has been recently described in detail by Ali (2011). Figure (5.9)

portrays a summary of the geomorphology of the Muzafarabad Thrust.

Fig. 5.7. Surface fault trace map of Muzaffarabad Thrust by Avouac et al. (2006)
using remote sensing image analysis.

69
Fig. 5.8. Geological map prepared by Kaneda et al. (2008) based on field mapping
techniques showing trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust that ruptured in 2005
earthquake.

Fig. 5.9. A Google Earth view of the active tectonic feature (2005 Erathquake
Rupture-dashed line) and geomorphic features like fluvial terraces, faceted
spurs and hanging valleys along the northern slopes of the Upper Jhelum
River (Muzafarabad-Siran Segment; Muzafarabad towards the lower left
corner of the photograph) (After Ali, 2011).
70
Field work was conducted at different localities along the segment of this fault rupture

between Muzaffarabad and Chikar Khass. There were numerous neotectonic features

recorded in the field which are described in detail as under.

5.2.1. Sar Pain area, locations 5 and 6

The Sar Pain area was selected for detailed structural mapping of rupture zone and

associated fractures, which formed as a result of 2005 Kashmir earthquake, for the

following reasons:

1) The area exposes spectacular surface fractures with vertical displacement of about

3.3 meters to few centimetres on relatively low-angle terraces (locations 5 and 6,

Fig. 5.10a),

2) The northeastern side of the area is relatively uplifted as compare to the

southwestern side, as indicated by the formation of earthquake pond in the

southwestern side due to the flow-blockage of a small stream (Fig. 5.10b).

This uplifting is evident by observing the change in Tree line of a small hillock,

near Sar Pain area, through which the trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust is passing (Fig.

5.10c). According to the local people, this tree line was straight before the earthquake.

In some areas, ground surface along the trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust, is tilted instead

of being fractured and one such place was observed near location 6 (Fig. 5.11). At that

place, tilting of the ground is very obvious from the older graves which were tilted as

a consequence of 2005 earthquake whereas the graves of people killed during that

earthquake, which definitely are constructed after the earthquake, are horizontal. This

vertical translation authenticates the trace of the Muzaffarabad Thrust through this

area.

71
 a b

Fig. 5.10. (a) Vertical separation of 3.3 meters observed in the field along the fracture
R8.
(b) View of the Earthquake Pond produced after 2005 Kashmir earthquake
when the ground to the right side of the fault trace (hanging wall) was
uplifted relatively to left side (foot wall). Photo taken looking towards NW.
(c) Change in the Tree Line observed from a distance indicating uplift.
Houses visible are of Sar Pain village (Photo taken looking towards west).

Fig. 5.11. This photograph shows the tilting of the ground surface after 2005
earthquake. Distant newer graves (at the top of photo) are of the victims of
Kashmir earthquake devastation, unquestionably built after the earthquake,
are positioned horizontally where as the older graves at the fore front of this
photo are tilted to the right side (Photo taken looking towards SE).
72
The terraces consist of red coloured, poorly sorted, loose coarse-grained granular

material. Mapping was carried out at 1:100 scale (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16) to decipher the

structural elements of all fractures produced on the surface. In this regard three types

of surface fractures were observed:

1) Fractures with more than 0.1 metre vertical displacement and few centimetre

opening/ extension (Figs. 5.12b and 5.13),

2) Fractures with less than 0.1 metre vertical displacement and few centimetre

opening/ extension (Fig. 5.14a), and

3) Fractures showing rhomb-shape pattern and relative displacement of fracture walls.

These rhomb shaped structures form small-scale sags or grabens (Fig. 5.14c).

Fig. 5.12. (a) Block diagram showing different data parameters recorded along key
rupture surfaces. d: displacement; dp: depth; l: length; w: width. (b) An
example showing typical rupture surface observed on a fluvial terrace.
Note, the data parameters described in a fit into the surface geometry of
the rupture.

73
The fracture data was recorded in terms of fracture or rupture length (l), rupture

vertical displacement (d), rupture opening/extension or width (w) and rupture depth

(dp) (Fig. 5.12b). The data was recorded along fourteen major fractures at location 5,

and four major fractures at location 6. Figures (5.15) and (5.16) show detailed fracture

map at locations 5 and 6, respectively. The dominant set of fractures is trending NW-

SE with local variations in strike corresponding to the strike of the rupture. The length

of NW-SE trending fractures varies from few meters up to several tens of meters

(Figs. 5.15 and 5.16). The opening or extension of these fractures ranges from few

centimetres to at least 2.5 meters (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14c). The depth measurements

along NW-SE trending fractures may not represent the true depth values as most of

the fractures are V shaped in cross-section and the core of these fractures are filled

with colluvium (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13). Maximum vertical displacement recorded along

these fractures is 3.3m (Fig. 5.10a). Avouac et al. (2006) determined maximum

displacement around 5.4m based on sub-pixel correlation of ASTER images.

