Essential Geography 1

Contents
PAGE
Learning to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 3
01 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
02 Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
03 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
04 Weather and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
05 World landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
06 The continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
07 Europe and Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
08 Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
09 Early civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11 Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Key language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
0
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
0
2
Learning to learn A B
ABOUT THIS BOOK

Look at these illustrations.
Match them to the units
on the opposite page.
Then look at the book,
and check your answers.
Unit ............................ Unit ............................
C D E
Unit ............................ Unit ............................ Unit ............................

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Mulhacn ISLANDS
3,478 PENINSULA
Sicily Etna Ionian
of G
ibra ltar M e d i t e 3,340 Aegean (km)
S tr
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a n Cape Matapan 3.000
3,000
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CANARY ISLANDS
Malta n S e a 2,000
Teide
3,718 1,000
0
0 20
Unit ............................ Unit ............................ Unit ............................
I J K
9
Unit ............................ Unit ............................ Unit ............................
3
YOU ALREADY KNOW A LOT!
Work with a classmate. How much do you already know?
MAPS
Name two types of maps.
Give two examples of ways we represent scale on a map.
RELIEF
What examples of relief do you know?
Continental relief: mountain,
Coastal relief: cape,
WATER
Describe the water cycle: Water from the sea evaporates,
What are rivers? Lakes? Reservoirs?
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

What is the difference between weather and climate?
Can you name the world climate zones?
There are two cold climate zones. There
WORLD LANDSCAPES
Can you name four more types of climate?
Mediterranean,
EUROPE AND SPAIN

Most of Europe is a large plain, but there are some important mountain chains,
for example, the Pyrenees, the
Can you name two important mountain chains in Spain?
There are three watersheds in Spain: Atlantic,
4
PREHISTORY
Can you describe the paintings in the Altamira caves?
What kind of tools did human beings have in the Palaeolithic Age?
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
What do you know about the pyramids?
What do you know about the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt?
ANCIENT GREECE
Can you describe the Parthenon?
What do you know about Alexander the Great?
Can you name two of the Greek gods?
ANCIENT ROME
Name three important Roman cities on the Iberian Peninsula.
In Roman cities, the most important buildings were the theatre, the
Do you know the name of any of the Roman emperors?
1
UNIT
Maps
Observe and think
What can the things in this photograph help us to do? How?
Do you know any ways in which nature helps us to find our way around?
STUDY UNIT 1
Look at page 6, the first page of Unit 1.
What is the title of this unit?
What comes after the title?
Content objectives Key language
In this unit, you will: Reporting facts:
How many different parts are there on the page? What are they about? Learn about the importance of maps
Identify different types of maps
Locate places on maps
Interpret scales on maps
Physical maps give information on relief.
Globes represent the Earth accurately.
Describing things:
The symbols which are represent
Recognise different features of the Earth Expressing abilities:

as represented on maps
What do you think you will learn about in Unit 1?

The arrow enables us to establish orientation.
Horizontal lines enable us to identify
Now look at the rest of Unit 1.

How many sections are there in this unit? What is the title of the section on page 9?
How does each one begin? What does the symbol 1 mean?
Some words are in bold type. Why? Where do you think you will find the web
What are most of the illustrations about? task mentioned on page 13?
5
UNIT
1 Maps
Observe and think
What can the things in this photograph help us to do? How?
Do you know any ways in which nature helps us to find our way around?

Learn about the importance of maps Physical maps give information on relief.
Identify different types of maps Globes represent the Earth accurately.
Locate places on maps Describing things:

Interpret scales on maps The Earth is spherical.
Recognise different features of the Earth Expressing abilities:

as represented on maps The arrow enables us to establish orientation.
Horizontal lines enable us to identify
6
1. How is the Earth represented?
Globes and maps
The Earth is spherical. However, it is not a perfect sphere.
It is slightly flattened at the poles. This shape is called a geoid.
Globes represent the Earth accurately, because they have a similar shape:
they are three-dimensional. However, they do not usually contain
detailed information.
Maps are the most common representations of the Earth.
Maps are easy to use and carry around.They provide detailed A globe
and practical information at a local, regional
or international level.
However, maps are not as accurate as globes,
because they are two-dimensional. Consequently,
shapes and distances are distorted.
Establishing direction
We use the cardinal points to establish direction.
The principal cardinal points are north, south,
east and west.
Some elements in nature can help us. A two-dimensional representation of the Earth
For example, the Sun rises in the east
and sets in the west, and the North Star
always indicates north.
A compass is an
instrument with NORTH
a magnetic
needle which
always points N
north.
A compass helps
us find our way WEST left right E EAST
W
in a forest, at sea
or even in a city
if we get lost.
The Sun sets. The Sun rises.
S
SOUTH
Activity
1. Think.
Does sunlight enter your classroom in the morning or in the afternoon? What does this show
about the position of your school? What direction does the entrance face?
7
2. What types of maps are there?
Types of maps
There are three types of maps: The main features of a map are:
Physical maps give information on relief, and show features a title
such as rivers. (Topographic maps also include details the scale
such as place names and roads.) a key
Thematic maps give information on particular subjects, an arrow pointing north
such as climate or vegetation. a grid system of imaginary lines
Political maps give information on political organisation, called parallels and meridians
such as international or regional frontiers.
Basic elements of a map
The arrow pointing north The title shows what the map Parallels and meridians are
enables us to establish is about, the area which is imaginary lines which establish
orientation. represented, the subject, etc. the exact location of places.
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
A N ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AROUND THE WORLD 60
60
40
40
Tropic of Cancer
20 20
0 Equator 0
20 20
Tropic of Capricorn
PRECIPITATION (in mm)

40 40
more than 3,000
Prime Meridian
1,000 to 3,000
500 to 1,000
SCALE
250 to 500
0 1,850
fewer than 250
kilometres
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
The key contains the Most maps include some Scale indicates how many
symbols which represent text with names of places times the area represented
information on the map. or other information. has been reduced.
8
Gulf of 90
MALAWI
20 60 30
Mexico
B 20C Orizaba
5,700
Cuba Hispaniola
8,380 Puerto Rico 20
Jamaica Trench
4,217 Car Puerto
ibbe Rico
Tajumulco an Se ATLANTIC
ANGOLA a
ZAMBIA Lilongwe Trinidad
COS
PL INO
Lusaka N G
Hig uiana OCEAN
AI
hla
OR
nds
Harare 0 Equator
Ama z River
A N D
on
UE
on Basin Cape
PACIFIC Amaz So Roque
IQ
ZIMBABWE River
MB
Huascaran Mato
co
20 NAMIBIA 20 6,768
So Francis
Grosso
S
ZA
Plateau
OCEAN
MO
Lake Titicaca
Windhoek BOTSWANA er
M
20 Gulf Altiplano 0
Riv
Tropic of Capricorn
O
of Arica
a na
Gaborone Tropic of Caprico rn
U N T A I N S
ar
Ojos del Salado P
6,880
Maputo GRAN
Mbabane CHACO
6.959
SWAZILAND Aconcagua
metres
PAMPAS
Maseru LESOTHO 20
4,000 River
ATLANTIC 40 Plate
A
INDIAN 2,000
ONI
OCEAN REPUBLIC
OF SOUTH AFRICA OCEAN 1,000
PATAG
SCALE
500
0 1,052
Fa lkl an d
SCALE 200 Isl an ds
Cape kilometres
0 320 0
Town Capital
Strait Cape Horn
South
kilometres llan Georgia Islands
20 90 of Mage 60 30
Activities
1. Look at the three maps.
On which map can you identify?
a. countries b. rivers Did you know?
c. precipitation d. relief
e. capital cities and boundaries
Decide whether each map is physical,
thematic or political. How are the maps
different from each other?
2. Now study map A more closely.

a. Symbols, such as colours, lines,
points and arrows, are used on maps.
What symbols are used on this map?
b. How is the use of colour related
to precipitation? The Pacific Ocean covers 31 %
of the Earths surface.
c. What is the average precipitation
in Spain? Asia is the largest continent.
d. What is the average precipitation It covers 9 % of the Earths surface.
in Antarctica? Europe covers only 2 % of the Earths
e. Does it rain a lot near the equator? surface, the same as Oceania.
3. Look for different types of thematic maps
in this book.
What are they about?
9
3. How do we locate places on maps?
A. Meridians and parallels 1
A series of imaginary vertical and horizontal lines
enables us to identify the exact location of places
on Earth.
Meridians are semicircles which go from one pole
to the other. The prime, or Greenwich, meridian (0)
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
is the point of reference for other meridians.
It divides the Earth into two hemispheres:
the western hemisphere and the eastern
Prime Meridian
hemisphere.
Parallels are circles which are perpendicular to the
meridians. The equator is the most important parallel
and is the point of reference for the other parallels.
Meridians It is at the same distance from both poles.
90 N
It divides the Earth into two hemispheres:
B. A rc tic C ir cl e
66 33 N
60 N the northern hemisphere and the southern
60
60 30 0
3 hemisphere.
40 4 0 40 N
Other important parallels, from north to south, are:
23 27 N
Tr opic o f Can cer
20
20 N The Arctic Circle
2
The Tropic of Cancer
0
0 Eq uato r
The Tropic of Capricorn
The Antarctic Circle
20
o de Greenwich
20 S 20
23 27 S
Tr opi c of Cap ricor n
40
40 S
D.
60 S Antarctic Circle
66 33 S
90 S
Parallels
NORTHERN
HEMISPHERE
C.
Eq uato r
SOUTHERN
WESTERN EASTERN HEMISPHERE
HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE
Prime Meridian
The equator divides the Earth into the

northern and southern hemispheres.
The prime meridian divides the Earth into

the western and eastern hemispheres.
10
Latitude and longitude 2
Latitude and longitude indicate geographical coordinates: the exact location of a place
on the Earth.
Latitude is measured by using the parallels which start Longitude is measured by using the meridians
at the equator (0). At the poles they are 90. They are which start at the prime meridian (0).
north (N) or south (S) depending on whether they They run vertically from 0 to 180 to the
are located in the northern or southern hemisphere. west (W), and 0 to 180 to the east (E).
All locations on a line have the same latitude. All locations on a line have the same longitude.
The combination of latitude and longitude gives us the geographical coordinates of a place.
The numbers at the top and bottom The numbers on the right and left
of the map indicate longitude. of the map indicate latitude.
Arct 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

ic C
ir c le
60
60
Saint Petersburg
40
40
Tropic of Cancer
20 20
0 Equator 0
Look at Saint Petersburg. It

20 20
is on the 60 line of latitude.
Tropic of Caprico rn
Since it is north of the
Prime Meridian
40 40
equator, its latitude is 60 N.
It is close to the 30 line of
longitude east of the prime
60 cl e meridian. St. Petersburg is
ti c C ir 60
A n ta rc
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
therefore 60 N, 30 E.
Activity
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
1. Identify the coordinates. 60
60
Look carefully at the lines of latitude

and longitude. What are the coordinates London
40 Rome 40
of the seven cities? Complete the table. Tokyo
City Latitude Longitude 20 20
0 0
London Quito
Kinshasa
Rio de Janeiro
21 S 38 W 20
Sydney
Rome
40 40
Quito
38 N 140 E
60 60
Kinshasa
32 S 150 E 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
11
4. How do we represent scale on a map?
Scale
Activities
Maps are reduced representations of reality.
Scale indicates the difference between the size 1. Study this example to calculate real
of something in the real world and its size on a map. distances with scale.
Scale can be indicated in two different ways on a map: a. Imagine the scale on this map is
1/16,500,000. This means that each
Numeric scale is expressed as a fraction.
1 1 centimetre on the map is equal to
The numerator (1) represents a unit on the 16,500,000 centimetres,
map, for example, 1 cm. The denominator 20 2
SCALE or 165 kilometres.
(2) represents its size in the real world
(20 cm). A scale of 1/20 means that 1 cm
Madrid
on the map is equal to 20 cm on the ground.
Graphic scale (bar scale) is a bar or line Lisbon
divided into equal segments, usually 1 cm.
The numbers on the bar indicate SCALE
0 20 40
the actual size which each segment
kilometres
represents.
b. Use a ruler to measure the
distance between Madrid and
A Lisbon on the map. On the picture
Kirkby
there are three centimetres.
KIRKBY
INDUSTRIAL
Crosby ESTATE c. Calculate the number
Litherland proportional to three centimetres.
x represents the distance you
ST. HELENS
want to work out.
Bootle Knowsley
1 cm 3 cm
Park
16,500,000 x
LIVERPOOL
Roby 16,500,000 3
Huyton
x
1
x 49,500,000 cm
Map on a scale of 1/200,000
d. Change centimetres to kilometres.
49,500,000 cm 495 km
B Crosby Litherland Kirkby
The distance between Madrid and
Bootle ST. HELENS
Wallasey Lisbon is 495 km in a straight line.

LIVERPOOL
WARRINGTON
Roby 2. Measure scale.
BIRKENHEAD
a. With a partner, find Litherland
Bebington
Widnes and the Kirkby Industrial Estate
on map A. Use a ruler to measure
the distance on the map. Then
Ellesmere
Port calculate the distance, following
the example above.
b. Compare maps A and B. Why is
CHESTER
Widnes only on map B?
Map on a scale of 1/600,000
12
Activities
1. Interpret a map key. Web task 1: Maps.
What do you think the symbols mean?
Tidworth
Did you know?
The mine
GPS is a navigation system
which receives information
from satellites. A receiver
STONEHOUSE
is in contact with different
satellites, and calculates
Didbrook
Barton
Mine
longitude and latitude
with great accuracy.
Bradwell
Where and when do
SCALE you think GPS is used?
0 6
Kilometres
2. Use a map to plan a trip.

a. Plan a car trip through Europe, beginning in London. Measure the distances between the cities
using the scale and a ruler. Then complete the table.
London Amsterdam
Berlin Warsaw Approximate Approximate
Brussels
distance distance in
Luxembourg Prague
on map kilometres
Paris
Bratislava
Vienna Budapest
London-Paris
ATLANTIC Bern Ljubjana
OCEAN
Zagreb
San Sarajevo Belgrade
Monaco Marino Sofia
Podgorica
Madrid
Rome
Skopje
Tirana
SCALE
Athens
0 300 M e d i t e r r a n e a n Se
a
kilometres
b. Work with a classmate or in a group. Choose one of the cities.

Look for information about the city, and identify the most interesting places to visit there.
Present your ideas to the rest of the class.
3. Investigate.
Visit the website www.viamichelin.com. Choose one section of your itinerary.
Then compare the distance by road to the distance in a straight line recorded in the table.
4. Investigate.
a. Where did people go when they wanted to be the first to start the 21st century?
b. Why did Phileas Fogg win his bet in Around the World in Eighty Days?
13
UNIT
2 Relief
Observe and think
Describe the geography of this landscape.
Do you think this place looked like this hundreds of years ago? Why / Why not?
What could happen in the distant future? Why?

In this unit, you will: Reporting facts and events:
Learn about the structure of the Earth The Earth is divided into layers.
Learn about the Earths relief and how This process forms beaches.
it is created Defining:
Understand the importance of tectonic Oceans are large masses of salt water.
plates Plains are low, flat areas of land.
Learn about volcanoes and earthquakes
Making comparisons:
Interpret a relief map The core is the deepest layer.
The worlds highest mountain range
14
1. What is the Earth made of?
The structure of the Earth
The Earth is divided into layers:
The crust is the surface layer. It is a thin, solid layer made of rock.
The mantle is the intermediate layer. This layer is almost 85 % of the Earths volume.
It includes magma, which is molten rock.
The core is the deepest layer. The core is part solid and part liquid.
The Earths temperature increases with depth. The temperature in the core reaches about 4,500 C.
The internal structure of the Earth
Upper mantle: this layer of Crust: this layer of the

the Earth has a depth of 70 to Earth has a depth
700 km. It is below the crust. of 20 to 70 km under the
continents, but only about
10 km under the oceans.
Did you know?

Scientists can only
Core: the core has a
drill to a depth of depth of 3,000 to over
about fifteen to twenty 6,000 km.
kilometres.
Temperatures and
pressure increase Lower mantle: this layer
below the Earths of the Earth has a depth
surface. of 700 to 3,000 km.
The Earths crust

Activities
The Earths crust has a solid part (continents),
and a liquid part (oceans). 1. Complete these sentences.
a. The surface layer of the Earth is called
The continents the .
Continents are large land masses, surrounded b. The intermediate layer is called the .
by oceans and seas. There are six continents. c. The scientific word for molten rock is .
In order of size, they are Asia, America, Africa, d. The Earths crust consists of and .
Antarctica, Europe and Oceania. 2. Create a model of the Earths structure using
plasticine.
The oceans
3. Imagine you are Jules Verne travelling
Oceans are large masses of salt water.
to the centre of the Earth.
There are five oceans. In order of size,
How far will you travel from the crust to
they are the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian,
the centre of the core?
the Southern and the Arctic.
Give your answer in kilometres.
15
2. What is the Earths relief?
The Earths surface is not flat. 3 Coastal relief
There are different kinds of relief:
A peninsula is an area of land surrounded
Continental relief by water on all sides except one.
An isthmus connects a peninsula to
Mountains are high landforms with steep sides.
a continent.
The worlds highest mountain range is the
Himalayas in Asia. A cape is a part of the coast which extends
into the sea.
Valleys are areas of low land between
mountains. Rivers flow through many valleys. A gulf is a large area of a sea or ocean partially
enclosed by land. A bay is a small gulf.
Plains are low, flat areas of land. Large plains
are often found on the coasts, and are formed An island is an area of land surrounded
by large rivers. by water on all sides.
Plateaus are large, raised plains. The highest A group of islands is called an archipelago.
plateaus are in Tibet in Asia, and in Bolivia Coasts can be flat and low-lying or high:
in South America.
In flat coastal areas, there are many beaches.
Basins are natural depressions, or low areas
In high coastal areas, there are many cliffs,
of land. Some are below sea level.
which are steep rock formations.
mountain
plateau
valley
16
Oceanic relief 4
The ocean floor is varied and irregular. Its relief is similar to continental relief.
Continental shelves are near coastlines. These shelves are vast plateaus which reach a depth
of 150 metres. Continental slopes lead down to the deeper part of oceans.
Large mountain ranges, called ocean ridges, rise up to 3,000 m from the ocean floor.
Some of the highest peaks rise above the surface and form islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands.
Ocean trenches are large, deep depressions in the ocean floor.
The deepest ocean trench is Challenger Deep (11,000 m) in the Pacific Ocean.
Activity Did you know?

1. Read the definitions. Which terms do they The surface of an ocean reflects
refer to?
the relief of the ocean floor. Satellite
a. It is an area of low land between photography gives us an accurate
mountains. picture of the surface.
b. It is surrounded by water on all sides
except for one.
c. It is the name given to a group
of islands.
d. It is a steep rock formation on the coast.
plain cape
gulf
cliff
continental shelf island
isthmus
peninsula ocean ridge
ocean trench
beach
continental slope
The different kinds

of relief on Earth
17
3. Why do landscapes change?
Changes in relief
The Earths relief changes continually over a long period of time by:
Erosion is the fragmentation and dissolution of rocks, soil and mud,
which is transported by wind or water.
Sedimentation is the accumulation of sediment, such as mud, sand
or eroded rocks.
1. Waterfall: a section of a river
where the water falls vertically
2. Canyon: a deep channel with
The course of a river steep walls
3. Alluvial plain: a flat, fertile area
where the river deposits
sediment
4. Delta: a triangular area at the
mouth of a river
5. Estuary: the part of a river
where it meets the sea
upper course
middle course
lower course
18
Causes of erosion
A
The most important agents of erosion are
temperature, water, wind and human beings.
Abrupt changes in temperature can break rocks.
There is a great difference between daytime and
nighttime temperatures in mountains and deserts.
Water sometimes infiltrates through rocks.
When it freezes, it expands, and the rocks break.
Water acts constantly on the land:
Solution: water dissolves some rocks,
such as limestone, producing unusual caves
and landscapes.
Fluvial erosion:
Rivers travel fast down steep slopes.
They erode materials, and create deep valleys
and canyons.
B
When the slopes are gentler, the water moves
more slowly. It transports the eroded materials.
When rivers arrive at the flatter lands which
are near the sea, they deposit sediment
on their banks. These areas are known as
alluvial plains.
Marine erosion: waves and currents wear away
coasts and create cliffs. Subsequently, the water
transports the sediment and deposits it. This
process forms beaches.
Wind transports particles of sand or soil from C
their original place and deposits them. This
process explains the formation of sand dunes.
Human beings are also responsible for changing
landscapes with our everyday activities, such as
farming, mining and deforestation.
The construction of houses, roads, tunnels
and reservoirs also alters landscapes.
Activities
1. Look at the drawing of a river on page 18. 3. Investigate. Make a table with your conclusions.
Answer the questions. a. Which human activities have a positive
a. In which part of the river does erosion occur? effect on landscapes? Why?
b. In which part of the river is sediment deposited? b. Which human activities have a negative effect?
2. Compare the three photos. Why?
What has caused erosion in each case?
19
4. How does relief shape our planet?
Continental drift
In 1912, the German scientist Alfred Wegener developed a new theory called continental drift.
According to his theory, there was only one continent, which broke up millions of years ago.
This continent was called Pangaea. Look at the coasts of Western Africa and South America.
We can see that they seem to match like an enormous jigsaw.
NORTH NORTH
AMERICA AMERICA EURASIA
L A U R A S I A EURASIA
P
AFRICA
A
AFRICA
Tethys Sea SOUTH
N
G O N AMERICA AUSTRALASIA
D W SOUTH
G
A N AMERICA
A A L
A
E N LIA
D RA
A ST
AU ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA
225 million years ago 135 million years ago 65 million years ago today
Formation of a fold
Tectonic plates
The Earths crust is divided into different plates called tectonic plates. These
plates are in continuous movement. They move slowly at a speed of two
to ten centimetres per year. Some plates move apart, while others collide. mountain
The Earths surface often undulates where plates collide. Folds are created.
Formation of a fault
The Earths crust sometimes fractures if the surface where plates collide
is extremely rigid. Faults are created, and blocks rise or sink. mountain
The collision of plates has produced many mountains.