74
Fig. 5.13. (a and b) photographs showing ground rupture features with vertical
displacements (d). These rupture zones were observed on fluvial terrace on
the left bank of the Jhelum River, location 5. Top photograph shows at least
four levels of scarp-lets within ~12m. Arrows show normal shear sense.

From the map pattern it is clear that most NW-SE trending fractures show staircase

trajectory across the rupture zone (Fig. 5.13a), whereas the geometry along the

rupture is slightly linear to sigmoidal and anastomosing (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16) with a

dip-slip component. The amount of displacement across the fracture decreases toward

75
the fracture termination. The termination of these fractures displays slightly curving

and dying out, branching and dying out and step-over to next parallel fault forming

hooks (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16). Spacing between the fractures varies, however, where

closely spaced, they form fracture-bounded rhomb shape grabens (Fig. 5.14c). The

second set of fractures are trending N-S and are oblique (<45) to the main set with

negligible vertical displacement (Figs. 5.14a, 5.15 and 5.16). Most of these fractures

have step en-echelon geometry with a strike slip component. The tips of these

fractures form distinct right or left step en-echelon with shear and extension

components. Some fracture tips form Y shape geometry.

Fig.5.14. (a) Photograph and (b) sketch showing fracture pattern associated with the
rupture, close to the survey point 15, photo taken looking towards
southwest. (c) En-echelon pattern with small rhombohedral grabens.

76
Fig. 5.15. Detailed map and a cross section of the fractures observed at location 5 near
Sar Pain area. Density diagram is also provided (See text for details).

77
Fig. 5.16. Detailed map and a cross section of the fractures observed at location 6 near
Sar Pain area. Density diagram is also provided (See text for details).

5.2.2. Locations 7 and 8

Further south, the rupture can be traced at locations 7 and 8 (Fig. 5.17a,b). At location

7, the rupture passes through the metalled road and brick wall (Fig. 5.17a). The

orientation of these fractures in these man-made structures is NW-SE that is parallel

to the main rupture trend. According to the local people, these fractures both in the

wall and on the road were developed during the earthquake. The fractures are

extensional in nature with maximum 0.2m opening.

At location 8, the rupture is passing through the fluvial terrace and is very similar in

geometry to that observed at Sar Pain area. However, at this particular location the

rupture zone is anastomosing with connecting splays (Fig. 5.17b). The rupture is

passing along the Chikar Khas valley, parallel to the main rupture trend i.e. NW-SE.

78
The panoramic view at location 8 allows to trace the rupture from location 5 via

locations 6 and 7 (Fig. 5.17b).

Fig. 5.17. (a) Location 7 shows fracture pattern along the metalled road. Negligible
vertical displacement was observed on the road with few centimeters of
opening or extension. Inset shows cracks in the brick wall. The orientation
of these cracks follows the rupture trend. (b) Location 8, photograph
showing the trace of rupture zone from location 5. Note the fracture pattern
is very similar as observed at locations 5 and 6. Inset shows details of the
fracture pattern. (c) Location 9, Chikar Kas, where ground rupture is
trending NW-SE and is manifested as complete collapse of semi-concrete
houses and tilting of trees.

5.2.3. Chikar Kas, location 9

The surface rupture at Chikar Khas town (Fig. 5.17c) has roughly NW-SE orientation

and form sigmoidal and anastomosing pattern. Most of the fractures have dip-slip

movement. The displacement is maximum in the centre of the fractures and dyes out

at the tips. According to the eye witnesses, more than 30% of the construction,

79
including shops of the Chikar Khas market, and houses were completely damaged.

The amount of devastation is concentrated in areas where rupture is passing.

Landsliding is manifested by rock falls and slides. Close to the Chikar Khas market, a

segment of metalled road, slided down the slope approximately 100m. The angle of

slope, where the landslide occurred, is more than 40o (Fig. 5.17c).

5.2.4. Awan Pati, location 10 and Butlian village, location 11

On the way to Awan Pati across the Jhelum River (location 10), a steep NNW-SSE

striking fault was observed in a bedrock (Fig. 5.18a). The orientation of the fault is

close to the main rupture trend. The evidences that support this fault to be a co-

seismic are that the fault not only offsets the bedrock, but also displaces the recent

colluvium (Fig. 5.18a). The exposure is preserved on the roadside. Linear to

anastomosing fractures are present on the road and due to extensive fracturing, the

metalled portion of the road is partly washed away due to seasonal showers. Local

people also confirmed this fault to be related with the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.

In the Butlian village, surface rupture was first observed by the local people. The

rupture is developed in the alluvial terrace and the orientation and geometrical pattern

of the rupture is very similar to those experienced in Sar pain area. However, one of

the most important features at this particular location is the uplift or convex bulge of

cultivated surface of about 2.5m (Fig. 5.18b). This bulge is produced after the

earthquake as witnessed by the local people.

80
Fig. 5.18. (a) Reverse fault observed on the way to Awan Pati town, Location 10. The
fault is observed in the bed rock. The attitude of the fault is close to the
main rupture trend. Note, 1) washing out of the road due to fracturing and
sinking, and 2) fault displaces recent colluvium and vegetation. (b)
Location 11, unusual bulge on terrace near Butlian village as a consequence
of 2005 Kashmir earthquake.

5.2.5. Nisar Camp Muzaffarabad, Location 12

There is refolding in the overall NW-SE trend of Muzaffarabad Thrust near Nisar

camp. At this location, Muzaffarabad Thrust is running almost EW across Neelum

River, and produces a topographic difference across its trace (Fig. 5.19). This

uplifting/bulging is also supported by the tilting of trees and electricity poles, towards

81
the footwall, in a linear array following the fault trace. An added evidence of the trace

of Muzaffarabad Thrust passing through this area and the formation of this bulge due

to Muzaffarabad Thrust is the destruction that occurred during 2005 earthquake. Most

of the damage that took place is concentrated along the crest of this bulge which itself

is following the fault trace, whereas the buildings on either side, away from the bulge

(fault trace), suffered less or no damage (Fig. 5.19).

Another main neotectonic feature related with the 2005 earthquake is the landslide

that occurred near Nisar camp, north of Muzaffarabad city. Failure surface of the

landslide is almost perpendicular to the trace of Muzaffarabad Thrust (Fig. 5.19). A

large portion of the carbonates of Muzaffarabad formation slided down due to the

ground shaking and blocked the flow of Neelum River which was later restored.

The ridge crest at the Nisar camp has clearly been uplifted in association with the

2005 earthquake. However, the overall elevation of the ridge crest relative to the

footwall is over 30 meters. Assuming that 2005 rupture caused upto 5 meter uplift of

the hanging wall ridge crest, the remaining 25 meters elevation remains unaccounted

for. A preliminary trenching and paleoseismic study of the rupture by Kondo et al.

(2008) suggests presence of earthquake faulting dated at between 500-2200 yr B.P.,

that suggests recurring seismic activity at the Nisar Camp ridge crest that accounts for

the overall uplift of the ridge crest.

82
Fig. 5.19. Field photograph showing the Failure surface of landslide near Nisar camp
in the background and the bulging due to Muzaffarabad Thrust in the
foreground, complimented by tilting of trees and localization of destruction
along the crest of bulging.

5.2.6. Hattian Bala Landslide

Muzaffarabad Thrust triggered numerous landslides along its extension during

October 8 earthquake 2005 (Dunning et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2008), largest of which

was the Hattian Bala landslide. The main deposit blocked the Karli River flowing in

east and another tributary Tang river flowing in north direction, forming an

earthquake Dam (Fig. 5.20). Dunning et al. (2007) mapped it in detail and classified it

as a Rock Avalanche. It took place on the south eastern face of Dana Hill (Fig. 5.21)

and is in alignment with the overall structural trend of the rupture in the area. As a

result, village of Dandbeh, situated on the failure slope, was completely destroyed and

about 1000 people were killed (Dunning et al., 2007).

83
 o o
73300 73400
a
o
34200
N

o o o o o o o o o o o o o
7337 7338 7339 7340 7341 7342 7343 7344 7345 7346 7347 7348 7349
b

o
3415

o
3414
Hattian Bala
avalanch o
34100 11
10
o
3413

Karli o
3412
River
Karli Lake
5
o
6 3411
7
8
o
3410

9 o
3409

o
34000 o
3408
5Km

Fig. 5.20. (a and b) Satellite images (2.5metre resolution) showing location of the
areas (5 to 11), where surface rupture, caused by the 2005 Kashmir
earthquake, was studied in detailed.

Fig. 5.21. Photograph showing the south eastern face of Dana Hill which slided down
and blocked Karli River forming Karli lake. Photo taken from the high
point on Landslide deposit and looking towards northwest. Vehicles are
shown for scale (Modified after Dunning et al., 2007).

84
CHAPTER 6 (DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS)

6.1. DISCUSSION

2005 earthquake is very recent neotectonic activity on Muzaffarabad Thrust

producing fractures on the surface along trace of the fault. These fractures were

mapped in detail at Sar Pain location on Muzaffarabad-Srinagar road where the fault

trace crosses Jhelum River. The dominant set of fractures is trending NW-SE showing

variation in lengths from few meters up to several tens of meters (Figs. 5.15 and

5.16). The opening or extension of these fractures ranges from few centimetres to at

least 2.5 meters (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14c). The depth measurements along these fractures

may not represent the true depth values as most of the fractures are filled with

colluvium (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13). Maximum vertical displacement recorded along these

fractures is 3.3m (Fig. 5.10a).

Uplift along the Muzaffarabad Thrust is also evident from other features including the

formation of earthquake ponds (Fig. 5.10b) on the footwall side and change in Tree-

Line observed at Sar Pain (Fig. 5.10c), uplift or convex bulge of cultivated surface of

about 2.5m in the Butlian village (Fig. 5.18b) and tilting of the older graves near

location 6 (Fig. 5.11). Muzaffarabad Thrust is now defined clearly as a result of 2005

Kashmir earthquake, extending from Balakot to Sudhan Gali (Kaneda et al., 2008). It

was earlier identified to be extending from Balakot to the southeastern exposures of

Muzaffarabad Formation in the Muzaffarabad anticline.