The Himalaya mountain range in Asia is still rising.
fault
line
Map of the tectonic plates of the world
RO
Askja
EURA S IAN PL AT E
CKY
Hekla
AY
LT
Saint Helens A
NORTH P A CI F I C
P AC I FI C Lassen Peak ALPS
Elbrus
MOUNT
SH
P LATE AM ERICAN PLATE Fayal Vesuvius PLATE

Mount Fuji
KU
IRANIAN HI
U
S Etna M
Teide ATLA
ND
PLATE AL
AI
AY
HI
NS
AS PHILIPPINE
Mauna Loa Popocatpetl ARABIAN PLATE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
Paracutn Pele
PLATE La Grande
COCOS Pinatubo
PLATE Soufrire
Nevado del Ruiz Cameroon
Kilimanjaro
Cotopaxi Ngorongoro Merapi
Krakatau
Ascensin
RG
Sajama AFRICAN
NAZ CA
BE
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

NS
PLATE
ANDES
KE
PLATE INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE

A
R
D
Plate boundaries Tristan

da Cunha Tarawera
Areas of seismic activity Corcovado
Important volcano
A N T ARC T IC PL A T E
20
5. What are volcanoes and earthquakes?
The movement of tectonic plates can produce volcanoes and earthquakes.
Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening in the surface of the Earth through which very hot
material (magma) comes out. When magma comes out of a volcano, it is called lava.
When a volcano erupts, it also ejects ash and gases. 3 1. Magma is
pushed up
Volcanic cones are the result of lava accumulating by the Earths
outside the opening. Volcanic eruptions under the internal forces.
sea can form islands, such as the Canary Islands. 2. It rises through
a pipe.
2
Volcanoes are generally found on the edge of 3. It comes out
tectonic plates because this is the weakest part through a crater.
of the Earths crust. Earthquakes, geysers and hot 1
springs are all found in the same areas as volcanoes.
The eruption of a volcano
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by plate tectonics. When two plates crash, there is a release
of energy that makes the ground vibrate. This vibration is called an earthquake.
The vibration can be very violent or almost unnoticeable.
Small tremors can occur for other reasons, such as when volcanoes erupt
or when the roof of an underground cave falls in.
Earthquakes on the ocean floor can produce huge waves called tsunamis.
A volcanic eruption A tsunami
Activities
1. Look at the map and answer these questions. 3. Think.
a. Which plate is the Iberian Peninsula on? Do you think continental drift has finished?
b. Which plate are the Canary Islands on? If not, what could the next movement be?
c. Where do earthquakes and volcanic activity 4. Investigate.
occur most frequently? Look for information (text, maps and photos) about
2. Look at the map of plate tectonics with a classmate. the island of La Palma, Canary Islands.
Close the book. How many plates can you remember? Web task 2: Volcanoes and earthquakes.
21
Activities 150 Arct 180 150 120 90 60 30
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rin
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k lan Green Sea
ck
d
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KAN B a ff in
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Superior
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Reading a relief map Lake
Michigan
Lake
Huron TA
IN
Cap e Rac e B
Riv
A I N S N 4
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1. Look at the map and the altitude Finisterre
M
BAS IN
4,399
N
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IA
Elbert
4,4 18 H PENINSULA
chart and answer the questions. Wh itn ey LA
C
3,47
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PA Mulh
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Sarg asso
AP
Sea
a. What colour is used to show
S
M Gr Jbel Toubkal
P e x and
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mountains over 4,000 metres
rr
te a Canary Islands M
e
au n
Tropi c of Canc er Gulf of AS
a
Bahamas 3,718 L
high? Mexico Islands AT
ATLANTIC Teide
M
20
a
d
b. What colour is generally used Cape Corri entes Orizaba Cuba Hispaniola 8,380 Puerto Rico
r
5,700 S A H A
e
Trench
for plains? Jamaica Puerto Rive D E S E
Car rS
4,217 ibbe Rico Antill es
an Se Island s OCEAN e
Tajumulco a Cape Verde
c. What colour are depressions?
ne
Trinidad
ga
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l
d. What is the usual altitude of IN AIN in ver G U
i HI IAN
Rr
OR
O
PL
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plateaus? PACIFIC A
AND
S
Cape Palmas
0 Equator
r
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A
e. Why are there two shades of azon

Am
OCEAN BASIN
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N
M A
blue? A r Cape
e
D
Mato So Roque
eira Riv
River
Huascarn
Grasso co
is
E
6,768
2. Look at the map and find: POLYNESIA

Plateau
nc
S
S o Fra
Mad
Lake
Titicaca Altiplano r
ive
a. The highest mountain range Gulf
M
20
of Arica
ana
O
in the world
Tropic of Caprico rn Ojos del Salado
ar
U
6,880 P
b. The highest mountain range GRAN
CHACO
N
in the southern hemisphere 6,959

T
Aconcagua
c. A peninsula in North America

A
River
PAMPAS Plate
I
d. A large plateau in Asia

N
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e. The deepest ocean trench

S
PATAG O
40
f. An archipelago
g. A gulf Falkland Island
s
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of ge
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0 Scale
0 1,002 2,004
Depression
kilometres
180 150 120 90 60 30 0
22
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 B
New Siberian st ea
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60
A N T A R C T I C A
A RELIEF MAP OF THE WORLD
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
23
UNIT
3 Water
Compare
What are the differences between these Now think about these questions:
two photographs? Is water essential?
Are there other differences Is water dangerous?
which you cant see? What can water do?
How many types of water are there? What is the importance of water on Earth?

Review the water cycle Water covers 71 % of the Earths surface.
Learn about water on Earth: rivers, oceans, Rivers are permanent currents of water.
sea, lakes
Discussing predictions:
Identify the effects of human action
on the environment What effects will this have on the Earth
in the future?
Interpret graphs
Suggest solutions to problems caused Making impersonal statements:
by human actions Salt water is found in oceans and seas.
Rivers are used to transport people.
24
1. Where is water found?
Water on Earth
Water covers 71 % of the Earths surface. Did you know?
We can distinguish two groups:
salt water (or sea water) and fresh water.
Salt water is found in oceans and seas.
It represents more than 97 % of the
total water on Earth.
Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, glaciers,
groundwater and at the poles.
It represents less than 3 % of all the water on our planet.
The water cycle

The Amazon River releases so
Water is always moving and changing its physical state. much water into the sea that the
This process is called the water cycle. sea is fresh water near the mouth
There are several stages in the water cycle: of the Amazon.
4. Condensed vapour 3. Wind moves

falls as precipitation: the clouds. 2. Water vapour rises, cools
rain, snow or hail. and condenses. Clouds form.
Activities
1. Complete the sentences.
a. The water found in oceans and seas
is called water.
b. The water found in rivers and lakes
is called water.
c. The water that infiltrates into the
ground is called .
d. When water vapour rises, cools and
condenses, it forms .
1. Water from the 2. Organise the information.

sea evaporates. Copy and complete
5. Some water the picture graph
infiltrates into with the percentages
7. River water goes
the ground. representing
into the sea and
salt water
other rivers.
and fresh water.
6. Groundwater
goes into the sea.
Web task 3: The water cycle.
25
2. What are rivers?
Arc 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
t ic
C ir c
le ARCTIC OCEAN a
olym
Yu k o n M 60
ac
Le K
60 na
kenz i e
Y
en
is
ei
Ob
n Amu
so Volga r
Nel E U R O P E ty
Ir
Dnie
l
Ura sh
A S I A
Miss
Do
ce
Rh
en Dan 40
ou
Lo i r e
n
pe
wr ub Sy r
i ne
40 La
ri
r
e Da
i nt ow R
ppi
Eb ry
Sa
Am
do ro a 180
l
iver
Y el
ra us
sissi
u
g Da
Ta
o
rya PACIFIC
Col
Br a
Eu
Ti
Br a
gtz e
gr
us
hr is hm Yan
Mis
p
vo a te aputr
OCEAN
Ind
s
a
an
ATLANTIC
G
Tropic of Cancer
A F R I C A ges 20
20
Nile
OCEAN Seneg N
A M E R I C A
al
ig
er
oco
n
o
Ori
0 Equator ng 0
Co
Ama z o n
PACIFIC INDIAN
Ma eira
cisco
S o F r an
d
OCEAN
P a r a guay
mbezi
a Za OCEAN 20
an
20
P ar
Tropic of Caprico rn O C E A N I A
O ra n ing
ge rl
a
D
Prime meridian
Mur
ray
40 40
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
The worlds most important rivers
Rivers 5 The importance of rivers

Rivers are permanent currents of water. Rivers are very important to human beings.
Many rivers start from groundwater which rises Rivers are used to transport people and goods
and forms springs. Others originate from glaciers from one place to another.
or lakes or from the accumulation of rainfall
or from melting snow. The place where a river We build canals to transport river water,
starts is called its source. and artificial lakes called reservoirs
to store water. These provide people and
Rivers carry water down to the sea. Smaller rivers industries with a water supply and also enable
flowing into a larger river are called tributaries. us to water our crops.
The area occupied by a river and its tributaries We build dams and hydroelectric power
is called a basin. stations on rivers to produce electricity.
The flow of a river refers to the amount of water
it carries. The Amazon River has the largest flow.
The flow varies with the seasons.
If rivers are created from melting snow, the flow
is larger in spring.
If rivers are created from rainfall, the flow
Activity
is larger in the rainy season. 1. Investigate.
Some rivers are dry most of the time. They only Locate the largest reservoir in the world.
have water when it rains. This happens to some Which river is it on? Do some research
rivers in Mediterranean regions and to wadis on its environmental impact.
in deserts.
26
3. What are oceans and seas?
Oceans and seas
Oceans and seas hold almost all the worlds liquid water.
Oceans and seas all contain salt, but their salinity varies.
Water temperature is an important factor. Warm seas have
a higher salt content because the heat makes more water
evaporate. Consequently, more salt is left behind than
in colder, more open seas. For example, the Red Sea has
eight times more salt than the Baltic Sea.
The importance of oceans and seas

Oceans and seas are very important to human beings:
They provide us with food. A salt flat
They provide us with raw materials and energy.

Large quantities of gas and petroleum are found Activity
in the ocean floor. Salt is also obtained from the sea.
1. Investigate.
They attract tourism to the coasts, which creates
many jobs in these areas. Look for information about one of the
oceans on the map. Identify the economic
They are used for transport. They transport both people activities which take place there.
and goods.
The Earths oceans and most important seas

Eas t Se a
Be Si be ri an
a La pt ev a
Se ufor ARCTIC OCEAN Se
a t
ing
Greenland Se
a Ber
B e r in Barents a
Sea
g Sea
Sea Ka
r Sea
Norwegian of
Baltic Sea Sea tsk
Sea o
Okh
North
Labrador Sea Black Sea
Sea
Se a
of
Ja pa n
ATLANTIC South PACIFIC
Sarg asso Red Sea China
Mediterranean Sea
Sea
Sea
OCEAN
OCEAN Arabian Phili ppin e
C ari
bbean Sea Sea
S ea
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN
Timor Sea
Coral
OCEAN Sea
Tasman
Sea
27
4. What are currents, tides and waves?
Currents, tides and waves
Ocean currents are large masses of water, similar
to rivers, which circulate through oceans.
Currents can be warm or cold:
When the temperature of a current is higher
than the water around it, it is a warm current.
When the temperature of a current is colder
than the water around it, it is a cold current.
Ocean currents influence the climate
of the coastal areas nearby. High tide at Mont-Saint-Michel, France
Tides are the daily rise and fall of the water level.
They are caused by the gravitational forces
of the Moon and the Sun. When the water level
rises, it is called high tide. When the level falls,
it is called low tide.
Waves are undulations of the surface of the water
produced by wind. Waves do not move forward
but go up and down in a circular motion. Their
shape changes when they come into contact with
the sea floor.
The movement of waves Low tide at Mont-Saint-Michel, France
Waves rise and fall in

a circular movement.
Activities
1. Read the definitions and decide what they
refer to.
a. It refers to the quantity of salt.
b. They are large masses of water, similar
to rivers, which can be warm or cold.
c. They are caused by the gravitational forces
of the Moon and Sun acting on the water.
d. Wind produces these undulations
on the surface of the water.
e. This product comes from the sea
and is used for cooking.
2. Draw a diagram of the movement of waves.
3. Investigate.
a. How do tides affect the work of fishermen?
Waves change shape b. Locate a power station in Spain which uses
when they touch the the energy of waves.
ocean floor. c. Investigate the phenomenon called El Nio.
28
5. What are lakes? Activities
Lakes 1. Classify activities.
a. Work with a classmate. Discuss the activities
Lakes are permanent masses of water which which can take place on a lake.
have accumulated inland. When they are small, b. How can the activities be classified?
they are called lagoons. If their water is salt water, Think of the location of lakes.
they are called inland seas. The largest lake Think of the differences between summer
in the world is the Caspian Sea. and winter.
The water in lakes has different origins: Think of the differences in water
temperature.
Precipitation: in this case, the volume of water
changes from one season to another. 2. Investigate.
Do research on the environmental impact of the
Rivers and groundwater introduction of a new species in Lake Victoria.
Glaciers
The Great Lakes (Lakes Ontario, The Caspian Sea is below sea Lake Baikal is the deepest
Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior), level. It is connected to the lake in the world (1,638 m).
originate from glaciers. Lake Baltic, Black and White Seas There are several islands
Superior is the largest freshwater by canals. The northern part in it. A nearby factory
lake in the world (82,414 km2). freezes in winter. contaminated its waters.
Arc
t ic C
ir c le ARCTIC OCEAN
Great Bear
Lake
Great Slave
Lake
Onega
Vnern
Ladoga Baikal
Winnipeg
Superior
Huron Constance
Michigan Ontario Geneva Caspian Aral Balkhash
Sea Sea
Erie
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer ATLANTIC
OCEAN Chad
Maracaibo
Equator Victoria
PACIFIC Tanganyica INDIAN
Malawi
OCEAN Titicaca OCEAN
Tropic of Caprico rn
Eyre
Prime Meridian
The worlds
biggest lakes
Lake Titicaca is the Lake Chad was one of the largest lakes The arrow
Lake Victoria
enables
is theus
second
to
second largest lake in in the middle of the 20th century establish
largest freshwater
orientation.
lake in the
South America after Lake (25,000 km2). However, it has got world (69,482 km2). It is 82 m
Maracaibo. Its altitude is smaller because temperatures have deep at its deepest point. Its
3,810 m above sea level. risen and water has evaporated. waters run into the River Nile.
29
6. Where are groundwater and glaciers found?
Groundwater
Groundwater runs and is stored under the ground.
It represents 25 % of the water on the continents.
Most groundwater comes from precipitation.
When it rains, some of the water penetrates
the ground and filters through porous rocks.
When it reaches impermeable rocks, it cannot pass
through and forms aquifers and underground rivers
and lakes.
Sometimes groundwater finds a way to the surface.
Then it forms cold and hot springs.
Groundwater is very valuable because: There is groundwater in many caves such as La Gruta
de las Maravillas in Huelva.
It is a source of drinking water.
It runs into rivers and lakes.
It enables plants to grow.
Glaciers
Glaciers make up most of the Earths fresh water.
Glaciers are masses of ice created by the
accumulation of snow. They are found in polar
regions and at the top of mountains.
Glaciers which reach the sea break and form
icebergs. An iceberg is a floating mass of ice.
Today glaciers cover 10% of the Earths surface.
The ice of the Perito Moreno glacier in Argentina covers
Alpine glaciers start at more than 200 km2.
The ice pulls away the tops of mountains.
fragments of rock as it
Parts of a glacier
flows down. It deposits
them along the sides or
at the end of the glacier.
The force of the ice
excavates the land and
forms bowl-shaped
depressions. The ice
Activity flows slowly downhill.
1. Investigate.
a. Ice caps store huge amounts of water.
They are melting because of global
warming. What effects will this have
on the Earth in the future?
b. Why, when and where did the Titanic
sink?
30
7. What problems are related to water today?
Water consumption and distribution
A
Only 3 % of the water on Earth is fresh water.
However, most of this water is retained in glaciers
in the form of ice. Only a very small proportion,
0.014 %, can be used for consumption.
Moreover, the growth of the population
and improvements in standards of living have
led to a great increase in water consumption.
Some areas of the world have abundant water,
while others have very little. The consequences
of this can be catastrophic:
A shortage of water can produce droughts.
An excess of water can produce floods.
Activities
1. Look at the photos and answer these questions.
a. What problems are affecting the places in these pictures?
b. What are the consequences of these problems? B
2. You are a reporter!
It is 3 September 2005. You are in New Orleans. Write a
newspaper article about Hurricane Katrina, which hit the
Gulf Coast on 29 August. Describe:
what has happened, where, when and why
the damage done (human casualties, homeless people)
Use an eyewitness account to describe the effects of the
hurricane. Identify relief efforts to help those affected by
the resulting floods.
3. Think.
What can each of us do to save water?
Water pollution and acid rain

Water pollution occurs when large amounts of released into the atmosphere as gases.
materials are added to a body of water. They undergo a chemical transformation
This can happen in two ways: and are absorbed by the water in clouds.
Harmful substances are released directly They become part of rainfall and enter
into the water. This occurred in Galicia in 2002 the water cycle.
when the oil tanker Prestige sank. Acid rain can have adverse effects on:
Water can be polluted indirectly. Plants and forests
For example, when it rains, fertilizers used Soils
in fields may be carried into a stream. Human health
Acid rain contains harmful chemicals such as Fish, other aquatic animals and insects
sulphur and nitrogen. These chemicals are Buildings
31
Activities
1. Look at the map on page 26. Complete this table.
Which ocean or sea do the following rivers flow into?
Zambezi, Amazon, Congo, Yangtze, Brahmaputra, Lena, Darling
Which continent do they belong to?
River Flows into... Continent

Zambezi Indian Ocean Africa
2. Look at the map on page 27. Make a table.

Classify seas by the ocean they are found in. Classify seas by the nearest continent.
3. Play an alphabet game.

Play this game with your classmates. You can use an atlas!
a. Divide into teams. Each team creates a table with headings for Ocean, Sea, River and Lake.
b. One of you is the teacher. He or she calls out a letter of the alphabet. Try to find as many examples
as you can beginning with that letter. For example, A: Atlantic Ocean, Arabian Sea
c. Each team gets as many points as the number of correct answers they have found in thirty seconds.
4. Interpret a map of ocean currents.

ARCTIC OCEAN
Gulf Stream
Labrador
California
Kuroshio
PACIFIC
ATLANTIC Canary
Caribbean OCEAN
PACIFIC
Equatorial OCEAN Equatorial
OCEAN
Brazil
Benguela INDIAN
Humboldt OCEAN
Cape
Horn
OCEAN CURRENTS
OCEAN
Warm currents RCTIC
ANTA
Cold currents
a. What is the map about? f. Does the waters place of origin influence
b. What do the blue arrows represent? a currents temperature?
c. What do the red arrows represent? g. Do you think the Gulf Stream makes
d. Do warm currents start near the equator temperatures increase or decrease? Why?
or near the poles? h. What effect do you think the Canary Current
e. Where do cold currents start? has on the land nearby?
32
5. Interpreting a graph of the course of a river.
Rivers can be represented on a graph. This graph shows us different kinds of information
such as the length of the river, the places it flows through, and the altitude of the river
in a particular area.
Altitude
(in metres)
Places are marked
BLUE NILE with a point.
1,800 Sources of
the Kagera
1,500 Lake Victoria
Owen The blue line

Falls
1,000 represents the river.
Bor
Khartoum Aswan
500 Dam
Atbara
MEDITERRANEAN
Cairo SEA
0
Length 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 6,671 km
(in kms)
KAGERA WHITE NILE NILE
The vertical axis shows the The horizontal axis

altitude from the source represents the actual
to the mouth of the river. length of the river.
Study the graph and answer the questions.

a. Where is the source of the River Nile? What is the altitude of the Nile at its source?
b. After how many kilometres does it get to Lake Victoria?
c. Which two settlements are located on the Blue Nile? How high is Atbara?
d. How long is the Nile when it arrives at the Aswan Dam?
e. Which city does the Nile pass through, between Aswan and the sea?
Complete the sentence: This city is the capital of .
f. What sea does the Nile flow into?
g. How long is the River Nile?
Did you know?

The River Nile is the longest river
in the world: 6,670 km.
The highest waterfall is Angel Falls

in Venezuela, with a 980 m drop.
The muddiest river is the Yellow River

in China. Its flood plains are immense!
33
UNIT
4 Weather and climate

Compare
Each photo shows a different climate.
Where do you think these places are? What is the weather like in the photos?
What is the climate like in each place?

In this unit, you will: Describing:
Differentiate between weather What is the weather like?
and climate What is the climate like?
Understand what causes the seasons Linking cause and effect:
Learn about the relationship between Consequently, temperatures are always cold.
temperature and climate Consequently, temperatures are mild and vary
Understand the concepts of precipitation with the seasons.
and atmospheric pressure
Defining:
Read weather maps Weather refers to the state
Temperature refers to the quantity of heat
34
1. What is the difference between weather
and climate?
Weather and climate
Weather and climate are different:
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere in a place at a specific time.
For example, we could say that the weather in London today is hot and dry.
Climate refers to the state of the atmosphere in a place over a long period
of time. So we can say that the climate in London is temperate.
Temperatures, rainfall, air pressure and winds are measured and analyzed
at weather stations to study weather and climate.
The Meteosat satellite

This satellite provides
the images which
are used on television
weather forecasts.
Activities
1. What is the weather like in your area today?
2. Complete the sentences with the word weather

or climate.
a. The in New York today is very cold.
b. If you live in a hot , you need to wear light
clothes.
c. You need heating in your home if you live in a cold .
d. It is raining again. What awful !
35
2. What causes the seasons?
The movements of the Earth
Like other objects in the Solar System,
the Earth moves in two different ways
at the same time. It rotates on its axis and
it orbits the Sun.
The rotation of the Earth

The Earth spins on an imaginary straight
line called its axis. The two points where
the axis meets the Earths surface are
called the poles. The Earth spins in an
anticlockwise direction. It completes
its rotation every 24 hours.
The Earth is a sphere, so the Sun cannot light
up the whole planet at the same time.
The Earth is always spinning. Consequently,
the areas where it is day and where it is night
change all the time. The length of day
and night vary throughout the year.
The Earth rotates on an

imaginary straight line
Did you know? called its axis. The rotation
of the Earth
In Finland, the Sun shines 24 hours a day
axis
for about 73 days. This is called the
Midnight Sun.
The Northern Lights can be seen in the day
night sky near the north pole. (Look at the
photo.) They are caused by electrical night
particles in the atmosphere.
anticlockwise
rotation
The points at which the Earths

axis meets the Earths surface
are called the poles.
36
Revolution around the Sun
The Earth takes 365 days and almost six hours to orbit the Sun.
The Earth is tilted. Consequently, as the Earth revolves around the Sun, the angle at which
the Suns rays reach each hemisphere changes. This makes sunlight warmer at certain times
of the year and produces the different seasons.
It is summer in a place when the Suns rays are almost perpendicular to it.
It is winter when the rays arrive at an oblique angle.
Spring and autumn are the intermediate seasons.
The seasons are the opposite in the northern and southern hemispheres:
If it is summer in one hemisphere, it is winter in the other.
If it is spring in one hemisphere, it is autumn in the other.
Equinoxes and solstices in the northern hemisphere
Autumn equinox
(around 23 September)
Winter solstice
Summer solstice
(around
(around
21 December)
21 June)
SUN
Spring equinox
(around 21 March)
Activities
1. Study the diagram carefully. 3. Copy the following passage, filling in the correct
What do you think solstices are? What do you think words.
equinoxes are? Compare your answers with The Earth spins in a / an clockwise / anticlockwise
a classmate. Then visit websites such as direction. It completes a rotation every
www.athropolis.com/sunrise/def-sol2.htm 48 / 24 hours. The Earth / Sun moves round the
and complete your information. Earth / Sun in an elliptical orbit. The angle at which
2. Read the sentences. What do they refer to? the Suns rays reach each hemisphere changes
during the year. It is summer / autumn in a place
a. The Earth rotates on it. when the Suns rays are almost perpendicular
b. These are the two points where the imaginary to it. It is spring / winter when the rays arrive
axis meets the Earths surface. at an oblique angle.
c. This is the time it takes the Earth to rotate
on its axis.
d. This is the time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
37
3. How are temperature and climate related?
Temperature
Temperature refers to the quantity of heat cold zone
in the atmosphere. It is measured
by a thermometer. hot
zone
It is necessary to know the maximum, minimum
and average temperatures of an area to study its climate.
Climate zones according to temperature

Our planet is divided into five climate zones
according to temperature:
There is a hot climate zone between the Tropic temperate
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. cold zone zones
The Suns rays reach the Earth at a perpendicular
angle all year round, so temperatures are always high. Climate zones
There is very little difference between the seasons.
There are two temperate zones between the tropics and the polar circles.
The Suns rays reach the Earth at a greater angle than in the hot zone.
Consequently, temperatures are mild and vary with the seasons.
There are two cold climate zones within the polar circles. The Suns rays reach the Earth
at an oblique angle all year round. Consequently, temperatures are always cold.
The angle of the Suns rays
SUN
Ar
ctic
northern
the Suns rays C i rc le cold zone
northern
temperate zone
Tro
c
pi
of
Ca
nce
r
hot zone
Activity
1. Organise the information.
a. Name and order the worlds climate zones from the North Pole to the South Pole.
b. Explain the influence of the angle of the Suns rays on the Earths climates.
38
4. What factors affect temperature?
Factors which affect temperature
Temperatures vary for different reasons: Did you know?
Temperatures change with latitude. Temperatures are The coldest
higher near the equator. They decrease progressively as temperature
we move towards the poles. (-89 C) was recorded
Temperatures change with altitude. Temperatures are in Antarctica.
usually higher in lower areas and decrease
The hottest
with altitude. They decrease by an average
temperature (58 C)
of 6.4 C for every thousand metres.
was recorded
Temperature changes with distance from the sea. The in the Sahara desert
sea makes coastal climates more temperate. Consequently, in Libya.
inland climates are much hotter in summer and much
colder in winter.
Average annual temperatures round the world
-1
0 le
ic Circ
Arct
-20
0
10
20 Tropic of Cancer
28 28
28
rmal Equat
The or
Equator
20 Tropic of Capricorn
Prime Meridian
10
Antarctic
0
Circle
Activities
1. Explain how latitude affects temperatures. 3. Explain.
Use the information on the map. London and Moscow are both between 50 N
2. Observe and complete. and 55 N. In Moscow, it is hotter than London
in the summer. However, it is colder than London
Climate zones Location Temperature
in the winter. Explain why.
39
5. What factors affect precipitation?
Precipitation Factors affecting precipitation
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the Different areas of the Earths surface receive
air. This is produced by the evaporation of water different amounts of precipitation.
from oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands and plants. Latitude: it rains more in the areas near the
When water vapour in the air cools, it condenses. equator than in the temperate zones and polar
In other words, it becomes liquid and forms little regions. The temperature is higher near the
drops. These droplets form clouds. Equator so there is more evaporation.
When the droplets are small, they remain Altitude: it rains more in high areas than
suspended in the atmosphere. But they often in low areas.
become colder and their size and weight increases. Level of humidity: it rains more on the coast
When they become too heavy to remain suspended than inland. Seas are a source of humidity.
in the air, they fall to the Earths surface.
We call this precipitation, which may be rain, Precipitation is measured in millimetres (mm)
snow or hail. per square metre.
Precipitation around the world

180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
60
60
40
40
Tropic of Cancer
20 20
0 Equator 0
20 20
Tropic of Capricorn
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (in mm)
Prime Meridian
over 3,000 40
40
1,000 to 3,000
500 to 1,000
250 to 500
less than 250
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Activities b. Name three countries where there is

precipitation between 250 and 500 mm a year.
1. Look at this map of precipitation and a political c. What is the wettest part of Spain?
atlas of the world.
2. Answer these questions.
a. Name three countries where there
is precipitation of over 3,000 mm a. What factors affect precipitation?
a year. b. Why does it rain more on the coast?
40
6. What types of rainfall are there?
There are three types of rainfall: 6 3. When water vapour cools, it
condenses and forms droplets.
Convectional: this type of rainfall
These droplets form clouds,
is characteristic of
and fall to the Earth as rain.
hot climates. 2. As water vapour
rises, it cools.
1. The Sun heats the

ground and water
evaporates.
Orographic or relief: this type of rainfall is characteristic of mountainous regions.
3. Clouds form, and it rains on the

windward side of the mountain,
the side which receives the
ocean air. It does not rain on the
other side.
2. The air rises
and cools.
1. Hot, humid air from

the sea reaches
a mountain.
2. The mass of hot air weighs less

Frontal: this type of rainfall takes and rises above the mass of
place at the boundary, or front, cold air. When it rises, it cools.
between a mass of warm air and
a mass of cold air.
3. Clouds form
and it rains.
Activity
1. Think.
How is rain formed where 1. A mass of hot, humid air
you live? meets a mass of cold air.
41
7. How does atmospheric pressure affect
the weather?
Atmospheric pressure 7
An anticyclone:
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted at there are few
a specific point on the Earths surface by the clouds.
weight of the air above it. When the airs weight
is greater, the pressure is greater, too.
Atmospheric pressure varies:
Pressure changes with altitude. In a low-lying
area, pressure is higher because there is more
air above it.
Pressure varies with air temperature. A depression:
Hot air weighs less than cold air. there are many
clouds.
Areas of high pressure are called anticyclones.
Areas of low pressure are called depressions.
Activity
The influence of pressure on the weather
Anticyclones produce dry, stable weather
and clear skies. a. What is atmospheric pressure?
b. What is an area of high pressure called?
Depressions produce unstable weather,
rain and storms. c. What is an area of low pressure called?
d. Where is pressure higher, at sea level
Fronts are the boundaries between different
or at 1,000 metres above sea level?
air masses. They always bring clouds,
e. How is a low pressure area created?
and sometimes rain. Fronts are
characteristic of temperate zones. f. Why does it rain in low pressure areas?
Effects of atmospheric pressure and wind
2. Air rises, cools and forms

clouds. This is why depressions
usually bring rain.
H (high pressure)
3. Pressure is higher here. Air
moves towards low pressure L
areas and brings wind. (low pressure)
1. Air warms and rises, and pressure

decreases. A low pressure area is formed.
42
8. What types of winds are there?
Wind
Wind is moving air. Air moves from high pressure Did you know?
areas to low pressure areas. These differences
in atmospheric pressure cause wind.
There are different types of winds:
Prevailing winds always blow in the same An anemometer
direction. For example, trade winds always blow is used to measure
from the tropics towards the equator. the speed of wind.
Periodic winds, such as monsoons in south
and south-east Asia, change direction seasonally.
In summer, monsoons blow from the Indian
Ocean towards the continent and bring abundant
rain. In winter, monsoons blow from
the continent towards the sea and bring dry, A weather
stable weather. vane is
used to
Synoptic winds change daily. For example, sea
show the
breezes blow from the sea towards the land by
direction
day. At night, they blow from the land towards
of the
the sea.
wind.
Local winds, such as the levante in Andalusia,
are influenced by the surrounding geography.
Atmospheric pressure and winds
60 60
40
40 Activities
1. Explain.
Tr op ic of C anc e
r
What are the differences and similarities
20
20 between trade winds and monsoons?
0 2. Look at the illustration and answer

0 Eq ua to r the questions.
a. Where are the three low pressure
areas?
20
20
b. Where are the four high pressure
Tr opi c of C apr icor areas?
n
40 40
c. Where do winds in the temperate
zones come from, east or west?
60 60 3. Draw the diagram of atmospheric

pressure and winds.
Shade the areas of high pressure
High pressure areas Trade winds West wind
Low pressure areas East wind
and low pressure.
43
Activities
1. a. Observe the weather for a week and complete a chart like this one.
Use a website such as www.bbc.co.uk/weather to help you.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Temperature: max / min
Rainfall
Atmospheric pressure
Cloudy
b. Write your conclusions.

When was it hotter?
When was it colder?
Did it rain on any days?
How much?
Did the pressure drop before
it rained?
What day was the cloudiest?
Was it hot or cold?
2. Investigate.
What is the thermal equator?
3. Read a weather map.

a. Do not look at the map. Draw the symbols you would
use to represent these conditions on a map.
A sunny day Rain
Sunny
A cloudy day Fog
Low winds Snow cloudy
rain
b. Now look at the legend to see if your symbols
snow
are the same.
fog
c. Describe what the weather is going to be like
low winds
in the area represented on the map.
high winds
4. Complete the table.

What is it? What weather does it cause?
High pressure
Low pressure
44
5. Interpreting a weather map.
Meteorologists make weather maps Weather map
with data sent by satellites.
A weather map usually includes
information about atmospheric pressure
H
1024
at sea level.
10 20
Isobars are the lines connecting points 10 16
of equal pressure.
2
101
The H indicates high pressure.
The L indicates low pressure. L
Fronts are drawn with a jagged line.
Winds are sometimes represented by arrows. 1004
The closer the isobars are to each other, L
10
10 08
08
the stronger the winds are.
a. Explain what the following represent.
10 16
The lines
The letters H and L
The jagged lines 102
0
The numbers 2
101
b. Describe what the weather will be like. L

In high pressure areas
In low pressure areas
In areas affected by a front
Web task 4: Global warming

and the greenhouse effect.
Did you know?

The average temperature of the
Earth is around 15 C.
This average has risen by around
0.6 C since 1861.
Today, global warming
is making average temperatures
rise rapidly.
45
UNIT
5 World landscapes
Compare and think
What differences can you see between Imagine that you are planning
these landscapes? a trip to one of these locations.
Why are these landscapes so different? Discuss your ideas with a partner.
What difficulties would there be for Then make a list together of the things
people living in these environments? you would need to take with you.
46
Now answer these questions
What are the names of these landscapes? Can you see a similar landscape in your area?
Where are they in the world? Where would you like to live? Why?

Identify world climates Rainforests are almost uninhabited.
Analyse how climate affects landscapes Hot deserts are found near the tropics.
Learn to read different types of climate Reporting change:

maps Some towns have developed in deserts.
Make and interpret a climate graph Many areas have been transformed by tourism.
Recognise the relationship between Expressing contrasts:
vegetation and climate However, there are different types
However, some nomads live in deserts.
47
1. What types World climates
ARCTIC OCEAN
of climate are there? Arct

ic C
ircle
World climates 8
The Earth is divided into five main climate
zones: one hot zone, two temperate zones
and two cold zones. However, there are different
Flagstaff (USA)
types of climates within these zones. Climate
affects flora and fauna and how people live. 40
30
80
60
20 40
10 20
Hot climates 0 0
-10
J F M A M J J A S O N D
The hot zone is between the Tropic of Cancer Temperature Precipitation
(in C) (in mm) Flagstaff
and the Tropic of Capricorn. Temperatures
are generally high because sunlight reaches the PACIFIC
Earth at a perpendicular angle all year round. Tropic of Cance r
There is little difference in temperatures in the

different seasons.
OCEAN
There are three main climates in the hot zone: Georgetown
equatorial, tropical (humid and dry) and desert. AMERICA
0 Equator
Georgetown (Guyana)
Temperate climates 280
260
The two temperate zones are between the tropics 240
220
and the polar circles. Temperatures change 200
180 Tr opic of Capricor n
because sunlight reaches the Earth at different 160
angles throughout the year. 140

120
100
There are four main climates in the temperate 40 80
zones: oceanic, Mediterranean, continental and 30

20
60
40
Chinese. 10
0
20
0
-10
Cold climates Temperature
(in C)
Precipitation
(in mm)
The cold zones are between the polar circles

TEMPERATE CLIMATES HOT CLIMATES
and the poles. Laurie Island
Mediterranean Equatorial
Sunlight strikes the Earth at an oblique angle, Chinese Tropical humid
Tropical dry c C ir cl e
and therefore covers a wider space. Consequently, Oceanic
Desert
A n ta rc ti
Continental
temperatures are always very cold. The polar
COLD CLIMATES
climate is characteristic of the polar regions. Polar
Alpine
Mountains also have a cold climate. (Mountain)
Activity
1. Study the climate graph of Seville, Spain a. What do the numbers on the first vertical
and Amoy, China. Answer the following axis represent?
questions. b. What do the blue bars represent?
48
Kazan (Russia)
40 80
Aberdeen (Scotland) 30 60
20 40
40 80 10 20
30 60 0 0
20 40 -10
10 20 -20
0 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D
-10 Temperature Precipitation
J F M A M J J A S O N D (in C) (in mm)
Temperature Precipitation
(in C) (in mm)
PACIFIC
ASIA
Aberdeen Kazan OCEAN
EUROPE Amoy (China)
180
160
Seville
140
120
Seville (Spain) 100
Amoy 40 80
40 80 30 60
30 60 20 40
20 40 10 20
10 20 0 0
0 0 -10
-10
AFRICA J F M A M J J A S O N D
J F M A M J J A S O N D INDIAN Temperature Precipitation
(in C) (in mm)
(in C) (in mm)
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
Prime Meridian
Beira (Mozambique)
Beira OCEANIA
300
Francistown 280
260
OCEAN 240
220
William Creek
200
180
Francistown (Botswana) 160
Laurie Island 140
120 120
40 80 100 100
30 60 40 80 40 80
20 40 30 60 30 60
10 20 20 40 20 40
0 0 10 20 10
William Creek (Australia)
20
-10 0 0 0 0
40 80
-20 -10 -10
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D 30 60
20 40
Temperature Precipitation Temperature Precipitation Temperature Precipitation
(in C) (in mm) (in C) (in mm) (in C) (in mm) 10 20
0 0
RN -10
SOUTHE J F M A M J J A S O N D
OCEAN
ANTARCTICA (in C) (in mm)
c. What was the lowest average temperature f. Which three months had the lowest
in C in Seville during the year? temperatures in Amoy?
d. In which two months was there less than g. What was the average temperature
20 mm of rain in Seville? during these three months?
e. In which month did it rain most in Amoy?
49
2. What are rainforests like?
Equatorial climates Arct
ic Cir
cle
0
Equatorial climates are found near the equator.

Temperatures are always hot. The average annual
Tropic of Cancer
temperature is around 27 C. There is very little variation
0 Equator
in temperature between the seasons and between day
Tropic of Capricorn
and night.
Precipitation is abundant, more than 2,000 mm a year.
Prime Meridian
Rainforest
It is regular throughout the year. rctic
Circle Savannah
Anta
Rainforests Rainforests and savannahs

Heat and humidity encourage plant and animal life. The The main rainforests are in South and Central
America, Central Africa and South-east Asia.
characteristic landscape of equatorial zones is a rainforest. Savannahs are found in Central Africa, America,
Rainforests are always dense and green. They have many South Asia and part of Australia.
different species of animals and plants. The tallest trees are
more than forty metres high, and prevent light from
A rainforest
reaching small plants. Rainforests are almost uninhabited
because of the heat and humidity. However, some native
peoples live by hunting and gathering plants. emergents (the tallest trees)
In equatorial regions, most people live on the coast, plateaus

or mountainsides. The climate is cooler, the soil is fertile,
and the vegetation is less dense.
Activity
1. Look at the picture. Discuss these questions canopy
with a classmate.
a. What effect does the canopy have on the rainforest?
b. Why are the leaves on shrubs so big and green?
c. Why are the lianas growing up the trees?
lianas
shrubs
forest floor
50
3. What is the savannah like?
Tropical climates The savannah
Tropical climates are found near the tropics. A tropical savannah (grassland) is a huge plain
Temperatures are always high. with tall grass. Its colour varies. It is green in the
rainy season, and yellow in the dry season. Scattered
Rainfall is abundant, between 500 and shrubs and trees grow among the tall grass.
2,000 mm. However, it is not regular
throughout the year. There are two seasons: African savannahs are home to many herbivores,
the rainy season and the dry season. such as giraffes and zebras, as well as carnivores,
including lions and cheetahs.
Tropical rivers have a smaller, more irregular
flow than equatorial rivers. Water levels are low Most people live on the coast or near the rivers.
in the dry season and high in the rainy season. There are small towns in the savannah, but most
The River Nile is an example. people work in agriculture and live in rural areas.
A savannah
Activities
1. Copy and complete this table. 2. Investigate.
Equatorial Tropical
a. Choose two predators which live in a rainforest.
climate climate Draw these animals or find illustrations.
Temperatures Explain how they have adapted physically
to their environment (for example,
Precipitation
in colour and movement).
Vegetation
b. Identify one native people from the Amazon,
Seasons and another from the African savannah.
Human activity Look for information and compare their lifestyles.
51
4. What are desert landscapes like?
stony desert
oasis
dunes
rocky desert
sandy desert
cactus
A desert
Arct
0 Desert climates
ic Cir
cle
In desert climates, there is very little precipitation, no more

than 250 mm a year. There are hot deserts and cold deserts:
Tropic of Cancer
Hot deserts are found near the tropics. During the day,
0 Equator temperatures are always very high and can reach more than
Tropic of Capricorn 50 C. At night, they fall sharply, sometimes to below 0 C.
Cold deserts are in temperate zones. Very hot summers
Prime Meridian
DESERTS
Circle
Hot
Cold
alternate with extremely cold winters. Temperatures can
rctic
Anta
fall to 10 C.
Desert climates
Desert landscapes
Did you know? The lack of water makes vegetation and animal life scarce.
However, some species, such as cacti and camels, have
The Sahara in Africa is a hot desert. adapted to dry conditions. Date palms grow near oases
It is the largest desert in the world. in moist areas of the desert.
The Atacama desert in Chile is the Deserts are almost uninhabited. However, some nomads
driest place in the world. It rains less live in deserts, such as the Tuaregs in the Sahara and
than 1 mm a year. the Mongols in the Gobi. Some towns have developed
The Gobi in Asia is the coldest desert. in deserts around the oil and natural gas industries.
Activities 3. Organise the information.

Deserts
1. Look at the diagram of deserts.
a. Identify the three types of desert.
b. Describe what an oasis is. Why are oases
so important to people living in deserts?
are found are are found are
2. Answer this question. characterised by characterised by
What are the similarities and differences
between hot deserts and cold deserts?
52
5. What are Mediterranean landscapes like?
Mediterranean climates Arct
0
ic Cir
cle
The Mediterranean climate is found around

the Mediterranean sea. However, there are similar
climates in other parts of the world. Tropic of Cancer
Temperatures are very high in summer 0 Equator
and mild in winter. Tropic of Capricorn
Precipitation is not abundant. It occurs mainly
Prime Meridian
in spring and autumn. Summers are very dry. CLIMATE
Circle Mediterranean and similar

rctic
Droughts are a major problem. Anta
Mediterranean climates
Mediterranean landscapes
Rivers have an irregular flow. In summer,
they carry very little water. At other times,
they overflow and there are floods.
In Mediterranean forests, there are trees such as
holm oaks and pine trees. There are also shrubs
and plants like lavender.
However, in Europe, landscapes have changed
considerably:
Inland, forests have been cut down. They have
been replaced by wheat fields, olive trees and
pastures for livestock.
On the coast, fruit and vegetables used to be
widely grown. However, many areas have been
transformed by tourism.
An olive grove
Activities
1. Copy and complete the table.
Identify the positive and negative effects of
tourism in Mediterranean regions.
Positive effects Negative effects
of tourism of tourism
Social Economic Social Economic
effects effects effects effects
2. Investigate.
Look at the map of Mediterranean climates.
Find out if the climate in Mediterranean
countries is exactly the same as in China.
Irrigated agriculture in a market gardening region
53
6. What are continental landscapes like?
Arct 0
Continental climates ic Cir
cle
Continental climates are only found in temperate

zones in the northern hemisphere: in Europe, Asia
Tropic of Cancer
and North America.
0 Equator
Temperatures vary greatly. Winters are extremely Tropic of Capricorn

cold, and summers are hot.
Prime Meridian
Precipitation generally occurs in summer. It is wetter CLIMATE
on the coast than inland. Anta

rctic
Circle Continental
In many places, rivers remain frozen during the winter.

Continental climates
In spring, snow melts and the rivers swell.
Continental landscapes
Coniferous forests, or taigas, are found in areas where winters are long and harsh,
and summers are short and cold. Coniferous trees, such as fir and pine, grow there.
For centuries, only small groups of hunters and reindeer shepherds lived in coniferous forests.
More recently, timber industries have developed. However, the population is still very small.
Prairies of tall grass are found on inland plains in wetter, warmer areas.
Landscapes of low grass, called steppes, are found in dry areas.
Most people in continental climate zones live on the prairies. They have built towns,
and they grow food and raise livestock.
A coniferous forest
54
7. What are oceanic landscapes like?
0
Oceanic climates Arct
ic Cir
cle
Oceanic climates are mainly found on the west

coasts of temperate zones. This climate is also
called maritime. Tropic of Cancer
0 Equator
Temperatures are mild all year round because
Tropic of Capricorn
of the proximity of the ocean.
Precipitation is abundant and regular. It rains
Prime Meridian
CLIMATE
Oceanic
in all seasons. Consequently, the rivers have rctic
Circle or maritime
Anta
an abundant, regular flow all year round.
Oceanic or maritime climates
Oceanic landscapes
Vegetation is abundant due to regular
rainfall, and the landscape is mainly green.
There are extensive meadows on the
coasts and in mountainous regions.
Deciduous forests are found in the highlands,
with trees such as ash, oak and beech.
In areas of poor soil, there are moors,
where shrubs and grass grow.
Oceanic zones are densely populated.
Landscapes have changed considerably.
Many forests have been cut down to obtain
timber or to make room for farmland,
towns, factories or roads.
A landscape in Galicia
Activity
Aberdeen
(United Kingdom)
1. Look at the climate graph of Aberdeen.
T C P. in
a. Describe the temperature changes mm
100
in Aberdeen throughout the year.
Identify the highest temperature and
80
the lowest temperature and the months
in which they occur.
30 60
b. How much does it rain during the year?
Identify the month with the highest
rainfall and the amount. Identify the 20 40
month with the lowest rainfall and the

amount. 10 20
c. Find Aberdeen on an atlas. Write a short Climate graph

description of its location. 0 0 of Aberdeen
J F M AM J J A S O N D
(United Kingdom)
55
8. What are polar landscapes like?
ice and snow

taiga
tundra
A polar landscape
Polar climates
the Arctic region
There are two regions with a polar climate:
the Arctic and the Antarctic. They are situated
Arct
0 between the polar circles and the poles.
ic Cir
cle
Polar climates are the coldest on Earth. Winters are
long and harsh with temperatures of between -20 C
Tropic of Cancer
and -50 C. There is no real summer as the average
0 Equator
temperature in the warmest month is below 10 C.
Tropic of Capricorn
At the poles, it is night for six months a year.
There is little precipitation, around 300 mm,
Prime Meridian
CLIMATE
and it falls as snow.
Polar Antarc
tic C
ircle
Polar landscapes
Polar climates
Polar landscapes are characterized by ice and snow.
Antarctica Vegetation is unable to grow because the subsoil is almost
always frozen. Only a few animals, such as seals and
penguins, can live in such low temperatures.
Activity However, there is a short summer in the areas near the
1. Investigate and do an interview. temperate zones when the ice melts. These areas have
tundra landscapes of moss, lichens and small trees.
a. Investigate the Sami or Inuits.
Use Internet and a library.
The tundra is home to animals such as reindeer,
foxes and wolves.
b. Write questions you would ask
to interview these people. Human life in these areas is very difficult, as there is
Then act the interview out with no water and almost no animals or plants. Small groups
a classmate. of Sami and Inuits live in the Arctic region. The only
inhabitants of the Antarctic are a few dozen scientists.
56
9. What are alpine landscapes like?
Arct 0
ic Cir
cle mountain
Altay Mountains
Rocky
Mountains
Carpathian
Alps Mountains ski station
Himalayas
Tropic of Cancer
Sierra
Madre
0 Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
Andes valley
CLIMATE
Prime Meridian
Mountain
Circle
reservoir
rctic Alps Mountain ranges
Anta
Alpine climates
timber industry
village
A temperate mountain landscape
Alpine climates
Alpine (or high mountain) climates are the climates of the
highest mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas (Asia), the
Andes (South America) and the Alps and Pyrenees (Europe).
Temperatures are very low in winter and cool in summer.
There is abundant precipitation during the year.
It often snows in winter.
Temperatures and precipitation change with altitude.
Temperatures grow colder as we go up the mountain.
Precipitation also increases. Mont Blanc, an Alpine landscape in the Alps
Activities
Alpine landscapes
1. Identify the climates.
Vegetation changes from one part of a mountain
to another: Look at pages 48 and 49. Check against
an atlas. Which countries have:
It changes with altitude, because of the changes in
a. a polar climate?
temperature and precipitation.
b. an alpine climate?
The vegetation on sunny slopes is different from
the vegetation on shady slopes.
a. Why do people want to visit alpine
There is less vegetation in windy places. regions?
In temperate zones, mountains are sparsely populated and b. What type of economic activity does
people live in valleys, where the climate is milder. However, this create?
in hot climates, mountains are densely populated because c. Would you like to work there? Why?
the lower temperatures there make living conditions better.
57
Activities
1. Study this climate graph.
Study the table. Then look at how a climate graph was made for the city of Kiev
in the Ukraine.
T (C) 6 4,5 0 7 15 19 20 19 14 8 3,5 3,5
JD
P (mm) 33 25 40 43 48 66 78 58 45 45 38 38
1. Draw the axes with two vertical lines and one horizontal line.
Use squared paper.
2. Mark the months of the year on the horizontal axis.
Give each month the same space. Kiev (Ukraine)
3. The vertical line on the left is for the temperatures.
Divide the space proportionally, for example, 1 cm for 35 70
every 5 C.
4. Write the title under the axis: Temperature (in C). 30 60
5. The vertical line on the right is for precipitation.
Divide the space proportionally. The precipitation scale 25 50
should be double the temperature scale. For example,
at the same height as you have put 10 C, you should
20 40
put 20 mm. Write the rainfall figures, and put the title
under the axis: Precipitation (in mm).
15 30
6. Use a dot to show the height of the average temperatures
for each month. Remember that the temperature figures
10 20
are on the left-hand axis.
7. Now join all the dots with a red line. You have made
the temperature line. 5 10
8. Mark the height of the total precipitation for each month.