Neotectonic activity at the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis is indicated by

different stream offsets identified on satellite (and Google Earth) images. These

offsets are in complete accordance with associated faults (Fig. 4.11, see also Figs.5.1,

5.2, 5.5). Jhelum River and its tributaries show major change in their flow direction at

85
three locations on the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis. These bends are;

near Muzaffarabad in Jhelum River, near Rara in Kunhar River and near Bakot sharif

(Kohala) in Bakot Nala (See section 5.1 for details). Besides these, small scale stream

avulsion is displayed by almost all the western tributaries of Jhelum River flowing

across the trace of Jhelum Fault (Fig. 5.6).

Various structures were identified on 2.5 m resolution satellite image of the study area

using ERDAS Imagine 8.4 (Fig. 4.11). These structures formed a good match with the

structures recorded in the field and shown in geological map of the study area.

As most of the previous work done in the majority of study area is by Geological

Survey of Pakistan (GSP), its maps were thus used as base maps during this study.

Dip direction of Muzaffarabad Thrust is corrected after Akhtar et al. (2004). They

have drawn this thrust in cross section as dipping towards SW, which is in fact

dipping towards NE.

Kamlial Formation is identified in the study area as occupying the core of two

synclines (Fig. 4.6). Previously it was regarded as a part of Murree Formation by

many workers (see chapter 3 for details). These two synclines in particular and other

structures in general show the effect of large scale faults which are passing nearby.

The syncline in the central part of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, lying close to the trace

of Muzaffarabad Thrust, is oriented in NW-SE direction which is also the strike of the

said thrust. Thus it can be concluded that this syncline along with other axial zone

structures are affected by Muzaffarabad Thrust which itself is produced as a result of

NE-SW transport direction. Similarly, the syncline containing Kamlial formation in

its core in the south western part of the study area, lying close to the Jhelum Fault and

hence western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, is oriented in more or less NS

86
direction showing its parallelism with the strike of Jhelum Fault. Hence its orientation

is more or less controlled by Jhelum Fault and its associated stresses.

Rara formation is treated here as separate formation after Greco (1989) and Greco and

Spencer (1993) defined a fault bounded package of rock as Rara Formation lying

between Hazara Formation in the west and Murree Formation in the east.

Axial zone of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis has suffered NE-SW shortening (Fig. 4.10)

whereas western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis has experienced a more or less

NW-SE directed stresses (Fig. 4.9). NE-SW oriented stresses direction in the axial

zone is indicated by the orientation of bedding-cleavage intersection in the Murree

Formation near location 6 (Fig. 6.1). Here the alternating layers of sandstone and

shale are exposed along the road side displaying clear relationship of bedding and

cleavage. Cleavage-bedding relationship helps in identifying the related fold and

especially orientation of its axis. The intersection lineation formed by the intersection

of bedding and cleavage is thus parallel to the fold axis of associated fold. Hence from

Figure 6.1, it can be deduced that the development of intersection lineation is

genetically associated with the large syncline because they both depict NE-SW

shortening. Another evidence to the NE-SW directed deformation in the axial zone of

Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis is provided by the foliation which developed in Murree

shales near location 7 (Fig. 6.2). Here almost vertical foliation has developed striking

in NW-SE direction and dipping towards NE.

87
Fig. 6.1. Bedding-Cleavage relationship as observed in outcrops of Murree Formation
along Muzaffarabad-Srinagar road near location 6. Stereographic projection
shows the orientation of intersection lineation formed.

SWverging Kashmir thrust system at the eastern limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis is

actively propagating toward the SW with its frontal thrusts cutting up through the

SSE-verging Pakistan thrust system (Treloar et al., 1992). Based on the vergence of

Indus Kohistan Seismic Zone (IKSZ), Treloar et al. (1992) classified it as part of the

Kashmir thrust system. He further mentioned that Kashmir thrust system, being

dominant, may overthrust and incorporate the Pakistan thrust system. This statement

is now corroborated after 2005 earthquake which ruptured Muzaffarabad Thrust, a

SW-verging thrust; hence a part of Kashmir thrust system, from Balakot on the

88
western limb of HKS to Sudhan Gali in the axial zone of HKS. Treloar et al. (1992)

presented a model for the formation of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis stating that the

syntaxis was formed as a result of interference and thus pinning of converging

Kashmir and Pakistan thrust systems due to each other, which were propagating

simultaneously. This model, however, does not explain the strike slip movement at

the western limb of syntaxis and the neotectonic features associated with it (see

section 5.1). Treloars model is also ineffective to elucidate the two superimposed

deformational phases as described by Greco and Spencer (1993).

Detailed structural analysis of the study area revealed that deformation in the central

part of the syntaxis is due to NE-SW transport direction as indicated by different

structures in the axial zone. Almost all the structures including faults, bedding,

cleavages and fold axes are striking/trending in NW-SE direction, showing that these

were formed due to NE-SW directed stresses/forces. Deformation in the western part

of the study area, at the western limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis, close to Jhelum

Fault, is more or less effected by NW-SE directed stresses or transport direction.