Remember that the rainfall figures are on the right-hand axis. 0 0
Draw a vertical bar to represent them.

-5
Interpretation
The average temperatures vary a lot from one month to the next.
Rainfall is just over 500 mm and is more abundant in the summer. -10
As temperatures vary from one month to the next, we can classify Temperature Precipitation
the climate as temperate. ( C) (mm)
Kiev has a continental climate. Rainfall is not very abundant

and the summer months are the rainiest.
2. Make a climate graph.

a. Study this table. Then make a climate graph following the steps indicated above.
T (C) 25 25,5 26 26 25,5 25 24,5 24,5 25 24,5 24,5 24,5
JD
P (mm) 71 89 142 178 152 145 175 165 185 205 183 104
58
b. Look at the climate graph you have made and answer these questions.
What are the temperatures like? Hot, mild or cold? Add up the rainfall and calculate the annual
Which are the hottest and coldest months? total. Is it abundant?
Are there great differences between the seasons? How is rainfall distributed over the year?
c. Classify the type of climate.
d. Choose three of the climate graphs on pages 48 and 49.
Choose one for a hot climate, one for a temperate climate and one for a cold climate.
Comment on each climate graph. Write a short text similar to the interpretation in Activity 1.
3. Look at the world map of vegetation.

a. Complete the key.
b. Write sentences on vegetation and climate: Rainforests are found in equatorial climates.
R_________ Steppes and p _

______ M_ _ _ _ _ _ _ vegetation
S_______ M ____________ forest T _ _ __
D_____ D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ forest Tu_ _ _ _
4. Do an Internet search.
Where would you like to go on holiday?
a. Look for information about the climate of a place where
you often go on holiday, or where you would like to go.
b. Create a dossier with climate information and photos.
You can also include a climate graph and statistics.
Web task 5: Tropical forest and deforestation.
59
UNIT
6 The continents
What do you remember?
Which is the largest continent in the world? And the smallest?
Do you know anything about their relief and climates?
Can you name at least three countries on each continent (except Antarctica)?
What different kinds of physical features are there around the world?
EUROPE
ASIA
AMERICA AFRICA
OCEANIA
ANTARCTICA

In this unit, you will: Reporting facts; length and area:
Learn about the physical features The highest mountain in the world (8,848 m)
of the continents An area of over 30 million square metres (m2)
Analyse the relationship between relief With an area of 44 million km2
and climate Making comparisons:
Learn some techniques to memorize The River Nile is the longest river.
information The deepest depression in Asia
Draw a physical map
Making impersonal statements:
Compare maps and draw conclusions
Large plateaus are found throughout Africa.
Oceania is located to the south-east of Asia.
60
1. Where are these physical features found? 9
A. The Andes mountain range in South America D. Japan is an Asian country in the Pacific Ocean. It is formed
is 7,200 km long and 240 km wide. by over three thousand islands. The highest mountain,
There are many high volcanoes (over 5,000 m). Mount Fuji, is a volcano.
B. The Mississippi River in North America is 1.6 km wide at E. The Great Rift Valley is a fracture which started to be formed
its widest point. It has 250 tributaries. A total of 25,900 km about 50 million years ago. It is approximately 6,000 km long
in the Mississippi River basin are navigable. and runs from Southwest Asia to Mozambique in East Africa.
C. Ayers Rock, also known as Uluru, is a large sandstone F. Antarctica is the continent with the highest average
rock in central Australia. It is 340 m high. altitude: 2,000 m. However, ice covers 98 % of the continent
It is sacred to the Aboriginal people of the region. and hides its relief. There are many glaciers.
Activities
1. What continents are these physical features in? 2. Investigate.
Mount Fuji the Mississippi River Ayers Rock Find out more about Antarctica: its area, its relief,
glaciers the Great Rift Valley the Andes its climate and its plant and animal life. You can use
websites such as www.nationalgeographic.com
61
2. What are Africas relief and climate like?
The landscape of Africa
Africa is the third largest continent. It has Which ocean is on its east coast?
an area of over 30 million square metres (m2). Which is the longest river in Africa?
What two bodies of water separate Africa How long is it?
from Europe and Asia? What is the name of the highest mountain
Which ocean is on Africas west coast? in Africa? How high is it? Where is it?
Physical map of Africa

20 0 20 40
ranean
d iter Se
Strait of Gibraltar Me Cape Bon a ALTITUDE metres
Cape Espartel NS
N TAI Gulf of 2,000
Jbel Toubkal OU Gabes
Gulf of Nile 1,000
M
4,165 S Sidra Delta
500
LA Suez
T Canal
A 200
D E S E R T
R A
N
LIBYAN 0
H A
IL
E
A DESERT Depression
Tropic of Cance r
S AHA
GGA
R
RIVER
TIBESTI
Re
Tahat
3,003
M NTAI
d
OU MOU N
20 NTAINS Emi Koussi S A S I A 20
NUBIAN
Se
3,415
CAPE VERDE
DESERT
a
ISLANDS
Rive
r R iver
S Chad
Niger Darfur
Cape
Bl
Basin Basin Ras Dashan

en
R iv e r
ue
Verde 4.620
Ni
e en
Ad
eg
Socotra
ge
of
Riv
r
Lake
Nil
ETH
al
Gulf
Riv
Plateau IOP Island

r
Chad
IA
Volta
Cape
er
le
River
Ni N
Guardafui
C ha
e HIGHLANDS
Lake SOMALIA
W hit
ATLANTIC Volta PENINSULA

ri
MEROO
C A Cameroon N
EY
er Uba Lake
M O 4,070 ng Turkana
LL
OCEAN Gulf of
Riv
Cape Palmas UNTAINS i

Guinea Bioko Lake
VA
Island River Co Albert

Longest rivers So Tom Rwenzori INDIAN
FT
n
5,119 Mount Kenya

Island Equator 0
go
(in km) Congo

RI
Karisimbi
o
5,199
ng
7,000 Cape Basin 4,507

Lake OCEAN
T
Nile Kilimanjaro
Co
Lopez
M ou n ta i n s
EA
Victoria 5,895
Mi tu m b a
6,000
GR
SEYCHELLES
er
GR
R iv Pemba Island ISLANDS

Ri
EA
5,000
Lake
ve
Zanzibar Island
T
Congo Niger Tanganyica

r K
4,000
RI
asa
FT
3,000 COMORO
Zambezi
i ISLANDS
VAL
2,000 Orange
Okavango Lake Malawi Cape Amber
SOUTH AFRICAN (Nyasa)
LEY
1,000
r Zam
Ri
ve b
Ri
l
ve
Maromokotro
ne
0 r
Ponta da
ez
Oka Victoria 2,876

an
v
i
Marca
Ch
Falls Madagascar
an
Highest mountains Mauritius

ue
NA
go
20
biq
(in m) PLATEAU
MI
zam
Kilimanjaro Rwenzori Mount Karisimbi Lim pop

B DE
er
Mo
6,000
o
KALAHARI v
Jbel
S
Mount Kenya
i
Tropic of Capricorn
R
IN
Ras Dashan Toubkal DESERT

5,000
SER
Thabana Cape
NT
Ntlenyana Sainte Marie

T
4,000 Orange
R i 3,482
U
ve
O
3,000 r
M
G re a t
G
K a ro o
ER
2,000
SB SCALE
Cape of EN
1,000 DRAK 0 557 1,114
Good Hope
0 Kilometres
20 40 60
Longest rivers and highest mountains
62
Rivers and lakes
Many African rivers are long with large flows.
Did you know?
Some rivers, such as the Congo and the Zaire, are
navigable for long distances. The River Congo has
the largest flow in Africa and the second largest in
the world. The River Nile is the longest river in
the world.
Africa has some very large lakes.
The largest is Lake Victoria. The region
of African Great Lakes (Victoria, Tanganyika,
Turkana) is in the Great Rift Valley.
Relief
Large plateaus are found throughout Africa. The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
Africas average altitude is high (750 m). It covers 9,000,000 km2. Eight thousand years
ago it was a fertile area. However, it is now
Several deserts, such as the Sahara and
very dry, and temperatures reach 54 C. In a
Kalahari, are found on these plateaus.
few areas, fruits, dates and corn are grown.
Several mountain ranges are also found on the
plateaus. The east of the continent is the
highest part. The volcano Mount Kilimanjaro,
the highest mountain in Africa, is located here
near the Great Rift Valley.
Some depressions, such as the Congo and
Niger basins, are found between the central
plateaus. Activities
There are not many islands off the coast of Africa.
1. Study the map opposite and the text above.
The largest is Madagascar.
Answer these questions.
a. What is Africas relief like?
Prime Meridian
b. Which is the highest part of the continent?

c. Which is the largest island?
Where is it?
Tropic of Cancer
2. Study the climate map and answer these
questions.
a. What type of climate hot, temperate or cold
predominates in Africa?
b. What type of climate is found near the Tropic
Equator
of Cancer? What is the landscape like in this
HOT CLIMATES part of Africa?
Equatorial c. What climates are found near the Tropic of
Humid tropical
Capricorn? What is the landscape like here?
Dry tropical
Desert 3. Draw a line across Africa from north to south.
TEMPERATE CLIMATES
Oceanic Tropic of Capricorn

a. Describe the changes to the climate next
Mediterranean to the line.
and similar
COLD CLIMATES
African b. Look at the map on page 62 again. Describe
Mountain
climates the physical features next to the same line.
63
3. What are Asias relief and climate like?
Asia is the largest continent, with an area of 44 million km2. Its average
altitude is 950 m. Only the average altitude of Antarctica is greater. Physical map of Asia
80 Be r i ng S
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 80 180 tr
60
ai
t
Bering
ALTITUDE metres A R C T I C O C E A N Sea
Mo Koly 180
6,000 un m
ta a
4,000 V in
er s
Kara kh
2,000 Sea oy
an KAMCHATKA
1,000 sk PENINSULA
S M
0 N ou
I nt Cape
TA Narodnaya r ai Sea Lopatka
Depression 1,895
S I B E R I A ve ns
Ri of Ok ho t s k 16
S
UN
0
Lena
AND
Ye
S t a n ov oy
Ri v
nis
MO
Mountains Sakhalin Island
IL ISL
er

ey
40
S ik ho te
E U R O P E
M o u n ta
Ri Amur
Ob
Ri
Riv
KUR
v
AL
er
ve
Lake
e r Irt
r
Baikal
UR
20
- A li n
Hokkaido Island
in s
ys
JAPANESE
Sea
h
C ARCHIPELAGO
Bl A CASPIAN of
40 ac
k S DEPRESSION Alt Japan Mount Fuji
ea Lake ay
U
3,776
C
Sy Balkhash Mo
Sea
un
A
ANATOLIAN Aral r tai Honshu Island

KOREAN
S
PENINSULA Sea ns G O BI D E SE RT
U
PENINSULA
D
u a ng
it
Am
S
ary
S t ra
Caspian
T ie n S h a n Mountains Shikoku Island
River H
Tig
Jengish Chokusu
He
ea
River Yellow Kyushu Island
Zag
Mediterranean
Kor
7,439
Da
ris
Sea Sea
Eup
ry
ir r
ros
s
Rive
m East China Sea

Dead in n Chinese nce
a
Ri Pa Kunlu
hr
Sea t a Ismoil Somoni Ca

Zard Kuh ve un ains Plain
of
Mount
at
r Mo 7,495
pic
r
4,547
C
es
sh er
FI Tro
Mo

Ku s Riv
K2
du I 20
Ri
n
AC
8,611
Hin untai TIBETAN ze
un
ve
Iran Mo H P
ian P
t
Pers
r
PLATEAU
ng
ta
lateau I
A R A B IA N Nanda Devi M
Ya
in
r A L
Red
ve Taiwan Island
ian
7,816
140
Ri A Y A S
s
D E SE R T Everest
River N
G
lf
Jiang River
i v 8,848 Kanchenjunga

EA
u
20 tra
s
e apu Xi
Indu
r 8,598 a it
Str
O CP h i li p p in e
Sea
Gu Ganges m on
lf o
f Om
ah Luz
Br
an
ARABIAN Deccan Me Luzon Se a
PENINSULA Plateau ko Hainan Island
Wes
ng Island
Ri
ve South
Arabia
tern
n Bay China Sea PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

r
of
Bengal INDOCHINESE
Sea Mindanao
Gha
PENINSULA
Island
ts
r
INDIAN Gulf ato
PENINSULA Equ
of 0
Thailand
Cape Comorin MALAY

0 E Sri Lanka St
ra PENINSULA Borneo MOLUCCA ISLANDS
quat Island
it
Island
or of
Ma
MALDIVE la
cc
ISLANDS a Sulawesi
Island
I N D I
A N O C E A N
SCALE
Sumatra Island
0 665 1,330 I N D O N E S I A
Timor Island
Java Island
40 Kilometres 60 80 100 120
Activities the Mountains, the Black Sea and the

Mediterranean Sea. Some people believe that
1. Study the map and complete this paragraph. Europe is not a continent but a peninsula of Asia.
Nearly all of Asia is in the hemisphere.
2. Study the physical map of Asia.
There are three oceans on the coast of Asia:
the Ocean to the north, the List three physical features of Asia under
Ocean to the east and the Ocean each heading.
to the south. Asia is separated from Europe by the Islands Peninsulas Gulfs Seas Plateaus
Mountains, the Sea and
64
Relief Highest mountains
(in m)
The highest mountains and plateaus, together with Ismoil Somoni
Everest
the deepest depression, are all in Asia. K2
Kangchenjunga
Jengish Chokusu
9,000
Mountains. The Himalayas are the highest mountain range 8,000

Nanda Devi
in the world. Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the 7,000
world (8,848 m). The islands in the south and 6,000
east of Asia are formed by the peaks of submerged 5,000
mountain ranges. 4,000
3,000
Plateaus and plains. There are plateaus throughout Asia. 2,000
Tibet, in the centre of Asia, is the highest plateau in the 1,000
world. Siberia, in the north, is a very large area of plains 0
and high plateaus. Highest mountains in Asia

Depressions. Three inland seas are found in the main
depressions: the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea and the Dead Sea. Longest rivers
There are many islands off the coasts of Asia, especially in East (in km)
6,000 Yangtze
Asia, where the archipelagos of Japan, Philippines and Ob-
Irtysh
Indonesia are located. 5,000
Huang He
Mekong Amur Lena
Rivers and lakes 4,000
Asian rivers are generally long. Their flows increase when 3,000
snow melts or when it rains during the summer monsoons. 2,000

Some of the rivers on the Arctic side of the continent freeze
in winter. 1,000
Asia has some important lakes. Lake Baikal is the deepest lake 0
in the world (1,637 m). The Caspian Sea is the largest lake. Longest rivers in Asia
Ar
cti
Activities cC
ir cle
1. Study the climate map and answer these questions.

a. Which parts of Asia have cold climates?
b. What landscapes do you associate with this type
of climate?
c. Where is the equatorial climate mainly located?
d. Which climate is similar to that of East China?
Tro
pic
of C
2. Investigate. an cer
How did the Dead Sea get its name? Why is it salty?
0
Equa
tor
HOT CLIMATES
Equatorial
TEMPERATE CLIMATES COLD CLIMATES
Humid tropical
Dry tropical Continental Polar
Desert Mediterranean Mountain

and similar
Asian climates
65
4. What are Oceanias relief and climate like?
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 170 160 150 140 130 120
an ce r
T r op ic of C
20 20
Hawaiian Islands
(USA)
M I C R O N E S I A
Island of Guam
10 Challenger Deep MARSHALL ISLANDS 10
11,034 m
PALAU
FEDERATED STATES
OF MICRONESIA P A C I F I C O C E A N
Equator 0
0
Bismarck K I R I B A T I
Sea NAURU
Puncak Jaya M
5,030 Wilhelm E
4,509 L
A
PAPU A So SOLOMON N
NEW lom E TUVALU
P O L Y N E S I A
GUIN EA
on ISLANDS
10
Se a S 10
r I
T im o A SAMOA
Sea Co ral TUAMOTU
AN Se a VANUATU
INDI
Gr
ea
GR
AN Ba
OCE FIJI TONGA
t
rri
EA
er
T
20
R
ND Y
ee
20 GR EA T SA
D
IV
DE SE RT Fiji T ro pi c o f Ca
pr ic or n
ID
RALIA
Sea
IN
A U S T TORIA
G R
g AUST ALTITUDE
lin RAL
metres
ar
V IC
GREAT SERT
ANGE
AS
rD
DE IA 2,000
Rive
30
1,000
30 North Island
G re a t River M NEW 500
B ig h t ur Ta sm an ZEALAND
Aus tr a li a n ra
y 200
Se a SCALE
A N
ps
OCE
0 678 1,356 0
Al
ia Cook
N T as m an
n
3,764
IA South Island
er
Is la n d Kilometres
IND
th
u
120 130 140 150 160 So 170 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 40
Physical map of Oceania
Oceania
Oceania is located to the south-east of Asia,
and is almost entirely in the southern
hemisphere. With a size of around
9 million km2, it is the smallest continent.
Activity
1. Study the map and find the following:
a. The oceans surrounding Oceania
b. The four largest islands
c. The names of three large groups of
islands
Now read the text on the next page and
check your answers.
Part of Oceania seen from space
66
The landscape
Oceania is formed by thousands of islands and is in
the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
There are four large islands: Australia, New Guinea
(which is divided between Asia and Oceania) and
New Zealand (formed by North Island and South
Island).
Australia occupies 86% of Oceania and
is the largest island on Earth. Many people
consider it to be an island-continent.
There are thousands of small islands in the Pacific
Ocean. Most of them originate from coral or
volcanoes. These islands are grouped into three The Tuamotu archipelago, in Polynesia
large areas: Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia.

The average altitude of Oceania is low: 340 m.
However, there are great differences between islands.
Climate
Most of Oceania is between the Tropics, so it has
warm climates. Climates are temperate in the north
and south of the continent.
New Guinea has an equatorial climate.
Hawaii has a tropical climate.
Inland Australia has a desert climate.
Cyclones and typhoons are common in the tropical
region.
The islands are isolated. Consequently, they have
many plants which do not grow anywhere else. An Australian beach
Activities
1. Study the map on page 66 and complete 2. Interpret the documents.
the texts. Study the map and write the names of islands
a. In , plains and low plateaus in each group.
predominate, although there is a long mountain Melanesia
range called the .
Micronesia
It is the only island with two major rivers,
the Murray and the . Polynesia
b. New and New are 3. Classify the information.

mountainous. Their rivers are short, and some
of them receive water from glaciers. Islands in Oceania
c. Some islands in the Ocean are Large islands Small islands
mountainous and have active volcanoes
(Samoa, Hawaii).
67
5. What are Americas relief and climate like?
America is in the 160 ARCTIC
60
20 0
S tr a it Physical map
B e ri n g OCEAN
western hemisphere. Bering 140
40
Sea of America
le
Yukon 120
It is the second largest
i rc
60
Alaska 100
cC
ska
A l an g e ve Beaufort 80
Peninsula
i
Ra
r Sea Greenland
cti
continent (42 million
R
6,194
Ar
0
M a c k e nzi e R i v
16 McKinley
km2). It is the longest Baffin
O
Bay
Gulf of
continent: it stretches Alaska Great Bear
C
Lake Baffin
Island
from the Arctic Circle
er
Davis
Strait
to the Antarctic Circle. Great Slave
Y
0
Lake Cape Farewell
Three oceans surround

40
Hudson
40
Labrador

Bay
M
Vancouver G r e a t Sea
it: the Atlantic, the Island LABRADOR
0
Lake
14
O
Winnipeg PENINSULA
Pacific and the Arctic. P l a i n s
U
N Lake iv
e r
Newfoundland
R
Mis so
Superior Lake e
Cape n c s
Longest rivers GREAT Huron re a i n
T
Mendocino Whitney
aw nt
ur
(km) 4,418 LAKES tL
iR
in
ou
A
Amazon r Sa
o Rive Lake
i
7,000
ver
M
ad
Michigan Niagara falls
I
Mississippi-
Color
3.000 COLORADO N
R iver
6,000 Missouri River ATLANTIC
an
DESERT io
S Oh 20
hi
5,000 Tr
ac
C a li f
pi
Parana op
G u lfo r n ia
So Cape Hatteras
al
Miss issip
ic
R
Mackenzie 20
Francisco
pp
of
io
4,000
Sie
Ca
G
A
of
nc
ra
Yukon
3,000 er OCEAN of Ca
nc er
nd
rra
FLORIDA
T r o p ic
e
2,000 PENINSULA
Ma
Cape Gu lf
San Lucas of Me xic o BAHAMAS 20
dr
1,000
ISLANDS
e
Pico de Orizaba
0 5.700 Cuba
YUCATAN GREA Hispaniola LESSER ANTILLES
TE
Popocatepetl
PENINSULA ANTILL R Islands
Highest mountains 5,452 Sie
rra
ES Antigua and Barbuda
Jamaica Puerto
(metres) M ad Rico Guadaloupe
Aconcagua Huascaran Chimborazo
re Dominica
de
lS Caribbean Sea Martinique
u Grenada Island
r Lake
Ojos del Salado Nevado McKinley Trinidad and Tobago Islands
7,000 del Illimani Panama Maracaibo er
ver
Canal Riv o
6,000
oc
a Ri
Cape Orange
n
5,000 Guiana
Ori
alen
Highlands
4,000 COLUMBUS ARCHIPELAGO
gd
0 Eq ua to r (Galapagos Islands) Eq ua tor 0

Ma
3,000
Chimborazo r
2,000
6,310 Amazon Rive
1,000 iv e r
a on R
0 Marias Point ar Amazon Plains Cape So
M
Roque
R i ve
Huascaran o r
6,768 c
cis
MATO GROSSO
ran
N PLATEAU
A
Activity D Lake
o F
ES
Titicaca Bolivian
S
Altiplano
r
6,682
PACIFIC
ve
6,520 Nevado
1. Write the mountain
Ri
Sajama Illimani
na
20
ranges, plains and Gu lf
ra
Pa
R ive r
of Ar ica Iguazu
Cape
plateaus of the o f C a p ri
co rn Falls
So Tome
ATACA MA DESERT
T ro p ic e r
ay
6,880 iv
American continent. 20
R
agu
Ojos del
OCEAN
y
Salado
U r ug ua
Par
6,959
Mountain ranges Aconcagua
MO U N T A I N S
River Plate
PAMPAS
40
Plains
P AT A G O N I A
ALTITUDE metres
1,500 FALKLAND
ISLANDS
1,000
TIERRA DEL FUEGO
500
Plateaus 40 a it
of Cape Horn
SCALE S t r e ll a n
200 Mag
0 1,532 3,064
0
Kilometres 60
100 80 60 40
68
Relief
America has a high average altitude. The main physical
features are mountain ranges, plains and plateaus.
Mountain ranges. The youngest, highest mountains
run down the Pacific coast. The Rocky Mountains
are the highest mountain range in North America.
The Andes are the highest in South America.
Older, lower mountains, such as the Appalachians,
are found in the East.
Plains. The Great Plains of North America are close
to the mountain ranges and rivers, such as the
Mississippi. The Amazon River runs through the Bison on the plains of North America
largest plain in South America.
cle
Plateaus. The highest plateau is the Altiplano
C ir
t ic
c
of Bolivia. Ar
The Antilles archipelago is found in the Caribbean

Sea in Central America.
Rivers and lakes

Tr
op
ic ATLANTIC
America has some very long rivers with large flows. of
Ca
nc
er
Both the Mississippi in North America and the Amazon OCEAN
in South America are very long. The Amazon is the
river with the largest flow in the world.
PACIFIC
There are many lakes, especially in North America.
The Great Lakes are a group of big lakes between OCEAN
Equa tor 0
Canada and the United States. Lake Titicaca in South HOT CLIMATES
America is the highest lake in the world. Equatorial

Humid tropical
Dry tropical
Climate and vegetation Desert
rn
of C ap r ico
TEMPERATE CLIMATES T ro p ic
America stretches from pole to pole, so it has all Oceanic
the different climates and landscapes. Cold and Continental
temperate climates predominate in North America. Mediterranean

and similar
COLD CLIMATES
Tropical climates predominate in Central America. Polar
Hot and temperate climates predominate in South Mountain
America. However, in all three regions, mountainous

areas have cold climates. American climates
Activity
1. Study the map and answer the questions. d. Are there deserts in America? Where?
a. Are there any islands in the Pacific Ocean? e. What is the climate like in most of Canada?
b. Where in America are there cold climates? f. Are there any areas in America with
c. What parts of America have temperate climates? a Mediterranean type of climate?
69
Activities
1. Memorizing information 1
Here are some tricks to help you memorize Use initials to make words. For example,
information. Use the ones that work best for you. the Great Lakes are HOMES (Huron, Ontario,
If you have other tricks, share them with your Michigan, Erie, Superior).
teacher and your classmates. Study names systematically. For example,
Look carefully at maps to create an image of the learn the names of mountains with mountain
continents in your mind. ranges, such as Mount Everest in the
Memorize the boundaries of territories by making Himalayas.
a diagram like this one. Remember names in a particular order,
such as mountains by height, rivers by length
and lakes from north to south.
N
Invent a trip through all the places you have to

W E
learn. For example, Im going on a trip to Asia.
S First, Im going to
If you find something very difficult to
remember, write it on a piece of paper.
Associate names with something you already
Keep it in your room, and look at it every day.
know. For example, learn the capitals of Europe
by thinking of football teams, such as Arsenal But dont forget: the best way to remember
and Chelsea in London. something is to understand it properly!
Now try this!

a. What continent are we referring to?
It looks like two triangles joined by a line.
It looks like an upside-down triangle.
b. Remember the boundaries of the continents.
Make a diagram which shows the boundaries of Oceania,
America, Asia and Africa.
Make a card with the boundaries of Antarctica.
c. Look for the following information.
Organize it systematically.
New Zealand and

Australia
New Guinea
Relief
Rivers
Climates
d. Invention.
Plan a trip along African rivers.
Invent a story to remember the relief and rivers of America.
e. Describe the distribution of the climates of America. Relate them to their latitude.
70
2. Completing blank maps
Completing maps will help you to remember
the names of places and their location.
a. Make a physical map of Asia.
Trace a blank map of Asia.
Decide the places you need to
include in relation to relief and water.
Look at the texts and the maps in this
unit again. For example, you should
include the Himalayas, Mount Everest,
the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus
Mountains, the Tibetan plateau,
the seas and oceans surrounding
the continent, the most important
rivers and the main archipelagos,
gulfs and peninsulas.
Write the key.
Colour the map and write the names
in the correct place.
b. Compare maps in an atlas.

Consult an atlas to compare the physical
map of America with its political map.
It is easier to compare maps if they
have the same scale. If this is not
the case, make an enlarged or reduced
photocopy of the political map
until it is at the same scale as the
physical map.
Place a piece of tracing paper over
the political map of America.
Draw the outlines of the countries
and write their names.
Place the political map you have
made on tracing paper on top of the
physical map.
c. Now answer the questions.
Which countries do the Andes
go through?
Which countries do the Rocky Mountains go through?
Which countries does the Amazon River go through?
Which countries are on the equator?
Web task 6: Natural wonders.
What country is next to Greenland?
Which American countries are not on a coast?
Which countries are on the Gulf of Mexico?
71
UNIT
7 Europe and Spain

Observe and think
Where is this volcano? What causes volcanoes?
Do you know the names of any other Can you think of any other physical
volcanoes in Europe? features of Europe?
Mount Etna

In this unit, you will: Reporting facts; location:
Learn about the physical features and The continental climate is found in the centre and
climates of Europe The polar climate is found in the north of
Learn about the physical features and Describing places:
climates of Spain The vegetation is mainly shrubs and evergreen
Identify places on a map of Spain forests.
Interpret maps of rivers The landscape consists mainly of tundra and taiga.
Write a short report on tourism Giving examples:
Organise information in tables and graphs There are trees such as oak, beech and chestnut.
The younger mountain ranges, such as the Alps,
the Pyrenees,
72
1. What is Europes relief like?
Relief 10
Europe is a small continent with an area of only are very fertile, as some of the major rivers
105 million km2. It is separated from Asia by the flow through them.
Caucasus and Ural Mountains, the Ural River and The older mountain ranges, such as the Kjolen
the Caspian Sea. and the Ural Mountains, are in the north
Most of Europe has a low relief. A very large central and east of Europe.
plain is surrounded by mountainous regions. The younger mountain ranges, such as the
Great plains cover the centre and east of Alps, the Pyrenees and the Balkans, form
Europe, from France to Russia. These areas an arch along the Mediterranean coast.
40 Ar 20 0 20 40 60 80
AR

60
cti CTI North Cape
SCALE cC C
60
0 320 640 ir cle Barents

O CE A N

Sea P U
ec
Ri
dian
Kilometres KOLA ver
ho
R
S
ra
PENINSULA
Meri
A
Cape
IN
Reykjanes
L
Prime
Riv
TA
Iceland er
M
Dv
ina
O
N
ALTITUDE metres Norwegian

U
U
Sea ia
O
thn
Lake
N
2,000
M
Onega
o
T
fB
1,000 Lake
Finnish
A
N
lf o
Galdhopiggen Ladoga
500 Plateau
E
I
2,469
Gu
L
N
JO
0
nd River
S
S SCANDINAVIAN in la
of F Lake
K
Depression E G u lf Vo
PENINSULA Peipus
L
lg l
Ura
IS
va a 50
Sea
50
Lake NORTH er
H
ga
Vane rn Riv
v
IS
Ri
North er
au
EUROPEAN PLAIN
IT
tic
JUTLAND D
R
GREAT Sea
al
B
PENINSULA B
IRELAND BRITAIN
Riv
Riv
Ri er
R i v er
Riv v er
Vi Don
l
Th
am er
Riv
ne
er
er CASPIAN
an
es h
st
Riv
Od DEPRESSION
El
hC Dn
ula
Englis
be
iep
ATLANTIC
er
er
er
Saint-Mathieu
iv
Rhine
R
Point er River D
RPATH
R i v er Loi C A U NT A I A N ni
e Caspian
Se
OCEAN O I NS
re
M Sea
st
ine
S r Elbrus
CRIMEAN
e
P 5,642
40 one L PENINSULA 0
Cape Bay
C A U C A S U S 4
Rh
Central A
Finisterre Bis of Massif Rive Riv Moldoveanu
cay 2,543
r Po er
R iv e r
Mont Blanc
Ri 4,807 A P D e Black Sea
ve Aneto EN A in Danub
r YR a
P E
3,404 N dr ri
EN IN c
EES ia BALKANS
ti
b
ES
A
ro
R iv er c
lp
Tajo Corsica
ITALIAN S e
s
IBERIAN PENINSULA a A S I A
Mount Olympus
Cape PENINSULA Sardinia Tyrrhenian 2,911
So Vicente BALEARIC Sea BALKAN
Mulhacn ISLANDS PENINSULA Longest rivers
3,478 Sicily Etna
Gibra
ltar M e d i t e 3,340 Ionian Aegean (km)
t of r r Sea Sea Danube
S trai 4,000
a n Cape Matapan 3.000
3,000
Volga Dnieper
e a Crete
CANARY ISLANDS
Malta n S 2,000
Ural
Teide A F R I C A e a Don
Rhine
3,718 1,000
0
0 20
Physical map of Europe
Activity Mountain Mountain

Seas Oceans Plains Peninsulas
ranges peaks
1. Study the map and complete the table with
some examples for Europe.
73
2. What are Europes rivers like?
Rivers
There are many rivers in Europe.
They are important for water supply,
transport and the production of electricity.
The Volga is the longest river in Europe.
It also has the largest flow. A number of canals
link it to other bodies of water. Seventy The Volga
of its numerous tributaries are navigable.
It is Russias main river transport route.
The Rhine is one of the most important trade
routes in the world. The Rhine starts in the
Swiss Alps and flows into the North Sea.
Canals link the Rhine to other major The Rhine
European rivers.
The Danube starts in the Black Forest region
of Germany. It flows into the sea on the
Romanian coast of the Black Sea, where
it forms a delta. It runs through several
European capitals. The Danube
Activities
1. Investigate.
Look for information and complete the table.
River The Volga The Rhine The Danube

Length (km)
Countries it flows
through
Important cities it runs
through
Source
Mouth
Number of tributaries
a. Why were these rivers important in the development of trade in Europe?

b. Are there disadvantages in using these rivers as transport routes?
c. What forms of transport have largely replaced river transport?
2. What river is it?

Write a short description of a river similar to those above.
Read your description to your classmates. Who can guess the name of the river?
74
3. What are Europes climates like?
TEMPERATE CLIMATES
Oceanic
Continental
Mediterranean
COLD CLIMATES
Polar
Mountain North
SUBTROPICAL CIMATE Sea
Subtropical
(Canary Islands)
Ca
A. Tundra sp E. Mountain
ia
n landscape
Se
ATLANTIC Black Sea
a
OCEAN
Mediterranean Sea
European climates
B. Deciduous forest
C. Steppes D. Mediterranean
landscape
Climate and landscape in Europe 11
Most of Europe has a temperate climate:
The oceanic (or maritime) climate is typical of
the Atlantic side of the continent. The vegetation Cold climates are found in polar regions and areas
consists mainly of moors and deciduous forests. with high mountains:
There are trees such as oak, beech and chestnut. The polar climate is found in the north
The Mediterranean climate is found along the of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Russia. The
Mediterranean coast. The vegetation is mainly landscape consists mainly of tundra and taiga.
shrubs and evergreen forests. There are trees The alpine (or high mountain) climate
such as pine, holm oak and cork oak. is found on the highest peaks of European
The continental climate is found in the centre mountain ranges, such as the Alps.
and east of Europe. The landscape is formed by The landscape is forests, pastures
prairies and steppes. and prairies.
Activities
1. Look at the climate map. 3. Draw a simple map.
Where in Europe do we find landscapes Show the location of four important mountain
like those shown in the photos? ranges in Europe. What are their climates like?
2. Compare.
Which climate is drier, the oceanic
or the continental? Why?
75
4. What is Spains relief like?
Spains relief
Spain occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, the
Balearic and Canary archipelagos, the cities of Ceuta and Activity
Melilla and several islands off the North African coast. 1. Answer these questions.
Spain is one of the largest countries in Europe, a. Name the oceans and seas around Spain.
with an area of 505,000 km2. It is also one of b. Name the mountain ranges of Spain.
the highest countries. Its average altitude c. How much of the peninsula is a plateau?
of 660 m is double the European average. d. What are the seven most important
The Iberian Peninsula is dominated by a large central mountains in Spain?
plateau. There are eleven mountain ranges in
peninsular Spain.
Physical map of Spain
10 Cape Ortegal Estaca de Bares 6 4 2 0 2 4
Point Cape Cantabrian Sea Bay
SCALE Peas Cape Cape of
0 70 140 F Torre de
Ajo Matxitxako
Biscay
F R A N C E
I
SS
Kilometres Cerredo
MA
2,648 BASQUE
Cape Pe aks o f Eu r o p a P Y Gulf
CANT
AN
Finisterre ABRIAN MOUNTAINS R E of

RANGE N E E S
Len
CI
S
IN
Monte ANDORRA
LA
A Perdido Aneto
T N Cape
GA
N O 3,355 3,404
42 O
U LE Teleno anda
Creus
M
OF 2,188 Northern D e mn t a i n s Gulf 42
Cabeza de u Mo Mo Tur
Mo un nc of
Manzaneda t de l'Home Roses
Urbin
ay ins
1,778 E 1,706 IN
a
I BM o u n t a i n s R
B
o
O A
Sub-plateau ER Montserrat CH
IA Moncayo D 1,236
L
N E
A
2,313 P T
M R AS
ATLANTIC CENTRAL IN O
U
ES
SIO CO
A N N A
N
CH
L
L
T
OCEAN N M Al T
A
A I ns
A
A
o
ba nta
i
I Nr a c s
ns
C
s
NT ta
A
n i Cape Tortosa
nta
u
ai un
r in
nt ou U a Mo
CH
ou s M M Orram o
n
M daed Menorca
ta G r A L Gu a
G
AI
40 Ga R Pico PLATEAU C 40
NT Mo ue n c
N
CE
del Moro un Ja Puig Major
Almanzor ta a Movala na
in 1,445 ta n s
U
s un m b r
2,592 tai e u n ai
ns m nt
M O UN TA
IN S O Southern r
T oa
M
u Mallorca
F TO Gulf
LED
T
O of
Valencia Ibiza
Sub-plateau Cabrera
R
BALEARIC ISLANDS
Cape Nao
N A
O
Formentera
R E Bauelas
M O
38 A 1,323
R R
E
P
38
G
I E N
S A
N R
IO
SS C
R DE
P RE
T
I I N Cape Mediterranean
VI A
Prime Meridi an
E Palos
I
B
B H
QU
S U C Sea
E
G
Mulhacn
AL
Cape C
N
So Vicente I 3,478
AD
Gulf of Cdiz T A
B E N I B E T I C R
GU
P E
Cape Gata
Gulf
of
36 Almera
Tarifa Point
Most important mountains
altar
o f Gi b r (metres)
S t r a it
Ceuta
18 16 Alegranza Alborn Sea Mulhacn
Teide Torre
ATLANTIC OCEAN La Graciosa de Cerredo
Aneto Moncayo
La Palma Lanzarote Melilla 4,000
CANARY ISLANDS
ALTITUDE metres
Almanzor
3,000
Teide Fuerteventura 2,000
3,718 Puig
Tenerife 1,000 Major
2,000
28 28
500
La Gomera 1,000
Gran 200
El Hierro Canaria 0
18 16 14 0
0 2
76
5. What are Spains rivers like?
Rivers
Activities
Spanish rivers are generally short with small,
irregular flows. Their flows mainly depend on rainfall, 1. Look at the map on this page.
and they increase in spring when the snow melts. a. Look at the three colours. What are
The rivers which flow into the Cantabrian Sea watersheds?
are short and steep. Their flow is large because they run b. Which rivers flow into the Atlantic
through mountains with abundant rainfall. Ocean?
c. Which rivers flow into the
The rivers which flow into the Atlantic Ocean have
Cantabrian Sea?
large flows. Their tributaries are in mountains with
d. List the tributaries of the River
abundant rainfall.
Ebro.
Many Mediterranean rivers are short with small flows
e. List the tributaries of the River
because there is little rainfall. However, the River Ebro
Tajo.
is the longest river in Spain and has the largest flow.
Many of its tributaries begin in the Pyrenees, 2. Investigate.
where there is abundant rainfall. What are the main reservoirs
There are very few rivers in the Balearic and in your region?
Canary Islands.
WATERSHEDS C a nt a b r i a n S e a 3.676
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via
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700
CANARY ISLANDS 600
500 Jcar
400
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SCALE 200
Navia
0 90 100
0
Kilometres
Spanish rivers, lakes and reservoirs
77
6. What is Spains climate like?
Cape Vidio, Asturias
Climate
Spain has a temperate climate. However, its climate Did you know?
and landscapes vary from one region to another.
There are three main types:
The Mediterranean climate is found in the
Balearic Islands, and in the south and east of the
peninsula. It is also found in some inland areas.
There is little rainfall and it is irregular.
Temperatures vary:
On the coast, temperatures are mild because In 2003, maximum temperatures
of the influence of the sea. of over 45 C were recorded in
On the central plateau, temperatures are very Jerez de la Frontera and in Badajoz.
hot or very cold. The lowest temperature recorded
The Atlantic climate is found in the north and in Spain was 32 C at Lake
north-west of the peninsula. Atlantic winds influence Estangento in Lleida in 1956.
the climate. Temperatures are mild, and there is The highest annual rainfall, 4,346 mm,
rainfall throughout the year. was recorded in the Grazalema
The subtropical climate is found in the mountains in the province of Cdiz
Canary Islands. The climate is stable throughout in 1963.
the year. In 1998, the annual rainfall at Cape
In all of these regions, the climate and vegetation Gata, Almera was only 37 mm.
change in mountain areas as altitude increases.
78
Oceanic landscape
Oceanic landscapes are
green. The vegetation
consists of deciduous
Alpine landscape
forests, such as beech and
Vegetation changes with
oak, moors and pastures.
altitude. Trees are replaced
by low bushes and
meadows.
Principality
of Asturias Cantabria Basque Climates in Spain
Galicia Country
Community
of
Navarra
Activities La Rioja
1. Study the map and answer Castilla y Len

Aragn
these questions. Catalua
a. Which are the wettest Community

regions? Why? of
Madrid
b. How many different types
of Mediterranean climate
Valencian
are found in Spain? Why Castilla-La Mancha Community
Extremadura
are they different from Balearic
each other? Islands
2. What are the climate and Region

of
landscape like in your region? Murcia
Andaluca
Write a short description. CLIMATES
Subtropical
Alpine
Atlantic
Mediterranean
Canary Islands Typical
Continental
Very dry continental
Ceuta Melilla Dry
Canary landscape
Date palms and pine trees
are found on the Canary
Islands.
Mediterranean landscape
Olive trees, holm oaks and
pine forests are found in the
Mediterranean area.
79
Activities
1. Play an alphabet game.
Play this game with your classmates. You can use an atlas.
a. Divide into teams. Each team creates a table with headings for Seas, Oceans,
Mountain ranges, Plains, Mountain peaks and Peninsulas.
b. One of you is the teacher. He or she calls out a letter of the alphabet.
Try to find as many examples as you can beginning with, or containing, that letter.
For example:
Sea Ocean Mountain range Plain Mountain peak Peninsula

A Aegean Atlantic
c. Each team gets as many points as the number of correct answers

they have found in thirty seconds.
2. Study the map of Europe on page 73. Then use these words to fill in the spaces.
Kjolen mountainous North European
Pyrenees Apennines flatter
Alps Carpathian Greece
The south of Europe is . The Iberian Peninsula

is dominated by plateaus and mountain ranges which include the
. The Italian Peninsula has the
running down the middle of it, while it is separated from northern
Europe by the . The Balkans and
are shaped by the Dinaric Alps. To the north-east of these
are the Mountains. Further north, Europe is much
. Plains cover much of Europe from western France
to the Ural Mountains including the
Plain. This continues into the far north until it reaches
the Mountains.
3. Identify these places on the map of Spain on page 76.

a. Two mountain ranges which cross the plateau. Web task 7: European coastlines.
b. Five mountain ranges which surround the plateau.
c. Three mountain ranges which are outside the plateau.
d. Two depressions which are crossed by major rivers.
80
4. Find information about Spanish rivers.
Copy this table in your notebook. List the nine longest rivers in Spain, and add the additional information.
River (starting with

Length Flows into
the longest)
Tajo 1000 km Atlantic
5. Make a card like the one below and add information.

Spain
Boundaries:
Relief:
Coasts:
Islands and archipelagos:
Main rivers:
Types of climate:
Vegetation:
6. Investigate and write a short report on

tourism in the Canary Islands.
Think about the following questions.
a. What makes the Canary Islands attractive
to tourists? (Think about the climate, the
landscape, or the beaches.)
b. In what ways is tourism important to these
islands?
c. What impact does tourism have on the
environment?
d. Do you think tourism should continue to be
developed? (Give reasons for your answer.)
e. How can we make tourism better for
the Spanish environment?
81
UNIT
8 Prehistory
Observe and think
Each photo shows different evidence of prehistoric people.
What does the first photo show? Did people walk on two or four legs?
How many people were walking? How old were they?
What are the two objects made of? How were they made?
What is the chronological order of these photos?

In this unit, you will: Giving historical recounts:
Learn about Prehistory Their brain was bigger.
Find out about early human beings They hunted mammoths.
Distinguish how people lived in the Giving historical explanations:

Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Metal Ages That is why they had different rites.
Paint like a caveman Giving historical arguments:
Interpret a historical map It may mean that the first European
Understand the importance of Atapuerca
82
1. What is Prehistory?
Prehistory 12
Prehistory extends from the emergence of our
first ancestors, about five million years ago,
to the invention of writing, about 5,000 years ago.
There were no written texts during this period.
Prehistory is divided into three periods:
The Palaeolithic Age extends from the
appearance of our first ancestors to about
11,000 years ago. Human beings lived from
hunting and gathering.
The Neolithic Age began about 11,000 years
ago. Groups of human beings started to live
in villages. They practised agriculture
and raised cattle.
The Metal Ages began about 7,000 years ago.
Human beings learned to use metals to make
objects. Cave paintings at Cogul, Lleida
Did you know?