Hence these structures are oriented in NE-SW to NS direction. Though no evidence of

cross cutting relationship of these structures was found in the field but based on the

work of Greco (1989) and Greco and Spencer (1993), showing refolding of the

Muzaffarabad anticline, it is proposed that the area has suffered at least two phases of

deformation. The older one, being resulted by NE-SW transport direction, is the set of

structures oriented in NW-SE direction, generally occupying the axial zone of Hazara-

Kashmir Syntaxis, whereas the structures near the trace of Jhelum Fault at the western

limb of syntaxis are thought to be younger ones which resulted from the later NW-SE

transport direction. Hence it is believed that the formation of Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis resulted from the anticlockwise rotation of transport direction from earlier

89
NE-SW to later NW-SE direction, followed by progressive interference of the two

transport directions, thus supporting the Model presented in Greco and Spencer

(1993).

Fig. 6.2. Very steep foliation developed in shales of Murree Formation near location
7 showing NE-SW directed stresses. Axial plane of small kink folding is
also visible (marker for scale).

90
6.2. CONCLUSIONS

As a result of detailed structural and neotectonic study conducted across the area, the

following conclusions can simply be drawn.

1) Muzaffarabad Thrust is an active fault as 2005 earthquake ruptured it from

Balakot in NW (on western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis) to Sudhan Gali in

SE (in axial zone of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis) inducing surface fractures of

variable lengths. 3.3 m of maximum vertical displacement was recorded at Sar

Pain location with horizontal extension from few centimeters to 2.5 m. Other

neotectonic features associated with 2005 earthquake, and hence Muzaffarabad

Thrust, include; formation of earthquake ponds on footwall, change in Tree-Line

across fault trace, convex bulging of cultivated surface and tilting of older graves.

2) SWverging Kashmir thrust system at the eastern limb of Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis is dominant and actively propagating towards the SW with its frontal

thrusts cutting up through the SSE-verging Pakistan thrust system.

3) It is quite clear after 2005 earthquake that Muzaffarabad Thrust, being SW-

verging thrust, is part of Kashmir thrust system.

4) Active nature of the faults at western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis is evident

by studying the stream and river drainage pattern using satellite and Google earth

images. Numerous offsets are identified in the flow pattern across the syntaxis

limb.

5) Overall structure of the study area can be grouped in two Domains. Domain 1

contains the structures at the western limb of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis which are

oriented in NS to NE-SW direction. Whereas Domain 2 includes the structures of

91
 the axial zone of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis which are affected by Kashmir thrust

system, indicated by orientation of large scale and small scale structures including

Muzaffarabad anticline, Muzaffarabad Thrust, bedding, cleavages, intersection

lineation and other small scale folds and faults.

6) It is believed that the formation of Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis resulted from the

anticlockwise rotation of transport direction from earlier NE-SW to later NW-SE

direction, followed by progressive interference of the two transport directions,

thus supporting the Model presented in Greco and Spencer (1993).

7) Keeping in view the tectonically active nature of the faults, any major

construction in the study area should be properly designed and built.

92
REFERENCES

Ahsan, N., Chaudhry, M.N., 2008. Geology of Hettangian to middle Eocene rocks of

Hazara and Kashmir basins, Northwest lesser Himalayas, Pakistan. The

Geological Bulletin of the Punjab University, 43, 131-152.

Akhtar, S.S., Waliullah, Hussain, A., Muhammad, R., 2004. Geological map of the

Dhirkot area, Muzaffarabad and Bagh districts, AJK and parts of Rawalpindi and

Abbottabad districts, NWFP, Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Islamabad,

Geological Map Series, VI (16).

Ali, M., 2011. Identifying Neotectonic features using lineament analysis of satellite

images in tectonically active Muzaffarabad area, Kashmir. M.Phil dissertation

(unpublished), National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar,

Peshawar, Pakistan.

Arbab, M.S.H., Shah, S.H., 1996. Geological map of the Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Geological Survey of Pakistan, Geological Map Series.

Avouac, J.-P., Ayoub, F., Leprince, S., Konca, O., Helmberger, D.V., 2006. The

2005, Mw 7.6 Kashmir earthquake: Sub-pixel correlation of ASTER images and

seismic waveforms analysis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 249, 514528.

doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.06.025.

Bossart, P., 1986. Eine Neue interpretation der Tektonik der Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis

(Pakistan). Ph.D. dissertation, ETH-Zurich.

93
Bossart, P., Dietrich, D., Greco, A., Ottiger, R., Ramsay, J.G., 1984. A new structural

interpretation of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Southern Himalaya, Pakistan.

Kashmir Journal of Geology, 2 (1), 19-36.

Bossart, P., Dietrich, D., Greco, A., Ottiger, R., Ramsay, J.G., 1988. The tectonic

structure of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Southern Himalayas, Pakistan.

Tectonics, 7 (2), 273297.

Bossart, P., Ottiger, R., 1989. Rocks of the Murree formation in Northern Pakistan:

Indicators of a descending foreland basin of late Paleocene to middle Eocene age.

Eclogae Geologicae Helveticae, 82, 133165.

Bossart, P., Ottiger, R., 1990. Rock magnetic properties and structural development in

the core of the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, NE Pakistan. Tectonics, 9 (1), 103-121.

Burg, J.-P., Clrier, B., Chaudhry, M.N., Ghazanfar, M., Gnehm, F., Schnellmann,

M., 2005. Fault analysis and paleostress evolution in large strain regions:

methodological and geological discussion of the southeastern Himalayan fold-

and-thrust belt in Pakistan. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 24 (4), 445-467.

doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2003.12.008.

Calkins, J.A., Offield, T.W., Abdullah, S.K.M., Ali, S.T., 1975. Geology of the

Southern Himalaya in Hazara, Pakistan and adjacent areas. United States

Geological Survey Professional Paper 716-C, 29 pp.

Chaudhry, M.N., Ashraf, M., 1981. Petrology of middle Siwalik rocks of Kotli area,

Azad Kashmir. Geological Bulletin University of Peshawar, 14, 183-191.

94
Cheema, M.R., Raza, S.M., Ahmad, H., 1977. Cenozoic. In: Shah, S.M.I. (ed.),

Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Pakistan, 12, 56-

98.

Coward, M.P., Butler, R.W.H., Chambers, A.F., Graham, R.H., Izatt, C.N., Khan,

M.A., Knipe, R.J., Prior, D.J., Treloar, P.J., Williams, M.P., 1988. Folding and

imbrication of the Indian crust during Himalayan collision. Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 326 (1589), 89-116.

Crawford, A.R., Davies, R.G., 1975. Ages of Pre-Mesozoic formations of the Lesser

Himalaya, Hazara District, Northern Pakistan. Geological Magazine, 112 (5), 509-

514.

Danilchik, W., 1961. The Iron formation of the Surghar and western Salt Range,

Mianwali District, West Pakistan. United States Geological Survey Professional

Paper 424-D, 228-231.

Dunning, S.A., Mitchell, W.A., Rosser, N.J., Petley, D.N., 2007. The Hattian Bala

rock avalanche and associated landslides triggered by the Kashmir Earthquake of

8 October 2005. Engineering Geology, 93 (3-4), 130-144.

doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.07.003.

Gahalaut, V.K., 2006. 2005 Kashmir earthquake: not a Kashmir Himalaya seismic

gap event. Current Science, 90 (4), 507-508.

Gansser, A., 1964. Geology of the Himalayas. Interscience Publishers, John Wiley

and Sons Limited, London, 289 pp.

95
Gee, E.R., 1945. The age of the Saline Series of the Punjab and of Kohat. Proceedings

of the National Academy of Sciences, India. Section B. 14, 269-310.

Ghazanfar, M., Chaudhary, M.N., Zaka, K.J., Baig, M.S., 1986. The geology and

structure of Balakot area, District Mansehra, Pakistan. The Geological Bulletin of

the Punjab University, 21, 30-49.

Greco, A., 1991. Stratigraphy, Metamorphism and Tectonics of the Hazara-Kashmir

Syntaxis area. Kashmir Journal of Geology, 8 & 9, 39-65.

Greco, A., Spencer, D.A., 1993. A section through the Indian Plate, Kaghan Valley,

NW Himalaya, Pakistan. In: Treloar, P.J., Searle, M.P. (Eds.), Himalayan

Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publication No. 74, 221-236.

doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1993.074.01.16.

Greco, A.M., 1989. Tectonics and metamorphism in the western himalayan syntaxis

area (Azad Kashmir, NE-Pakistan). Ph.D. dissertation, ETH-Zurich.

Grelaud, S., Sassi, W., de Lamotte, D.F., Jaswal, T., Roure, F., 2002. Kinematics of

eastern Salt Range and South Potwar Basin (Pakistan): a new scenario. Marine

and Petroleum Geology, 19 (9), 11271139. doi:10.1016/S0264-8172(02)00121-

6.

Hussain, A., Mughal, N., Haq, I., Latif, A., 2004. Geological Map of the Garhi

Habibullah Area, District Mansehra and Parts of Muzaffarabad District, AJK.

Geological Survey of Pakistan, Islamabad, Geological Map Series, VI (13).

96
Iqbal, S., Nasir, S., Hussain, A., 2004. Geological Map of the Nauseri area, district

Muzaffarabad, AJK. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Islamabad, Geological Map

Series, VI (14).

Jayangondaperumal, R., Thakur, V.C., 2008. Co-seismic secondary surface fractures

on southeastward extension of the rupture zone of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.

Tectonophysics, 446 (1-4), 61-76. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2007.10.006.

Johnson, N.M., Stix, J., Tauxe, L., Cerveny, P.F., Tahirkheli, R.A.K., 1985.

Paleomagnetic chronology, fluvial processes, and tectonic implications of the

Siwalik deposits near Chinji Village, Pakistan. Journal of Geology, 93 (1), 27-40.