Prehistory is the longest period in human
Prehistory history. If we compare it with a day,
History Prehistory would last 23 hours and almost
59 minutes. The rest of History would only
last one minute and thirty seconds.
Activities
1. Unjumble these expressions of time.
a. HEIOLTICNGEA
b. ALPOIILCGAHTEAE
c. LTMEAGEAS
2. Complete this text.

a. The Palaeolithic Age started years ago.
b. The Age started years ago.
c. The Ages started years ago. Web task 8: Human evolution.
83
2. What were early human beings like? 13
Homo habilis
These appeared two million
years ago. Their brain was
bigger. Their name habilis
means skilful. They made
stone tools and lived from
hunting and gathering.
Australopithecus
These appeared about five
million years ago. They were
very similar to chimpanzees.
However, the Australopithecus
normally walked on two feet.
The evolution of human beings

Homo
Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo antecessor Neanderthal sapiens
5,000,000 years 2,000,000 years 1,500,000 years 800,000 years 150,000 years 130,000 years
Neanderthal man
Homo erectus
These appeared one and
a half million years ago.
They walked upright. The first Europeans
This was the first The oldest human remains
species to live outside in Europe appeared in
Africa. They lived in Atapuerca, Spain. They are
Europe and Asia. They 800,000 years old and their
discovered fire. name is Homo antecessor.
Neanderthals were a
different species who lived
in Europe 150,000 years
ago. They were stronger
than we are but shorter.
They were the first species
to bury their dead.
It seems they were able
to speak.
84
Atapuerca
Atapuerca is one of the most interesting and beautiful sites
relating to human evolution. This archaeological site is near
Burgos in the north of Spain. It was found accidentally, in the
nineteenth century, when a trench for a mining train was being
built. However, the most important discoveries have been made
very recently.
Year after year, there are new discoveries in Atapuerca.
Thanks to this site, we know that there was a European human
being called Homo antecessor who lived about 800,000 years
ago. Archaeologists have also found a complete pelvis, which
they called Elvis.
Excalibur was also found in Atapuerca. It is not King Arthurs
Archaeological excavations, Atapuerca sword. It is an extraordinary biface of beautiful red quartzite.
It was found with thirty-three human skeletons. Was it
a funeral offering?
In June 2007, a 1.2 million years old tooth was found.
This was an important discovery. It may mean that the first
European was not a Homo antecessor but an older relative.
Atapuerca has proved to be an exciting excavation which will
surprise us year after year.
Activities
1. Explain the meaning of these Latin words.
a. homo b. habilis c. erectus d. sapiens
2. Copy this table in your notebook and complete it.
Species Main characteristics

Australopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo antecessor
Neanderthal
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens
Our species appeared in Africa 3. Answer these questions.
about 130,000 years ago. Homo a. Where is Atapuerca?
sapiens were slimmer but taller b. What archaeological remains have been found
than Neanderthals. They enjoyed in the excavations?
greater intellectual development. c. Why do you think the site is so important?
They were able to make finer
tools. They developed a more 4. Think.
complex language, the ability Is the text on Atapuerca different from other texts in this book?
to interact with other human What does the author think about Atapuerca?
beings and to cooperate. They What words support your answer?
also created art.
85
3. How did people live in the Palaeolithic Age?
Life in a cave
Many activities were carried out in the open air during
daytime. Cave entrances were covered by stones and
branches for protection against the cold and rain.
Life in the Palaeolithic Age

The first human beings lived from hunting, fishing
and gathering wild fruit. They hunted mammoths,
bears, elephants, deer, bison and other animals.
They used their meat for food and their skins for clothes.
A stone instrument for hunting
They were nomadic: they did not live in a fixed place.
They followed the animals they hunted, and searched
for places where water, food and shelter were available.
They lived outdoors, in caves, or in wood huts. Activity
They were organised in small tribes, made up of
members of the same family.
a. How did humans spend their
Palaeolithic means Stone Age. Men and women time during the Palaeolithic Age?
made tools and objects of stone. They used them b. Why is fire one of the most
to hunt and cut animals skins and meat. important discoveries in the
Fire was discovered about half a million years ago. history of humanity?
It was an extremely important discovery. c. How did people make their stone
Early human beings used fire to heat their caves, tools?
cook food and drive wild animals away.
86
Did you know?
Mammoths are the ancestors of

spear elephants. They became extinct
pit trap a million years ago. Why did this
happen? Scientists used to think
it was due to climate change:
the weather became hotter and
mammoths could not adapt.
bolas
However, other scientists have
discovered that mammoths
disappeared gradually, as the
land became populated by
humans. Was the extinction of
Mammoth hunting mammoths caused by hunting?
Rites and beliefs

Our ancestors believed in supernatural forces which helped them in hunting
or when giving birth. They also thought these divinities caused disease and death.
That is why they had different rites to ask these divinities for help.
They buried the dead, but it is not clear why. It could be to remember them,
or because they believed in an afterlife. They also buried weapons, jewellery,
and food with the bodies.
Activities
1. Think.
Did humans have an impact on
the environment during the
Palaeolithic Age?
2. Investigate.
Look for information on other
species which have become
extinct like mammoths. There is
information at www.bluelion.org
Why has this happened?
A prehistoric burial Is it still happening today?
Valuable objects were buried next to the bodies.
87
4. What was Palaeolithic art like?
Art
About 35,000 years ago, human beings started decorating
caves with paintings. This type of art is called cave art.
It shows that our ancestors had an artistic sensibility.
Perhaps the paintings also had a ritual meaning.
Palaeolithic art had the following characteristics:
Animals, such as deer, bison, horses and mammoths,
were often represented. scaffolding
The paintings were realistic. The relief surface
of the cave was used to give them volume.
Several colours were used.
Minerals were mixed with egg white to make
the colours. Animal hair was used to make brushes. torch
The most famous Palaeolithic paintings were found

in Altamira, in the north of Spain, and Lascaux, preparing
the paint
in the south of France. They are among the most
admired works of art ever created.
Painting in the Altamira caves

A painting of a deer in a cave, Huesca
88
Activities
1. Paint like a caveman!
a. Study the painting.
Is there an outline? What colour is it? Is there a lot
of detail? Does it show volume?
b. Design your own painting. Think like a caveman.
Painting materials: they only used natural materials.
So use red, brown, yellow and black.
Containers: they used skin pouches, shells, bones,
but you can use any plastic container.
Brushes: make a brush like a cavemans brush A painting in the Altamira caves
using feathers, twigs or hair attached to a stick.
Where does the painting go? The best place is a wall. Ask if it is allowed!
What to paint. Look at other cave paintings.
What about hand and foot prints and silhouettes?
2. Investigate.
Find out about the caves at Gargas in France or El Castillo in Puente Viesgo, Spain
using Internet or other sources. What are the possible meanings of the hand prints?
3. Make index cards.

PALAEOLITHIC AGE
Index cards are a good way to store information about a topic.
They can also include some photographs or pictures which give Chronology (beginning and end):
essential information. Index cards are made of cardboard.
They are stored in some kind of file or box. Meaning of the name:
Main features:
a. Use these cards to summarize the essential features of life
in the Palaeolithic Age.
b. Make a new index card on Palaeolithic art. LIFESTYLE
c. Some professions use index cards to classify objects. Organization:
Look at the example below. Then make a card Housing:
to classify an object in this book. Clothes:
Beliefs:
HIERAPETRA IDOL (CRETE)

Period: Neolithic
Material: Clay
Shape: A female human figure
Decoration: Lines
Technique: Handmade
Function: To gain the favour of divinities
in order to improve the fertility of land
and animals.
Present meaning: It is a valuable object
providing information about ancient beliefs.
89
5. How did people live in the Neolithic Age?
palisade animal pen
farmland
oven
A Neolithic village
storehouse clay and straw hut
The Neolithic revolution Cereals were cultivated:

Neolithic means new stone. Wheat was cultivated in the Middle East
However, it was not just the technology and Europe.
of stone instruments which was new. Rice was cultivated in Asia.
There were other important changes.
Corn was cultivated in America.
In Palaeolithic times, people relied on hunting
In this period, goats, sheep, oxen, horses and
and gathering, and had no food in winter.
dogs were domesticated.
In the Neolithic Age, human beings learned how
Animal raising and agriculture made it possible
to domesticate animals and cultivate plants.
for people to settle in a particular area. When
The discovery of agriculture took place about they had enough food, they started to store it.
11,000 years ago. Human beings observed that They became sedentary and built villages,
plants grew when seeds fell on the ground. generally located near rivers. This series of
This is how agriculture started. changes is called the Neolithic revolution.
90
Life in the Neolithic Age Neolithic pottery
Most villages were next to rivers and encircled by a fence

which protected them from animals and other human beings.
They had animal pens for the animals and storehouses
for grain.
There were three important technical changes during
this age:
They started using polished stone to make utensils:
hoes, sickles, hand mills.
They started making textiles using thread or wool
from their animals.
They invented pottery. They used clay vessels Soft clay was modelled by hand.
to store cereal and bowls to eat and cook.
Work became specialised in the villages.
Some people worked the land, other people raised cattle,
and the rest were artisans.
Pots were fired in fireplaces.
A reconstruction
of a Neolithic sickle
It was made of wood
and small polished
pieces of stone.
A hand mill
It was used to grind
grain by hand. A pot
Activities
1. Describe. 2. Answer these questions.
Look at the picture of a Neolithic village for a. How was the Neolithic way of life different from
a couple of minutes. Then close your book the Palaeolithic way of life?
and tell your partner what you remember: b. What factors caused these changes?
They had Storehouses were
91
6. How did people live in the Metal Ages?
Inventions
About 7,000 years ago, human
beings began to make metal
objects. This marks the beginning
of the Metal Ages. The first metal
they used was copper, but it was
not very strong. Later, they used
bronze and iron to make tools,
A torc
weapons, and jewellery.
(necklace)
There were three important
inventions:
The wheel, which greatly
improved transport.
The sail, which meant
that ships could be bigger
because they used the force
of the wind.
A fibula
The plough, which made (brooch)
working the land easier
and faster.
Weaving on a loom
Activity
1. Study the pictures of metal
working techniques.
First order the pictures.
Then match the texts with 1. Then, they used a forge.
the correct pictures. They heated the metal
B
while they hammered it.
2. Originally, they used
a hammer on stone to shape
copper.
A
3. Later, they discovered
smelting. The metal became
liquid and could be given any
shape. This allowed them
to mix different metals.
C
(Bronze is a mixture of tin
and copper.)
92
Changes in society
The use of metal objects was a sign of great
progress, and caused many changes. Activity
The search for metals to make tools created new 1. Look at the photos on this page.
trade routes. Trade produced wealth, and villages a. What was the purpose of each object?
turned into cities. These cities were surrounded b. If objects A and B were found in a tomb,
by walls and had buildings such as shops and what would this tell us about the occupation
workshops as well as houses. of the dead person?
New professions, such as traders, priests and
warriors, also appeared. Wealth was divided
unequally, and social divisions were created.
A
B
Gold helmet Knives
Did you know?

Tin, a metal needed to create bronze, was brought
to the Mediterranean from Britain.
Sitting feminine figure
93
7. What were Megalithic monuments?
Megalithic monuments
In the last years of the Neolithic Age, and during
the Metal Ages, monuments were built with big
blocks of stone. These were called megaliths.
The main monuments were the following:
Menhirs were single, long, vertical stones. They
were probably connected to the cult of the Sun.
Dolmens were more complex constructions.
Vertical stones formed walls which were
covered by horizontal blocks. They were used
as burial places.
Menhir
Stone circles were wide circles formed by
several menhirs. They probably had a religious
function.
In Spain, there are many megalithic monuments
in the west, in Andalusia and in the Balearic
Islands.
Stonehenge
The ruins at Stonehenge are the remains of a
stone circle.
Dolmen
The enormous stones which form the outside

circle weigh around 25 tons each. The stones
inside are even bigger. Archaeologists believe that
Stonehenge was built over 5,000 years ago, but
they do not agree about its function. Most people
think it is connected to the cult of the Sun.
However, it could also be an astrological
observatory. Stone circle
Activity
1. Investigate.
Look for information about the menhirs of Carnac or the dolmen of Menga.
Write a paragraph about them. Use the text on Stonehenge as an example.
94
Activities
1. Interpreting a historical map.
A historical map is a representation of a place at a moment or period in the past.
Its main elements are:
Dates: historical maps can show a particular moment or a period of time.
Geographical location: historical maps can show us the world, a continent, a country, or a region.
Title: this gives us information about the topic.
Map key: this shows us the symbols which are used and what they represent.
The Neolithic Age
4000 BC horses
and
camels
5000 BC
dogs pigs
ATLANTIC and 8000 BC pigs
cattle pigs
Tropic of Cance r and
oxen
and PACIFIC
OCEAN donkeys goats oxen
and
sheep OCEAN
4000 BC
PACIFIC
Equator
OCEAN 3000 BC INDIAN
llamas
OCEAN
Wheat production Tropic of Capricorn
Rice production
Corn production
Domestication
a. Think and answer these questions.

What topic is shown in this historical map?
What is the meaning of the different colours?
What does the symbol indicate? Did you know?
b. Look at the map and answer these questions.
Where did agriculture and farming first appear? Stones for megalithic monuments
were transported like this:
What areas did these activities cover?
How did life change in these areas?
Big stones were
2. Imagine you are an archaeologist who is studying pulled over wooden
the life of a prehistoric human being. rods.
a. How old are the remains you are studying?
b. Where have you carried out the excavations? Why?
c. What kind of tools have you found? Pulleys were used
What are they made of? to lift the stones
d. What will you do with the remains found in vertically.
your excavation?
95
UNIT
9 Early civilizations
Observe and think
What do you see in the photo
and the illustration?
Where would you find these
structures?
Can you imagine how they
were built?
What do you know about
the society which built them?

In this unit, you will: Reporting on length of time:
Learn about the first civilizations The Old Kingdom lasted around 1,000 years.
Find out about the social structure The Middle Kingdom lasted around 300 years.
of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt Describing artwork:
Understand the importance of the Mesopotamians built magnificent palaces.
River Nile The biggest tombs were spectacular pyramids.
Learn about the pharaohs
Giving historical explanations:
Analyse Egyptian art Writing made it possible to organize
Decipher hieroglyphics the state.
96
1. What were the first civilizations?
The invention of writing 14 the Indus River in India
Writing appeared in Mesopotamia over the Yellow (Huang He) and Blue (Yangtze)
5,000 years ago. This invention was so Rivers in China
important that it marks the end of Prehistory, In river civilizations:
and the beginning of History.
The king was the most powerful person.
As villages grew into towns, writing was He made laws, led the army and often had
a way of storing information about taxes, religious functions. The kings were served
trade and population. by civil servants, and they created large
The first civilizations armies.
Society was hierarchical: it was divided into
The first great civilizations appeared in
clearly differentiated groups. A minority of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China
privileged people owned most of the land
around 5,000 years ago.
and wealth, and had important posts in public
These river civilizations developed along large institutions. The majority of the population
rivers surrounded by fertile land. The rivers was much poorer.
were:
There were large-scale building works.
the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia The kings built palaces, temples, tombs
the Nile in Egypt and canals.
River civilizations
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Black Sea
Caspian
Huang 40
40
He River
Sea
Ti
gr
is
Eu
Ri
ph CHINA
ve
Mediterranean Sea ra
R i ver
te ver
r
s MESOP OTAMI A Ya n t z R i
R g e 30
iv
er
us
R INDIA
d
iv
In
EGYPT Ganges R
er
i v
Tropic of Cancer
er
N il e
Re
20 Arabian 20
d
Se
Sea
a
0 Egyptian civilization I N D I A N O C E A N Equator 0

Mesopotamian civilization
Indian civilization
Chinese civilization
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
97
2. What was Mesopotamian civilization like?
Mesopotamian civilization
Mesopotamia means between rivers, and
was the territory between the Rivers Tigris
and Euphrates. Mesopotamian civilization
was the first to use writing 5,000 years ago. Did you know?
Mesopotamia was a very dry area.
The Code of
However, irrigation canals allowed
Hammurabi is one of
agriculture to develop. Its geographical
the earliest law codes
situation made this a key region for trade
we know about. It was
between Asia Minor, the Mediterranean
engraved on a rock in
area and Syria.
Mesopotamia around
Cuneiform writing was essential. 1,800 BC. It is based on
It consisted of signs drawn on clay tablets the law of retaliation
with a reed. It is called cuneiform (an eye for an eye),
because the patterns look as if which established that
they were made by a wedge. the punishment should
(The Latin word is cuneus.) match the crime.
Writing made it possible to organize
Imagine that you break
the state, for example, by recording
a classmates pen.
how much grain there was.
What would your
Writing was also used to record
punishment be?
stories of important divinities
Do you agree with this
or heroes. This was the beginning
code?
of written literature.
Mesopotamia and its most important cities
HURRIAN Caspian
HITTITE Ti
gr
is
Sea
Ri
ve
Karkemish Dur Sharrukin
r
(Khorsabad)
Nineveh
up ASSYRIA KASSITE
E
hra Assur
t
es
Asmar
Ri
ve
r
Centre of Babylonian power MEDITERRANEAN Mari

Sidon GUTI
Babylonian Empire under
Hammurabi (18th century BC) Eshnunna
SEA Tyre
Territorial annexations under Kish
Ashurbanipal (669-627 BC) Babylon Nippur
Jerusalem
AMURRU Lagash
Susa
AKKAD
Rive
Uruk
Ur
Heliopolis Larsa
r N il e
Eridu
Memphis
Persian
Gulf
98
Activities
1. Look at the timeline. Match the texts to the correct period.
3,000 BC 2,330 BC 1,800 BC 1,356 BC 612 BC 539 BC
NEO-BABYLONIAN
EMPIRE
BABYLONIAN PERSIAN
SUMERIAN PERIOD AKKADIAN EMPIRE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE
EMPIRE CONQUEST
Timeline of Ancient Mesopotamia
a. In about 2,330 BC, Akkadian King Sargon I d. The city of Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi,
conquered Sumer and founded the Akkadian became dominant in about 1,800 BC.
Empire.
e. Between 1,356 and 612 BC, the Assyrians
b. The Chaldeans ruled during the Neo- dominated Mesopotamia. They created
Babylonian Empire. The most important king the Assyrian Empire. Ashurbanipal,
was Nebuchadnezzar II. their last great king, conquered many
territories.
c. The Sumerians were dominant in the third
millenium BC. Independent cities were ruled
by high priests in this period.

a. Do you remember what Mesopotamia means? Which part of this word means between,
and which part rivers? (The word hippopotamus can help.)
b. What were some important cities of Mesopotamia?
c. Which present-day countries are in the area where Mesopotamian civilization flourished?
3. Look up these words in a dictionary.

empire dynasty civilization
Write the definitions.
Are the meanings similar?
What is the difference?
4. Study the clay tablet.

Study this photograph of a clay tablet from
the Babylonian period with a classmate.
a. What are possible explanations for the empty space?
b. Do you think they wrote from left to right
or from right to left?
c. Are there lines?
d. What did they use to write on the tablet?
e. What do you think is written in this document?
f. Why has this document survived for thousands of years?
g. Why are all surviving documents so important?
Cuneiform writing on a clay tablet
99
3. What was Mesopotamian society like?
Mesopotamian society
Privileged groups had most of the wealth Part of the population was free, while slaves
and all the power: had no rights.
The aristocracy consisted of the kings family Peasants rented the lands around cities.
and the nobility. They owned most of the These lands belonged to the king or the temple.
land and occupied the highest government In exchange, peasants had to give them part of
positions. the harvest. They cultivated crops, such as barley,
Priests controlled religious rituals. wheat and beans. They used simple ploughs.
They owned some of the land and co-operated Craftsmen worked in workshops.
with the government. There were different types of craftsmen,
Civil servants, such as scribes, could read, such as weavers, carpenters, and jewellers.
write and count. Their tasks were registering Women were mens property. If they worked,
laws and commercial transactions. their salary was half of that of an adult man.
Noblemen covered themselves religious and military

with a cape and wore shoes. leader slaves
The Standard of Ur
This commemorates
a Mesopotamian
victory. The Standard
should be read from
right to left,
beginning at the
bottom.
four-wheel chariot defeated enemies Sumerian warriors covered their

heads with a leather or metal helmet.
Activities
1. Answer these questions. 2. Make a social pyramid.
a. What evidence does the Standard The groups with a high social position
of Ur give us about society are at the top. Those with low social
in Mesopotamia? positions are at the bottom.
b. What was the difference between Copy this pyramid and
a slave and a free person? complete it, using these
c. How do you think people became words: craftsmen and
slaves? peasants / civil servants /
d. Who belonged to the aristocracy? king and nobility /
slaves / priests
e. What did priests do?
100
4. What was Mesopotamian culture like?
Religion in Mesopotamia Mesopotamian art
Mesopotamians were polytheistic: they believed In Mesopotamia, both architecture and sculpture
in many gods. Their gods were similar to human were exceptional.
beings, and had the same passions. However, Architecture: Mesopotamians built magnificent
they were immortal. palaces such as Khorsabad, and monumental
Temples were the gods residences on Earth. Some gates, such as the Ishtar Gate. They invented
were built on stepped pyramids called ziggurats. the arch and the vault. Brick and adobe
(mud brick) were used for construction.
The first schools Sculpture: they made stone statues of kings,
The first schools were in Mesopotamia. Originally, gods, animals and bulls with human heads.
they specialised in training scribes. Later, scholars, Reliefs showed political and religious scenes.
scientists and theologians attended schools.
Only male children from rich families went to Activities
school. There was no education for girls.
1. Look at the ziggurat below.
Why is it said that a ziggurat is a staircase
between heaven and Earth?
2. Investigate and discuss.

What are the main differences between the first
Mesopotamian schools and schools nowadays?
3. Look these words up in a dictionary.
arch vault
Write the definitions.
Make a drawing to illustrate your definitions.
A lion (600 BC) from Babylon, Mesopotamia
sanctuary of the side stairways

Moon God Nanna
central stairway
Ziggurat of Ur
101
5. Why was the Nile crucial to Ancient Egypt?
25 30 35
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
LOWER EGYPT
Giza
30
Mem p h is
Saqqara
30
A RA BIA N
DES ER T
L I BY AN
RIVE R
DESERT
Amarna
N
IL
E
UPPER EGYPT R e d
Karnak
Valley of
the Kings Thebes
S e a
Luxor
25
Valley of
the Queens Edfu
25
First waterfall
25
LE
Tropic of Cancer
NI
High areas Oasis ER

IV
R
Depression Great temple
Abu Simbel
Fertile area Pyramid
Capital Tombs
35
30
Ancient Egypt
The Nile
Ancient Egypt is one of the most important
civilizations in History. It emerged more than
5,000 years ago, along the River Nile in
the north-east of Africa.
Ancient Egyptians lived near the River Nile,
because the land was fertile there. Each year, The River Nile was also the main means
water from the Nile rose and flooded the area. of communication. Sailing ships transported
When the water went back, it left mud which people and goods along the river.
made the fields fertile. Egyptian civilization would not have existed
The Egyptians built dams to hold back without the Nile. Egyptians knew how important
the water, and canals to carry water inland. it was: they had a god which represented the river.
102
6. Who were the pharaohs?
The pharaohs The vulture was The serpent was
The origins of Ancient Egypt date back the symbol for the symbol for
Upper Egypt. Lower Egypt.
to about 3,100 BC, when King Menna united
all the territories along the River Nile.
Egyptian civilization lasted about three thousand
years. Egypt was conquered by the Romans
in the first century BC.
The crook
Egyptians called their king a pharaoh. The Nemes symbolised
The pharaoh was all-powerful. He passed laws, was a protection.
ruled the country, owned most of the land, headdress
to show
controlled trade and led the armies. royal power.
Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were gods.
Nobody could look at the pharaoh in the eye
or touch his body. They also believed that the
pharaohs had magical powers. For example,
The whip A ceremonial
they thought that pharaohs could make the
symbolised beard marked
waters of the Nile rise. the pharaoh them as a
as a guide. divinity.
Activity
1. Research project
Use a computer to create a presentation of
A royal
Tutankhamens life. Try to answer each of these
sarcophagus
questions in your research project.
The pharaohs
Who was Tutankhamen? used ornaments
When and where did he live? as symbols of
Who discovered his tomb? royalty,
What was there in Tutankhamens treasure? power and
protection.
Why was this discovery so important?
Add some pictures to make your presentation
more interesting.
Pectoral
Sacred beetle
103
7. What was Ancient Egyptian society like?
The elite Merchants sold wood, minerals and
perfumes.
Noblemen, priests and scribes were a privileged
minority: Servants were free people who worked for
a salary.
The noblemen received land and treasures
from the pharaoh. They ruled the provinces. Slaves were war prisoners and had no rights.
They built monuments, worked in mines
The priests organized religious rituals.
or fought as soldiers.
They also owned land.
The scribes were able to read, write and count. The role of women
They were in charge of official documents.
Egyptian women had some rights and
The majority of the population more freedom than other women in Antiquity.
For example, they could inherit and
Most people lived in mud brick houses along own property, and they could also get
the Nile: divorced.
Peasants cultivated the lands belonging to the Most Egyptian women did house work, or worked
pharaohs, the priests or the noblemen. as peasants or servants. It was rare for women to
Craftsmen made sculptures and pottery. hold posts in the administration. However, some
They also made papyrus, a kind of paper, women, like Hatshepsut or Cleopatra, became
and linen, which was used to make clothes. pharaohs.
Painting showing peasants carrying

out different activities
Activities
1. Look at the painting and answer.
a. How many activities can you
identify in the painting?
b. Can you see any instruments?
c. Can you see a man with a whip?
What is he doing?
2. Investigate.
a. Why did scribes play an
important role in the society
of Ancient Egypt?
b. Which jobs could a peasant have
in Ancient Egypt?
c. Write a short description of how
people lived in Ancient Egypt.
The following website may help
you: www.ancientegypt.co.uk
104
8. How did Ancient Egypt change?
The chronology of the Kingdoms
There were three main periods in the history of Ancient Egypt:
The Old Kingdom lasted around 1,000 years. The basic
structure of society and the state were established.
The pharaoh was already a divine and powerful figure.
The capital city was Memphis. The Old Kingdom
collapsed around 2,200 BC.
The Middle Kingdom lasted about 400 years. In this period,
the power of the pharaohs increased. New cities were built,
and the capital was moved to Thebes. The country
expanded its frontiers to the south. A foreign invasion
brought this period to an end in 1,800 BC.
The New Kingdom started around 1,600 BC, and lasted
about 500 years. Some of the most famous pharaohs reigned
in this period: Thutmose I, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten,
Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. Egypt conquered Libya
and Syria. Large palaces and temples were built.
After the year 1,100 BC, Egypt was invaded by different foreign Khafra (Chephren) was an important
peoples: the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. pharaoh of the Old Kingdom.
3,100 BC 2,200 BC 2,050 BC 1,800 BC 1,580 BC 1,100 BC 31 BC

INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATE
SECOND
PERIOD
PERIOD
FIRST
MIDDLE N E W K I N G D O M F O R E I G N R U L E
OLD K INGDOM
KINGDOM
Timeline of Ancient Egypt
Ramesses II was an important pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Pepi I was pharaoh in about 2,300 BC.
105
9. What were Egyptian religious beliefs?
Egyptian religion
The Egyptians were polytheistic: they worshipped many
gods. The principal god was the Sun, called Ra, Amun or
Atum. Other important gods were Isis, Osiris and Horus.
The Egyptians also worshipped:
Certain animals, such as the crocodile
Natural features, such as the River Nile
People, such as the pharaoh
Egyptians believed that religion preserved the order of the
universe. For example, religious rituals ensured that the
Nile flooded each year. Each god had a temple, where a
Anubis protecting the pharaohs sarcophagus
group of priests made offerings to its statue. On the gods
feast day, the statue was taken out in procession.
Egyptians believed there was an afterlife, as long as the Did you know?
body was preserved. Consequently, a dead body was dried
Only the pharaoh and the priests
to make a mummy, which was put in a sarcophagus. A
could enter certain areas of the
wealthy persons tomb contained the things which were
temples. Ears were carved on
necessary in the afterlife, such as food, jewels or statues of
some temples so that
servants.
ordinary people could
The biggest tombs were the spectacular pyramids which ask the gods for help.
were built for the pharaohs.
A mastaba A pyramid A hypogeum

secret
entrance
funeral
chamber
funeral chamber funeral chamber
Egyptian tombs. There were three kinds of tombs. All had funeral chambers which were hidden from thieves.
Activities
1. Answer the questions. 2. Investigate.
a. Who and what did the Egyptians worship? Find some more information about mummification
b. Why did tombs have treasures in them? in Egypt. Write a short description. The following
website may help you:
http://guardians.net/egypt/mummies.htm
106
10. What was Egyptian art like?
Egyptian art
Artists were the pharaohs civil servants. They worked in teams,
and were considered craftsmen rather than artists.
Most Egyptian art had a religious meaning.
Temples and tombs were decorated with paintings and reliefs.
Other works of art had a political meaning.
Large statues showed the pharaohs power.
Temples
The most important temples, such as the one at Karnak, had an avenue
of sphinxes leading to the entrance. Inside the building there were
halls and a sanctuary. The image of the god was kept in the sanctuary.
Tall columns were decorated by representations of flowers or gods.
Painting
Painting changed very little in 3,000 years. Artists followed strict rules: Wall paintings from
Figures are painted without perspective. Nefertaris tomb
Objects are seen from the front. The human body is also shown from
the front, but the head, arms and legs are seen in profile.
The person is idealised. He or she is always young and beautiful.
Human figures are static. The aim is to show stability and continuity. Activities
1. Investigate.
Find an image of an
Egyptian temple on the
Internet. Print or copy it
and stick it in your
notebook. Write the
names of the different
parts. The following
website may help you:
http://www.egyptology
online.com/temples.htm
2. Write a description.
Write a description
of the painting on this
page. Use some of the
language from the
paragraph
on painting.
Columns in
an Egyptian
temple at Karnak
107
Activities
1. Analysing change and continuity in history.
People, inventions and institutions all change Building of ziggurats
over time. However, some societies or art forms Ashurbanipal, King of the Assyrians
take a very long time to change. They are Polytheism
examples of continuity. Egyptian art, for example, Sargon, King of Akkad
changed very little in 3,000 years.
Scribes were a powerful group.
However, societies also change quickly when
Cuneiform writing was used.
wars are fought, or kings die.
Not all societies change at the same speed. Egypt b. Do these facts correspond to rapid change
was an advanced civilization at a time when other or to continuity?
cultures were still in the Neolithic Age. Explain your answers.
Sumerian domination of Mesopotamia
a. Look for information on the following subjects
with a classmate. Use encyclopedias, Internet Use of cuneiform writing
and this book. Then copy and complete the The Code of Hammurabi was created.
table. You will have to repeat several terms. Use of arches and vaults in architecture
Hammurabi, King of Babylon The Akkadian Empire appears.
Priests were part of the government. Metal tools are made.
2,330 BC 1,800 BC 1,356 BC 612 BC
SUMERIAN PERIOD AKKADIAN BABYLONIAN ASSYRIAN EMPIRE NEO-BABYLONIAN

EMPIRE EMPIRE EMPIRE
P O LITI C S
CU LTU RE
R ELIG I O N
2. Decipher hieroglyphics.
Hieroglyphs were created 5,000 years ago.
Some hieroglyphic signs represent an
idea while others represent a sound.
For example, an owl represents
the sound m while a bowl held by an
a b c d e f g h
arm is the verb offer.
Egyptians could write horizontally,
vertically, from left to right or from right
to left.
i j k l m n o p q
Look at the key and try to write your
name using Egyptian characters.
How would you represent these
ideas using hieroglyphs?
r s t u v w x y z
writing palace pharaoh
god tomb
108
3. Studying everyday life in Egyptian sculptures.
Small statues were placed in the tombs of important people.
They appeared along with jewels, furniture and other treasures.
Egyptians thought that in the afterlife they would need servants to work for them.
These statues are both works of art and invaluable sources of information
about everyday life.
Look at statues A, B and C.
C
a. What are the two women wearing?
b. Which one is wearing more elegant clothes?
c. What are they carrying?
d. What are the figures in A doing? B
e. Do these statues tell you anything about servants
in Egypt?
4. Investigate: women in Ancient Egypt.
Look at page 104 again. Then look for more information

about women in Ancient Egypt.
Make a poster with your information. Use illustrations
and write short captions.
Go on this website and find out more about Cleopatra,
playing the game Cleopatras world.
http://school.discovery.com/schooladventures/
cleogame/people/index.html
Then find out about Hatshepsut or Nefertiti.
http://www.eyelid.co.uk
Web task 9: Creation myths.
109
UNIT
10 Ancient Greece
Observe and think
Where do you think this place is?
What does this place have in common with Beijing in the year 2008?
What do the two photos tell us about the importance of competition in Ancient Greece?

In this unit, you will: Expressing purpose:
Learn about the origins of Greek Greeks and Phoenicians fought to control commerce.
civilization Peasants went to the cities to sell their crops.
Recognise the importance of Athens and Reporting facts in the past:
Sparta There were continual wars.
Learn about Alexander the Great There were many poor, hungry peasants.
Reflect on Greek society, religion
Giving historical accounts
and culture
(causes and consequences):
Consequently, many Greeks migrated
110
1. What was the origin of Greek civilization?
Greek civilization Early Greece
Balkan Mountains
Greek civilization started in the south of the Balkan
Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean.
The Ancient Greeks also lived on many islands,
Mount Olympus
and the coast of Asia Minor, which is now in Turkey. BALKAN
PENINSULA ASIA
Ancient Greece was never a unified country because MINOR
of its physical characteristics. Mountains divided the

Aegean
Balkan Peninsula into small valleys. Each valley and Sea
each island was an independent state. Ionian
Mycenae
Sea
However, these small states belonged to the same
civilization. The people spoke the same language,
Greek, and worshipped the same gods.
Boundary of
Greek lands were not very productive, and there was Greek territories
CRETE
little agriculture and stockbreeding. The Greeks Highlands

Knossos
obtained most of their food from the Mediterranean Origins of Greece
Mediterranean Sea
Sea. They also used the sea for trade and navigation.
3,000 BC 1,400 BC 1,150 BC 800 BC 490 BC 334 BC 30 BC
CLASSICAL
PERIOD
MYCENAEAN
MINOAN CIVILIZATION DARK AGE ARCHAIC PERIOD HELLENISTIC AGE
CIVILIZATION
Timeline of Ancient Greece

Activities
1. Complete these sentences.
Did you know? a. The territories of the Ancient Greeks
consisted of .
The mask of Agamemnon b. Greece was divided into different independent
This gold funeral mask was found in a states because of .
tomb in the city of Mycenae. Heinrich c. The Greeks used the Mediterranean Sea
Schliemann, who discovered it in 1876, to and for .
believed he had found the body of 2. Investigate.
Agamemnon. Agamemnon was the
Find information about the following:
legendary king of
Minoan civilization
Mycenae who
had fought Mycenaean civilization
in the The legend of the Minotaur
Trojan War. Include dates, locations, and important features
However, of the legends or civilizations.
the tomb 3. Design a mask.
dates from Look at the photo and design a mask which shows
several something about your personality and interests.
centuries before First, design the mask in your notebook. Then make
the war. it out of cardboard in class or at home.
111
2. How did early Greece develop?
MACEDONIA
Troy
EPIRUS
THESSALY
LESBOS
Aegean
IONIAN Sea Phocaea
BOEOTIA EUBOEA
ISLANDS
Thebes
IONIA
Delphi ATTICA Marathon Ephesus
Corinth
Mycenae Athens
Salamis SAMOS
Olympia Argos Miletus
Epidaurus
PELOPONNESOS
CYCLADES Delos
Sparta
ISLANDS
Highlands
DODECANESE
City Rhodes
Great sanctuary ISLANDS
Battle Mediterranean
Boundary of Sea
Greek territories
CRETE
Knossos
Main Greek city-states
City-states
During the Archaic Age, the Greeks started to live together in city-states.
A city-state, or polis, was a city with its own government, laws, army, Did you know?
and way of life. Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes were poleis. Acropolis means city
The rulers were usually rich people, or aristoi, which means the best. at the top.The Ancient
This form of government was called aristocracy. Sparta is a famous Greeks used the word
example of aristocratic government. to refer to a citadel or
Later, in some poleis, democracy replaced aristocracy. Citizens met fortified part of a city on
regularly at assemblies to make decisions and choose their representatives. a hill.The word is most
They also created councils which prepared the subjects to be discussed commonly used today to
at the assemblies. Athens is a famous example of democratic government. refer to the ancient
citadel in Athens.
Activity
a. What was a polis?
b. Explain the differences between a democratic polis and an
aristocratic polis.
c. What system of government exists in most European countries today?
112
Greek expansion
Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Greece them to protect the city. Colonies had the same
went through a period of crisis. The Greek beliefs, traditions and organisation as the polis
population increased considerably, the land they came from, but they were independent.
was not fertile, and there was not enough food Colonization had important consequences.
for everyone. A small minority of rich people Greeks mixed with other peoples, such as the
owned most of the land. There were many poor, Phoenicians, the Etruscans and the Egyptians.
hungry peasants. Colonization spread Greek influence beyond
Consequently, many Greeks migrated and its frontiers.
founded colonies around the Mediterranean Sea.
Migration took place in two directions and in two
different periods. Activities
To the west between 750 and 650 BC, the 1. Draw maps.
Greeks settled on the islands and coasts of the
Draw two maps. One showing the territories
Ionian Sea; in Sicily, southern Italy, southern colonized by the 8th century BC. The other
France and Libya; and on the east coast of the showing the territories colonized by the
Iberian Peninsula. 7th century BC. Use different colours to show
To the east after 650 BC, colonies were Greek expansion.
founded around the Black Sea. 2. Answer these questions.
Colonies were founded in places near the coast a. Why are all the colonies on the coast?
in order to make transport and trade easier. b. Why did the Greeks expand to other
The Greeks also looked for places which had territories?
water and fertile land, and a hill which enabled
A T L A N T I C
SCYTHIANS Tanais
OC E A N
Olbia
CELTS
SARMA TIANS
ETRUSCANS Theodosia
Agathe Massalia
Rhodes Nikaia ILLYRIANS Callatis Phasis
Black Sea
IBERIANS Emporion
C OR SIC A Alalia
Saguntum Sinope
Hemeroscopeion Byzantium Chalcedon

S Cyme Epidamnos
ND
Akra Leuke S L A SAR DINIA Apollonia
Gadir
Alonis
R I C I Neapolis Taras
EA
Mainake Baria BAL Corcyra Mytilene PERSIANS
Med Phocaea
ite Croton Megara
rr Athens
Ephesus
an S IC IL Y Corinth Miletus
Carthage e Side
NUMIDIANS a Syracuse Sparta Thera
CARTHAGINIANS n Rhodes
PHOENECIANS
S Byblos
ea Sidon
Apollonia
PALESTINIANS
th
Greek territories in the 8 century BC Polis Taucheira Tyre
Naukratis
th th
Expansion areas in the 8 -6 centuries BC Greek colony Barca Cyrene
Area of Greek influence Phoenecian settlement

LIBYANS EGYPTIANS
Area of Phoenician influence Greek expansion
Greek colonisation
113
3. Why were Athens and Sparta important?
Classical Greece: Athens and Sparta
The 5th century BC and the first half of the 4th
century BC are known as the Classical period.
Athens and Sparta were dominant, and there
were continual wars.
The Persian Wars

In the middle of the 6th century BC,
the Persians, who lived on the Iranian plateau
in Asia, expanded their territories.
They conquered Greek poleis in Asia Minor
and on nearby islands.
In 499 BC, these poleis rebelled. Other Greek
poleis, led by Athens, supported them.
This was the beginning of the Persian Wars:
The First Persian War ended in 490 BC, when
the Greeks won the Battle of Marathon.
The Second Persian War began in 480 BC,
when the Persians invaded Greece from
the north and attacked Athens. Athens was Persian archers
destroyed, but the Persians were defeated
at the Battle of Salamis.
The splendour of Athens Did you know?

After the Persian Wars, Athens became the
richest and most influential polis. In 447 BC, In 490 BC, the Athenian army defeated the
a union of poleis, called the Delian League, Persians at the Battle of Marathon.
was formed. Its aim was to defend the poleis A Greek soldier, Pheidippides, ran from
against future Persian attacks. Athens dominated Marathon to Athens to announce the news.
the League. This is where the name of the modern
long-distance running race comes from.
The 5th century BC was the most brilliant period
in the history of Athens. Under its leader
Pericles, Athenian democracy was strengthened
and its economy improved. Athenian culture
was outstanding.
The conflict between Athens and Sparta

The economic, political and cultural domination
of Athens was a threat to other important poleis,
such as Sparta. Some poleis supported Athens
and others supported Sparta. This led to the
Peloponnesian War, which started in 431 BC
and ended in 404 BC. Sparta won the war and
became the most powerful polis.
114
4. Who was Alexander the Great?
Alexander the Great and Hellenism
Macedonia was a very large kingdom in the north he conquered the Persian Empire and reached
of Greece. The Macedonians were very strongly the Indus River.
influenced by Greek culture and spoke a language Alexander founded many cities in the conquered
similar to Greek. territories, including Alexandria in Egypt.
The wars between the poleis had weakened Consequently, Greek culture spread towards the
Greece, and the kings of Macedonia took east. The spreading of Greek culture and its fusion
advantage of this situation. with Oriental culture is known as Hellenism.
In the middle of the 4th century BC, King Philip Alexander the Great died before he had organized
II of Macedonia set out to conquer the Greek his huge empire. His generals divided up the
territories. He took over nearly all the poleis. territory, made themselves kings and founded
Philip was assassinated, and his son Alexander different kingdoms. These kingdoms were known
the Great succeeded him. Alexander continued as Hellenistic monarchies and included Egypt,
the conquests, and between 334 and 323 BC Mesopotamia and Macedonia.
Black Sea Am
Caspian
MACEDONIA u
Pella Sea
Alexandria
Da
Bactra Eschate
Granikos
ry
a
R
iv
er
Athens Alexandroupolis
Halikarnassos Issos
Tarsus Gaugamela
Eup
Rhodes Alexandria hr
at
of Issos es Alexandria Alexandria
Ti
Ri in Aria in the Caucasus

ve
g
Mediterranean
ri
r s
Sea Damascus R
Tyre i
r
Bucephala
Rive
v
Alexandria Babylon
e
Susa
r
Persepolis
dus
Memphis Alexandria- Alexandria
Antioch Alexandria Prophtasia
Rive
in Carmania
In
Alexandria
P
of Arachosia
e
si
r
ARABIAN an
r
Gu Alexandria
N
lf
il
Re
e
Gulf
PENINSULA of Oman
Kingdom of Macedonia
Territories dependent on Macedonia
Arabian
S
Conquests of Alexander the Great before 330 BC

ea
Conquests of Alexander the Great after 330 BC Sea

Cities founded by Alexander the Great
SCALE
Battles
0 424 848
Route of Alexander the Great
Kilometres
The empire of Alexander the Great
Activities
1. Read the sentences. What do they refer to? c. The fusion of Greek and Oriental cultures.
a. A very large kingdom in the north of Greece. d. The kingdoms into which the empire was divided.
b. The most famous person in Greek history 2. Describe.
in the 4th century. Describe the route Alexander the Great followed.
115
5. What was Greek society like?
A highly unequal society
Greek society was divided into two groups: Slaves were not free. They were owned by a
citizens and non-citizens. Citizens took part family and worked for them. They were usually
in politics, enjoyed many rights and paid taxes. prisoners of war or the children of slaves.
Some were very wealthy. Only a minority They worked in agriculture or did domestic
of people were citizens. For example, work.
Athens had 350,000 inhabitants, but only Women could be free or slaves, but they had no
40,000 were citizens. rights. They could not take part in politics, vote
Non-citizens were not allowed to take part or go to public shows. They were always under
in politics. There were different categories the rule of a man: either their father or their
of non-citizens: husband. Rich women looked after their homes
Foreigners were free. They paid taxes and and only went out on special occasions.
fought in the army, but they were not allowed Poor women looked after the children of rich
to own land or houses. They worked in trade families, worked as peasants, and sold products
and crafts. in markets.
Activities Social pyramid in

Ancient Greece
1. Investigate life in Athens. A small minority of the
On this BBC website three questions are asked: population had rights
CITIZENS
and privileges.
What does citizenship mean, and who could
be a citizen?
Were the lives of men and women different?
What was it like living as a slave?
First, look for the answers on other websites.

Then go to www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ancientgreece/
athens/index.shtml and complete your information. Foreigners Slaves Women
Compare your answers with your classmates.
NON-CITIZENS
2. Complete the chart with a tick () for yes, a cross ()
for no or a question mark (?) for I don't know.
Non-citizens
Citizens
Foreigners Slaves Women
took part in politics
paid taxes
had rights
were free
worked in trade and crafts
worked in the home
could own land
could go to public shows
116
6. What were Greek economic activities?
Economic activities
There were several types of economic
activities:
Long distance trade. Rich merchants had
ships, and sailed across the Mediterranean
Sea. They sold products from Greek towns
and imported food, wood and copper.
They used silver coins called drachmas
in many commercial transactions.
Local commerce. There were small shops
in Greek cities. Peasants went to the cities A Greek ship
to sell their crops. Craftsmen sold their
products in their workshops.
Crafts. The Greeks made excellent pottery,
which they exported to other parts
of the world. They also worked with leather
and textiles.
Agriculture. People in the country worked
in agriculture and were very poor. They grew
vines, wheat and olives. They worked the
land with sickles and ploughs. Many farms
were very small.
The Franois vase
Activities
Silver drachmas
a. What were the main economic activities
in Greek towns?
b. Why do you think the Greeks brought food
from other countries?
c. What was life like in the country?
d. What crops did the Greeks grow?
e. Do you think Greek products were
appreciated?
2. Look for information on Greek pots.

a. Describe one of the vases on this page.
b. Find out what Greek pots can tell us about
daily life. The following website will help
you: www.ancientgreece.co.uk/
dailylife/explore
Olive gathering on a vase
117
7. What were Greek architecture and sculpture?
Architecture: temples pediment
cornice
frieze
The Greeks constructed many different types
of buildings. However, the most important ones architrave
were their temples.
capital
They were usually built in white marble and
painted in different colours. These colours have
disappeared with the passing of time. Greek
temples were rectangular and smaller than
Egyptian ones.
The three orders in Greek art A Greek temple shaft stylobate

The Greeks were very concerned about
proportion, beauty and harmony. That is why
architects followed very strict rules, called
orders. These orders determined the style
of the buildings.
There were three orders: Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian.
Doric column Ionic column Corinthian column
Sculpture
Most Greek sculptures and reliefs represented deities and heroes and were found in temples.
Greek sculptors were very interested in representing the beauty of the naked human body.
Most of the sculptures were made in marble and bronze and then painted in bright colours.
The majority of the bronze sculptures have been lost. However, we know what they were like,
thanks to copies made by the Romans.
The Archaic The Classical The Hellenistic Activities

period period period
1. Investigate.
a. Use the Internet to find photos of
the following buildings:
El Congreso de los Diputados,
Madrid; The Capitol, Washington
DC; Le Capitole, Toulouse, France.
b. What features does each building
share with the Greek orders?
c. Why do you think the architects
used these elements of Greek
architecture?
2. Look at the sculptures on the left.

Kore Discobolus by Myron Laocoon
This sculpture An athlete about Laocoon is a Trojan priest. What differences are there between
represents to throw a discus. He is trying to free his sons the three styles? How did Greek
a priestess. from the snakes sent sculpture change?
by Apollo.
118
The Parthenon
The Parthenon was built in the 5th century BC after Athens
was sacked and destroyed in the Second Persian War.
The main architects were Ictinus and Callicrates.
They worked under the supervision of Phidias, who
was also responsible for the decoration with sculptures.
The temple was built on the Acropolis of Athens as
a shrine to the goddess Athena Parthenos, protector
of the city. Inside, there was a huge statue of the goddess,
over eleven metres high. The Parthenon
The statue of Athena was made of gold and ivory.