Kaneda, H., Nakata, T., Tsutsumi, H., Kondo, H., Sugito, N., Awata, Y., Akhtar, S.S.,

Majid, A., Khattak, W., Awan, A.A., Yeats, R.S., Hussain, A., Ashraf, M.,

Wesnousky, S.G., Kausar, A.B., 2008. Surface Rupture of the 2005 Kashmir,

Pakistan, Earthquake and Its Active Tectonic Implications. Bulletin of the

Seismological Society of America, 98 (2), 521-557. doi: 10.1785/0120070073.

Kazmi, A.H., Abbasi, I.A., 2008. Stratigraphy and Historical Geology of Pakistan.

National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar,

Pakistan, 524 pp.

Kazmi, A.H., Jan, M.Q., 1997. Geology and Tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic

Publishers, Karachi, 554 pp.

Khan, M.R., Ali, M., 1997. Tectonic modeling of western Himalaya in northern

Pakistan based on gravity study. The Geological Bulletin of the Punjab

University, 31 & 32, 103-113.

97
Khan, M.R., Farooq, U., 2001. The study of the evolution of Hazara Kashmir

Syntaxis in Northern Pakistan and its effects on the civil engineering structures

based on gravity and magnetic data. The Geological Bulletin of the Punjab

University, 36, 39-48.

Khan, M.R., Khan, M.S., Farooq, U., 2003. Study of Shallow geological structures in

the core of Hazara Kashmir syntaxis based on residual gravity data in Azad

Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. The Geological Bulletin of the Punjab University,

38, 35-42.

Kondo, H., Nakata, T., Akhtar, S.S., Wesnousky, S.G., Sugito, N., Kaneda, H.,

Tsutsumi, H., Khan, A.M., Khattak, W., Kausar, A.B., 2008. Long recurrence

interval of faulting beyond the 2005 Kashmir earthquake around the northwestern

margin of the Indo-Asian collision zone. Geology, 36 (9), 731734.

doi:10.1130/G25028A.1.

Latif, M.A., 1970. Explanatory notes on the geology of South Eastern Hazara, to

accompany the revised geological map. Jahrbuch der geologischen Bundesanstalt,

Wien, Sonderband 15, 520.

Latif, M.A., 1973. Partial Extension of the Evaporite Facies of the Salt Range to

Hazara, Pakistan. Nature Physical Science, 244 (138), 124-125.

Latif, M.A., 1974. A Cambrian age for the Abbottabad Group of Hazara, Pakistan.

The Geological Bulletin of the Punjab University, 10, 1-20.

Lydekker, R., 1876. Notes on the geology of the Pir Panjal and neighbouring districts.

Records of the Geological Survey of India, 9 (4), 155-162.

98
Lydekker, R., 1883. The Geology of Kashmir and Chamba territories and the British

district of Kaghan. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 22, 334 pp.

Marks, P., Ali, C.M., 1961. The geology of the Abbottabad Area, with special

reference to the Infra-Trias. The Geological Bulletin of the Panjab University, 1,

47-55.

Marks, P., Ali, C.M., 1962. The Abbottabad Formation: a new name for Middlemiss

Infra-Trias. The Geological Bulletin of the Panjab University, 2, 56.

Meigs, A.J., Burbank, D.W., Beck, R.A., 1995. Middle-late Miocene (>10 Ma)

formation of the Main Boundary thrust in the western Himalaya. Geology, 23 (5),

423-426.

Middlemiss, C.S., 1896. The geology of Hazara and the Black Mountain. Memoirs of

the Geological Survey of India, 26, 302 pp.

Monalisa, Khwaja, A.A., 2005. Seismic Activity along the Main Boundary Thrust

(MBT), Pakistan. Geological Bulletin University of Peshawar, 38, 23-30.

Munir, M.H., Mirza, K., 2007. Stratigraphic aspect of recent earthquake occurred

along the Balakot-Bagh Fault, North-west Himalayas, Pakistan. The Geological

Bulletin of the Punjab University, 42, 25-36.

Najman, Y., Pringle, M., Godin, L., Oliver, G., 2001. Dating of the oldest continental

sediments from the Himalayan foreland basin. Nature, 410 (6825), 194197.

Najman, Y., Pringle, M., Godin, L., Oliver, G., 2002. A reinterpretation of the Balakot

Formation: Implications for the tectonics of the NW Himalaya, Pakistan.

Tectonics, 21 (5), 1045, 18 pp. doi:10.1029/2001TC001337.

99
Nakata, T., Tsutsumi, H., Khan, S.H., Lawrence, R.D., 1991. Active Faults of

Pakistan, map sheets and inventories. Research Center for Regional Geography,

Hiroshima University, Special Publication, 21, 141 pp.

Owen, L.A., Kamp, U., Khattak, G.A., Harp, E.L., Keefer, D.K., Bauer, M.A., 2008.

Landslides triggered by the 8 October 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Geomorphology,

94 (1-2), 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.04.007.

Pascoe, E.H., 1964. A manual of the Geology of India and Burma. Government of

India Press, Calcutta, 3, 1345-2130.

Pathier, E., Fielding, E.J., Wright, T.J., Walker, R., Parsons, B.E., Hensley, S., 2006.

Displacement field and slip distribution of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake from

SAR imagery. Geophysical Research Letters, 33 (20), L20310.

doi:10.1029/2006GL027193.

Pilgrim, G.E., 1910. Preliminary note on a revised classification of the Tertiary

freshwater deposits of India. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 40 (3),

185205.

Pinfold, E.S., 1918. Notes on structure and stratigraphy in the northwest Punjab.

Records of the Geological Survey of India, 48 (3), 137-160.

Pogue, K.R., Wardlaw, B.R., Harris, A.G., Hussain, A., 1992. Paleozoic and

Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Peshawar basin, Pakistan: Correlations and

implications. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 104, 915-927.

Rao, N.P., Kumar, P., Kalpna, Tsukuda, T., Ramesh, D.S., 2006. The devastating

Muzaffarabad earthquake of 8 October 2005: New insights into Himalayan

100
 seismicity and tectonics. Gondwana Research, 9 (4), 365378.

doi:10.1016/j.gr.2006.01.004.

Shah, S.M.I., 2009. Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of

Pakistan, 22, 381 pp.

Singh, S.K., Iglesias, A., Dattatrayam, R.S., Bansal, B.K., Rai, S.S., Perez-campos,

X., Suresh, G., Baidya, P.R., Gautam, J.L., 2006. Muzaffarabad earthquake of 8

October 2005 (Mw 7. 6): A preliminary report on source characteristics and

recorded ground motions. Current Science, 91 (5), 689-695.

Suppe, J., 1983. Geometry and kinematics of fault-bend folding. American Journal of

Science, 283 (7), 684721. doi:10.2475/ajs.283.7.684.

Tahirkheli, R.A.K., 1982. Geology of the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindukush in

Pakistan. Geological Bulletin University of Peshawar, 15, 51 pp.

Tapponnier, P., King, G., Bollinger, L., 2006. Active Faulting and Seismic Hazard in

the Western Himalayan Syntaxis, Pakistan (Keynote address). In: Kausar, A.B.,

Karim, T., Khan, T. (Eds.), International Conference on 8 October 2005

Earthquake in Pakistan: Its Implications & Hazard Mitigation, Jan. 1819,

Islamabad, Pakistan (Extended Abstracts), Geological Survey of Pakistan, pp. 6

7.

Treloar, P.J., Broughton, R.D., Williams, M.P., Coward, M.P., Windley, B.F., 1989.

Deformation, metamorphism and imbrication of the Indian plate, south of the

Main Mantle Thrust, north Pakistan. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 7 (1), 111

125. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.1989.tb00578.x.

101
Treloar, P.J., Coward, M.P., Chambers, A.F., Izatt, C.N., Jackson, K.C., 1992. Thrust

geometries, interferences and rotations in the Northwest Himalaya. In: McClay,

K.R. (ed.), Thrust Tectonics. Chapman and Hall, London, UK, pp. 325342.

Treloar, P.J., Rex, D.C., Guise, P.G., Wheeler, J., Hurford, A.J., Carter, A., 2000.

Geochronological constraints on the evolution of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis,

Pakistan Himalaya. In Khan, M.A., Treloar, P.J., Searle, M.P., Jan, M.Q. (Eds.),

Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological

Society, London, Special Publications No. 170, 137-162.

Verchre, A.M., 1866. Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper; with a note on the fossils by M. Edouard de Verneuil. Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 35, Part-2; No. II, pp. 89-133; No. III, pp. 159-203.

Verchre, A.M., 1867. Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a

geological paper; with a note on the fossils by M. Edouard de Verneuil: Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 36, Part-2; No. I, pp. 9-50; No. II, pp. 83-115; No.

III, pp. 201-229.

Wadia, D.N., 1928. The Geology of Poonch state (Kashmir) and adjacent portions of

the Punjab. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 51 (2), 185-370.

Wadia, D.N., 1931. The Syntaxis of the North-West Himalaya: Its Rocks, Tectonics,

and Orogeny. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 65 (2), 189-220.

Wadia, D.N., 1934. The Cambrian-Trias Sequence of North-Western Kashmir (Parts

of Muzaffarabad and Baramula Districts). Records of the Geological Survey of

India, 68 (2), 121-176.

102
Wadia, D.N., 1957. Geology of India, 3rd Edition (Revised). McMillan & Co.

Limited, New York, 536 pp.

Wojtal, S., 1988. Objective methods for constructing profiles and block diagrams of

folds (Chapter 13). In: Marshak, S., Mitra, G. (Eds.), Basic Methods of Structural

Geology, Part II. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, pp. 269302.

Wynne, A.B., 1873. Notes from a Progress Report on the Geology of parts of the

Upper Punjab. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 6 (3), 59-64.

Wynne, A.B., 1874. Notes on the Geology of the neighbourhood of Mari Hills Station

in the Punjab. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 7 (2), 64-74.

Wynne, A.B., 1877. Note on the Tertiary zone and underlying rocks in the North-

West Panjab. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 10 (3), 107-132.

103