The helmet on her head was decorated with two
winged horses and a sphinx. Her right hand held
a small figure representing victory. Her left arm
rested on a decorative shield. Plan of a Greek temple
The pediments
The outside walls
of the Parthenon
were decorated
were decorated
with reliefs of the
with relief
Panathenaic
sculptures.
procession. This
They narrated the
famous event was
legends of the
celebrated annually
goddess Athena.
in honour of
Athena.
Metopes are square panels with

reliefs. They were placed around
the entire building. The sculptures
represented mythical battles of
giants, amazons and centaurs. Panathenaic procession
Activity
1. Observe and answer.
a. What Greek order does the Parthenon belong to?
b. Look up the meaning of these words as they relate
to Greek mythology: giant, sphinx and amazon.
c. The relief sculpture on the metope represents a
One of the metopes man and a mythical creature. What is it?
of the Parthenon
119
8. What were Greek religious beliefs?
Gods, heroes and myths
The Greeks were polytheistic: they believed in many gods.
Each city-state had its own deity.
Although the gods were immortal, they looked human.
They ate, loved, and fought like human beings. The most
important god was Zeus. He lived on Mount Olympus
Hades Demeter Hestia Poseidon
with the other important gods and goddesses. (underworld) (agriculture) (hearth) (sea)
The Greeks also believed in heroes, who were sons of gods
and humans. Heroes, such as Achilles, Ulysses or Hercules,
were very powerful, but mortal. They were considered to be
the founders of different cities and the origin of important
Greek families.
The Greeks believed in fantastic creatures like the cyclopes,
one-eyed monsters, and the centaurs, horses with a human Hera Zeus
head, chest and arms. They invented myths, which were (family) king of gods
(sky and thunder)
stories about these gods and heroes.
Religious cults
Because their gods had the same needs as humans, the
Greeks believed that they had to give them food and riches.
Temples were the homes of the gods, and priests and
priestesses were their servants. Hephaestus
(fire)
The Greeks also believed that the gods could help or harm Athena
human beings. Consequently, it was important to know the (wisdom)
opinion of the gods. Oracles were messages from the gods,
and were usually interpreted by a priest or priestess. The most
famous place to consult the gods was the shrine at Delphi.
Even rulers used to go there to ask the opinion of the gods.
Ares
(war)
Apollo
(beauty)
Hermes
(commerce)
Mythological
mosaic
Artemis
(hunting)
Activity
Dionysus
1. Investigate. (wine)
Choose two gods or goddesses and find out more Important Greek gods
information about them. Useful websites include: and goddesses
www.ancientgreece.co.uk Each god represented a force Aphrodite
of nature or a human activity. (love)
120
9. What was Greek culture like?
Greek culture 15
Ancient civilizations used myths to explain the world.
The Greeks were the first to look for an explanation of
natural phenomena using logic and reasoning. That is why
the Greeks are considered to be the fathers of philosophy
and science.
The three greatest Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle. There were important scientists too, such as
Pythagoras and Archimedes.
Education was very important. In Athens, boys started
schooling at the age of seven. They learned to read and write,
and some mathematics. They also had classes in ethics,
learned about traditions and customs and practised sports.
They had military training from the age of eighteen to twenty.
Then they were considered adults and citizens of the polis.
Girls did not go to school and so most women were
illiterate. Only a few wealthy women could read and write.
Greek theatre
Theatre or drama was very popular in Ancient Greece.
The Golden Age of Greek Theatre started in Athens
when it was rebuilt after the Persian Wars.
The school of Athens (1510)
Tragedies, comedies and satyr plays were performed
This famous painting by the Italian Renaissance
in outdoor theatres, generally by a maximum of three actors artist Raphael shows how Greek culture had
and a chorus. Female roles were performed by men wearing long-lasting influence. The two figures in the
masks. Playwrights, such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides centre are Plato and Aristotle.
and Aristophanes, presented their plays in a competition
called the Dionysia.
Theatre in the western world has been strongly influenced Activity
by Greek theatre and plays.
1. True or False?
Write the correct answer.
a. Archimedes was a famous
philosopher.
b. Boys started schooling at the age
of seven.
c. Boys became citizens of the polis
at the age of eighteen.
d. Girls started their education at the
age of seven too.
e. Three types of plays were
performed in Greek theatres.
f. Both men and women performed
in Greek plays.
The theatre of Dionysus
121
Activities
1. Read the text and answer these questions.
The Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze sculpture, 35 metres
high, which stood over the port of Rhodes. The Colossus
represented the god Helios, the patron of the city. It was
built as a sign of gratitude for the end of the siege
of Rhodes (305 BC). It took more than ten years to build.
However, it was destroyed about fifty years later, in an
earthquake in 226 BC. The sculpture was so spectacular
and had been so difficult to build that it was considered
one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
a. Compare the Colossus to a building today.
How many floors would it have?
b. Who was Helios?
c. How long did it take to build the colossus?
d. What happened to it in 226 BC?
2. Investigate.
What were the other six wonders of the Ancient World?
3. Analysing a building.
1. First, observe the building carefully. Indicate if you
are describing the exterior or interior of the building.
Identify the different parts of the building.
2. Next, continue with the description.
Include answers to these questions:
What was the function?
What materials were used?
What elements provide structural
support? Include walls, windows,
doors, pillars and columns.
What elements are supported?
Are vaults, domes or arches used?
What types of decoration are
used? Where are they located?
Describe them.
3. Finally, associate the building with
the historical period in which it was
built. Include other information such
as the date when it was built, and
whether it was finished.
4. Now look for information on Internet
on the Greek temple at Segesta.
Write an analysis of this building.
Why do you think it is so well
preserved?
122
4. Analysing a sculpture.
Choose a sculpture and follow these steps to analyse it.
1. Classification. Identify the type of sculpture. Is it a relief
or a free-standing sculpture (not attached to a wall)?
2. Description. Identify the material. Is it made of stone,
clay, bronze, marble, wood? Identify the theme.
Is the sculpture of an individual or a group?
Is the figure sitting or standing?
What type of activity is it doing?
Is it a nude?
3. Characteristics. Identify the most important features.
Does it give a sensation of movement or is it static?
Is the posture rigid or relaxed?
Can it be viewed from all sides or only one?
Is it harmonious and well-proportioned?
Have the clothes (folds and texture) been sculpted
realistically?
4. Context. Associate the sculpture with the period
in which it was made. Indicate information such as the date, artists name, characteristics of the artist.
5. Now write an analysis of the sculpture on this page.
5. Complete the table.

a. Match these famous people and their disciplines.
Physics and Famous person Discipline Achievements

Mathematics Eratosthenes made a world map
Philosophy Pythagoras laid the foundations of geometry
Geography Hippocrates father of scientific medicine
Medicine Plato disciple of great philosopher Socrates
Mathematics Archimedes invented the screw and some war machines
b. Choose one person from the table.

Investigate his influence on the development of his discipline. Are there any aspects of his teachings
in your Maths or Science curriculum today? Present your findings to the class.
6. Investigate sport. 7. Investigate a film.

Use the following link to investigate sport in Ancient Compare the film Troy (2004) with a summary
Greece. www.britishmuseum.org/explore/ of the Iliad.
families_and_children/online_tours/sport_in_ Can you find any differences?
ancient_greece/sport_in_ancient_greece.aspx
Investigate the different gods and their importance
to sports. Make a list of the sports which were
practised in Greece, and which are still Web task 10: The Olympic Games.
practised today.
123
UNIT
11 Ancient Rome
Observe and think
Can you identify these ruins? Where are they?
What do they tell us about the lives
of people in the past?
Are there any ruins near where you live?

In this unit, you will: Giving historical recounts:
Learn about the creation and the decline Each province was controlled by a governor.
of the Roman Empire The king was helped by the senate.
Understand society, religion, the economy
and the political system of Ancient Rome Expressing contrast:
Interpret an aerial photograph of a city However, the Christians were persecuted
Extract information from Roman coins However, the plebeians fought for equal rights.
and sculptures
124
1. How did Rome become an empire?
Rome: from city to empire
Roman civilization started with the city of Rome. The empire was organised into provinces, which
Rome was on the River Tiber on the Italian had to pay taxes to Rome. Each province was
Peninsula. This peninsula is in the centre of the controlled by a governor, appointed by the
Mediterranean. Consequently, it is a strategic emperor.
location and enabled the Romans to extend their
territories on three continents: Europe, Africa
and Asia. Activities
The growth of the Roman Empire was a long 1. Analyse the map.
process. Rome conquered all the territories on a. List the territories which the Roman Empire
the Italian Peninsula between 500 and 250 BC. dominated.
It continued to expand across the Mediterranean.
b. Which of the following modern countries
Between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, Roman
were part of the Roman Empire?
territories stretched north to south from the The United Kingdom, France, Spain,
British Isles to the Sahara Desert, and east to west Finland, Portugal, Italy, Tunisia, Egypt,
from Mesopotamia to the Iberian Peninsula. Lebanon and Denmark.
The Roman Empire included people of many
2. Think.
different ethnic groups. They were made slaves
if they tried to resist Roman rule. The Romans Why did the Romans call the Mediterranean
Sea Mare Nostrum, which means our sea?
spread their language, Latin, their laws, and
their way of life.
BRITANNIA GERMANIA
Rh
in
e
Riv xinus
er Eu
Treverorum Dan u b e s
n tu
o
Riv
P
er
GALLIA
OCEANUS Lugdunum PANNONIA Byzantium

THRACIA
Tib
ATLANTICUS
er
Massilia
Ri v
ITALIA ASIA
er
Rome MOESIA
Athens
Caesaraugusta ARABIAN
Tyrrhenian
Sea DESERT
HISPANIA
Mare Nostrum Alexandria

Carthage Nova Carthage
AFRICA Cyrene
Riv
Re
ORIENS d
er
Ni Se
le a
DESIERTO DELEmpire
SAHARA Limes
Monarchy Republic (Frontiers)
The expansion of the Roman Empire
125
2. What were the Monarchy and the Republic?
753 BC 509 BC 27 BC 476 AD
M O N A R CHY R E P U B L I C E M P I R E
800 BC 600 BC 400 BC 200 BC 1 AD 200 400
Timeline of Ancient Rome
The Monarchy (753-509 BC) 16 The senate: this was the most important
institution. It established the laws, directed
In the first centuries of its history, Rome was
foreign policy and gave instructions to
governed by a king. This king was chosen by the
magistrates.
most important families in the city, the patricians.
The king was helped by the senate, an assembly Patricians and plebeians
formed by senators, who were the heads of the During the Republic, society was divided into two
leading families. groups:
In the 6th century BC, Rome was conquered by the The patricians were a minority formed by the
Etruscans. However, the Romans fought against richest and most powerful families. They
them and eventually defeated them. In 509 BC, a claimed to be descendants of the founders of
rebellion dethroned Lucius Tarquinus Superbus Rome.
(Tarquin the Proud), the last Etruscan king.
The plebeians were all the other citizens.
The Republic (509-27 BC) Initially, only the patricians had political rights.
However, the plebeians fought for equal rights
After the expulsion of the Etruscans, a new form
and, by the end of the 5th century BC, they had a
of government was established, a Republic.
representative, the tribune of the plebeians, to
There were three main institutions:
defend their interests in the Senate. By the 4th
The comitias: these were assemblies where century BC, plebeians could be magistrates and
Roman citizens met to vote for laws and elect senators.
magistrates.
The magistratus: magistrates held political,
military and sometimes religious power. Did you know?
They were elected for a year. The highest
magistrates were two consuls who controlled According to legend, Rome was founded
political life and the army. by the twins Romulus and Remus. They were
abandoned when they were babies, and a
she-wolf took care of them. Romulus became
Activity the first king of Rome.
1. Investigate.
The tribune of the plebeians was an institution
which tried to stop tensions between
patricians and plebeians.
Was it a revolutionary institution?
Investigate and write a summary or an essay.
The following website will help you:
www.livius.org/to-ts/tribune/tribune.html
126
3. How did the Republic evolve?
The Punic Wars (264 BC 146 BC)
During the Republic, Rome conquered many territories
but, in the south of Italy, its interests came into conflict
with Carthage, a North African power.
The three Punic Wars between the Romans and the
Carthaginians lasted over a hundred years.
After its victory in these wars, Rome extended
its power around the Mediterranean.
The crisis of the Republic

In the 1st century BC, the Republic was weakened
by corruption and internal conflicts.
The power of the military increased.
To prevent disorder, they formed triumvirates,
alliances of three men who shared power.
The first triumvirate was formed Hannibal in the Second Punic War
by Julius Caesar, Crassus and Pompey. However, An Italian painting from the 16th century
they soon disagreed and a civil war broke out. Julius
Caesar won and was proclaimed perpetual dictator.
In 44 BC, he was assassinated by a group of senators
and supporters of the Republic.
The second triumvirate was formed
by three of Caesars supporters: Mark Antony,
Lepidus and Octavian.
Octavian took control after several wars, and in 27 BC, Julius Caesar
the Senate gave him maximum powers.
Did you know?

Cleopatra, queen Activities
of Egypt, had a son
1. Look for definitions of the following
called Caesarion with
terms.
Julius Caesar. After
Caesars death she fell triumvirate civil war dictatorship
in love with Mark Use a dictionary and give examples.
Anthony, and tried
2. Investigate.
to establish an
independent monarchy. Find information about one of the
following warriors: Viriatus or
Both died tragically.
Hannibal.
Cleopatra and Caesarion Web quest 11: The Roman Army.
127
Augustus,
the first emperor
4. How was the Roman of the Roman
Empire
Empire created?
The rise of the Empire (27 BC 235 AD) The emperor A generals
appears as cape
In 27 BC, Octavian became known as Augustus, the head
which meant chosen by the gods. First, he of the army
eliminated his enemies and pacified the situation. commanding
Then, he introduced a new form of government: his troups.
the Empire.
Augustus was the first emperor of Rome.
He presided over the senate, he was the head
of the army and also the highest religious leader. Cupid appears at
He directed foreign policy, dictated laws his feet because
Augustus
and decided upon taxes. claimed to be
The emperor
In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Roman world a descendent
is barefoot
reached its peak, with emperors such as of the goddess
because the
Venus.
Claudius, Vespasian, Trajan and Marcus gods are
Aurelius. Trade and the economy grew. Many depicted
buildings and public works were constructed barefoot.
in Rome and other cities.
DYNASTY EMPEROR IMPORTANT EVENTS

Did you know?
Julio-Claudian Augustus He was the first emperor of Rome.
Dynasty 27 BC 14 AD
Coins give us a lot of information about
Tiberius Jesus Christ was crucified. Ancient Rome. They usually had
14 37 AD
a picture of the Emperor on them.
Caligula
He proclaimed himself a god.
37 41 AD
DAC(ico): Conqueror P(ontifex)
Claudius He conquered Britannia and increased of the Dacians M(aximus):
41 54 AD the number of Roman provinces.
Religious leader
Nero His government was despotic. GER(manico):
54 68 AD He set fire to Rome in 64 AD. Conqueror of the TR(ibunum)
Germanic peoples P(lebis):
Flavian Dynasty Vespasian He began the construction of the Tribune of
69 79 AD coliseum and forum in Rome.
the Plebeians
Titus Mount Vesuvius erupted.
79 81 AD CO(n)S(ule)
VI: Consul
Adopted emperors; Trajan The Roman Empire reached its for the 6th
Nerva-Antonine 98 117 AD maximum extent.
Dynasty time
Hadrian His goal was peace in the Empire. AUG(usto): P(ater)

117 138 AD Augustus P(atriae):
(a sacred Father of the
Severan Dynasty Septimius Severus He reorganised the Roman army.
person) fatherland
193 211 AD
Caracalla He granted Roman citizenship to all

free men in the Empire. TRAIANO: Name IMP(erator):
211 217 AD
of the emperor Military leader
Important Roman dynasties and emperors
128
5. Why did the Roman Empire decline?
The crisis of the 3rd century After the emperor Theodosius died in 395, the
empire was divided into two, so that it could be
At the beginning of the 3rd century, the Roman defended more easily. The Western Roman
Empire suffered a crisis. Peasants and soldiers Empire had its capital in Rome, while the capital
revolted and anarchy spread. The cities were of the Eastern Roman Empire was
attacked, and the population sought refuge Constantinople. Each empire had its own emperor
in the country. As a result, trade collapsed. and its own institutions.
The power of the emperors diminished
because they were unable to solve these
problems.
Germanic tribes invaded from the north.
The Romans called these peoples barbarians.
The Persians attacked from the east.
Angles
Saxons Suevi Y
Al an s NB
ATLANTIC Franks KE ia)
TA As
U TE m
o
OCEAN RO (fr
Ostrogoths U NS Ca
River EH sp
TH ia
n
Se
Da Visigoths a
nub k Sea
e Blac Theodosius, the last emperor to rule a unified Empire
THEODOSIUS' BOUNDARY
Constantinople
Rome
Medi
ter
ra
The fall of the Roman Empire
ne
an
Sea
The two parts of the empire evolved in very
MAIN GERMANIC PEOPLES AND INVASION ROUTES
different ways.
Western Roman
Ostrogoths Suevi Empire
Visigoths Franks Eastern Roman
In the Western Empire, the emperors were weak
Alans Angles and Saxons Empire
and incapable of stopping the Germanic tribes.
These tribes formed their own kingdoms.
Invasions of Germanic tribes In 476, they deposed the last Western Roman
Emperor, bringing the empire to an end.
The Eastern Empire was maintained for
The recovery of the 4th century another thousand years, but under a new name:
the Byzantine Empire.
When Diocletian came to power, reforms were
carried out to resolve the problems in the empire.
The economy recovered, and the frontiers were
strengthened.
Activities
The emperor Constantine also introduced 1. Look at the map and answer the questions.
changes. To achieve greater unity, a. Where were the Visigoths from?
he tolerated Christianity. He also moved Where did they enter the Empire?
the capital to Constantinople, and improved b. Look at the Angles and Saxons. Where were
bureaucracy. they from? Where did they move to?
In 375, the Huns entered Germanic territory. 2. Think.
The Germanic tribes fled into the Roman empire. Do you know the name of the old English
The Romans were unable to stop the invasion language?
of these barbarians.
129
6. What was society like in Ancient Rome?
Roman society
Roman society was unequal. There were two main groups: R O M A N S O C I E T Y
citizens and non-citizens.
Citizens had rights. They could own property, go
to trials, vote and get married. There were differences CITIZENS
between them, according to their wealth. Free men
with rights
Non-citizens had none of these rights. They could
Freedmen
be freedmen or slaves. Slaves could become free They had no
political rights.
if their owner gave them their freedom.
Women were never considered citizens, so they had NON-
Slaves
practically no rights. They were always under the rule CITIZENS They were owned
by another person.
of a man: their father, a relative or their husband.
Women
However, they could own property, manage businesses, They were always
and go to parties and shows. Their main role in society under the rule
was to have children, but many worked in the fields, of a man.
in shops or looking after other peoples children.
A Roman slave A mural in Pompeii showing different social classes
Activities
1. Answer these questions. 2. Look at the diagram at the top of this page.
a. What was the difference between a citizen a. Which social group was in the worst situation?
and a non-citizen? Why?
b. What was the difference between slaves b. What do you think about the position of women
and freedmen? in Roman society?
130
7. How did the Romans live?
Reconstruction of a Roman domus Reconstruction of a Roman villa
Housing Work and leisure

In cities, the Romans lived in two types of Romans got up very early. After washing and
housing, domus and insula: having breakfast, they started work. They finished
A domus was the home of wealthy Romans. It at midday, and after lunch they had leisure time.
generally had only one floor and was organized They went to the thermae, or baths.
around a central courtyard. The most important The thermae had two areas: the palaestra
rooms were decorated with paintings on the (an outdoor gymnasium) and the public baths.
walls and mosaics on the floor. Moreover, the baths were places where the
Romans could meet their friends and listen
An insula was a block of very small apartments to speakers, among other activities.
which were rented to poor people. It was
usually a badly constructed building made of Romans also went to shows at the theatre,
brick and wood. It had no running water. A fire circus and amphitheatre.
was very dangerous because just one staircase
led to all the homes.
In the country, villas were built. These were large They had hot
baths in the They had cold
farms with just one owner. The owner and his caldarium. baths in the They rested in
family lived in a mansion. The peasants and slaves frigidarium. the tepidarium
who worked on the farm lived in huts nearby. or warm room.
Activities
1. Describe the different
parts of the public baths.
What activities can you
identify in the picture?
2. Investigate.
Find out about these
aspects of Roman life.
food dress education
entertainment Caracalla Thermal baths, Rome
They were so big that they could hold 1,600 people.
131
8. What was a Roman city like?
Capitol. Main temple
triumphal arch
arcades Basilica.
Place for
trade and
justice
markets
Curia. Meeting place

Reconstruction
for the city council
of a Roman forum
Roman cities Activities

During the Roman period, many cities were founded and 1. Write a letter.
existing cities grew. Imagine that you come from a
Rome was the capital of the empire and the largest city. small city and you are visiting
At its peak, it had a population of one million inhabitants. Rome in the time of the
emperors. Write a letter to your
The other cities in the empire were smaller, but they all had
family about the wonderful
the same structure and way of life as the capital.
places you have seen.
Roman cities had a rectangular shape, with parallel streets
around two main axes: the cardo, from north to south, 2. Investigate.
and the decumanus, from east to west. a. Find a tourist map of Rome.
Locate the most important
In the centre there was a forum. Political, social and cultural
Roman remains such as the
life took place in this central square. The forum had arcades Coliseum and the Forum.
and was decorated with statues of the main emperors and
b. What Roman cities were there
distinguished people from the city. The main buildings, in Spain? Describe one to your
such as the capitol, curia and basilica, were situated around classmates.
the forum. Near the forum, there were shops, markets and c. How did the Coliseum receive
artisans workshops. its name? Look for this
Roman cities had all kinds of facilities, such as theatres, information on the Internet.
fountains and sewage systems.
132
Rome, capital of an empire
3
5
Rome was an impressive city. There
were beautiful homes, palaces, temples,
arches, theatres and libraries. The city 4
was so large that it had several forums. 2
The city was very lively. Streets

were narrow and noisy. In 64 AD,
during the reign of Emperor Nero,
a terrible fire destroyed many buildings
in Rome. When the city was rebuilt,
1
they made the streets and structures
more solid.
In 1980, the historical centre of the city
of Rome was declared a World Heritage
Site by UNESCO.
Model of Ancient Rome
1. Pantheon 2. Imperial forums 3. Coliseum 4. Capitolio 5. Circus Maximus
The Coliseum was the largest amphitheatre

in the world. It had a capacity of 50,000 people.
The Emperor Vespasian began construction
in the year 72 AD. Emperor Titus inaugurated
the Coliseum in 80 AD with one hundred days The Pantheon of Agrippa was a temple dedicated to all the gods. In 80 AD,
of games and spectacles. it was destroyed by a great fire. In 126 AD, Emperor Hadrian ordered a new
Pantheon built. The new building was round. Its great dome had an opening
to the sky.
The Arch of Titus

was built in the
Roman Forum in 81
AD to commemorate
the victories of
Emperors Vespasian
and Titus in Judea.
The relief sculptures
show scenes of
captive Jews and of
Roman troops
The Roman forum was the central area of the city. carrying the spoils
(See the opposite page.) of war.
133
9. What were Roman economic activities?
Economic activities
Agriculture was the main activity. There were the Mediterranean coasts, and salt was used to
small farmers, but also wealthy people who season and preserve food.
owned large areas of land. They employed There was considerable trade within the empire
peasants and slaves to work on their land. and across its frontiers. For example, most of
The main crops were wheat, grapes and olives. the oil and wheat in the empire came from the
Crafts were also important. There were Iberian Peninsula. Spices, silk and cotton were
workshops in cities, with small shops where imported from China. Slaves were captured
the craftsmen sold their products. in Africa. Trade was facilitated by a single
Mining: gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead and imperial currency and a vast network
mercury were mined. There were salt mines on of roads and ports.
Fro
Main Roman roads Pottery Spices Hides Wheat

m
Ba
ltic
Main ports Amber Copper mines Salt Wine
London Olive oil Slaves Gold mines Textiles

Treveri (Trier)
Sea Trabzon
ck
la
B
Nantes
ATLANTIC Byzantium
Nicomedia
Ravenna
OCEAN Bordeaux
Lyon
Antioch
Pergamon
Ephesus
Rome
Astorga Marseille
Zaragoza Tarento Athens
Jerusalem
Sagunto
Messina
Lisbon Mrida Mediterrane an Alexandria
Carthage Sea
Cartagena Fro
mC
Gades (Cdiz) hin
a
Tangier
Main Roman trade routes and goods
Activities 3. Investigate.
What are the names of the modern countries
1. Look at the map and complete this table
where the following resources were found
of Roman goods.
in Roman times?
Food & Drink Minerals Others
Resource Country
salt Spain
2. Identify Roman roads. olive oil
Use an outline map of the Iberian Peninsula. wheat
Colour the most important Roman roads in Spain gold mines
and Portugal. You can use this webpage: slaves
http://www.irabia.org/web/hispania/default.htm amber
134
10. How did religious beliefs change?
Polytheism
Religion was very important to the Romans.
They were polytheists. Their main gods were
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Their temples
were very similar to Greek temples.
Romans were very tolerant. When they conquered
new territories, they allowed the inhabitants to
keep their religion and even worshipped their gods.
For example, the Romans adopted all the Greek
gods, but changed their names.
Christianity
In the 1st century AD, the followers of Jesus of
Nazareth founded a new religion, called Temple of Jupiter
Christianity. The main ideas of Christianity are:
There is only one God and everyone is equal
before God.
People must love and forgive each other.
People who follow these ideas will be granted
eternal life.
Jewish leaders were worried about these new
ideas. They took Jesus to Pontius Pilate, the
Roman governor of Palestine, who sentenced
him to die on a cross.
After Jesus died, the apostles, such as Paul of
Tarsus, continued to spread his message across
Asia Minor. However, Christians were
persecuted by the Romans because they refused Catacombs were Christian underground burial chambers.
to worship the emperor and they allowed
both rich and poor people in their churches.
Despite these persecutions, the number
of Christians grew. Activity
1. Write short sentences.
Christianity, an official religion Describe the role which the following people
Beginning in 313 AD, Emperor Constantine played in the growth of Christianity.
allowed Christians to practise their religion freely. For example: The Emperor Nero accused
Christianity spread quickly. Christians of criminal actions.
In 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius declared a. Jesus of Nazareth
Christianity the only religion of the Roman b. Pontius Pilate
Empire. All other religions were prohibited, c. Emperor Theodosius
and their followers were persecuted. d. Emperor Constantine
Moreover, the Church was created. e. Paul of Tarsus
The Pope, who was the Bishop of Rome, f. the Bishop of Rome
was the main authority.
135
Activities
1. Studying an aerial photograph.
Nowadays, it is very
difficult to see the ruins
of a complete Roman
city. Most of them are
beneath later cities,
and others are also
under the ground.
Archaeologists try to
find these ruins. They
study and preserve
what remains of the
cities, and find out what
the buildings were like
in Roman times. Study
this aerial photograph.
What do you notice
about the street plan?
The ruins of the Roman city of Timgad (Algeria)
Match the letters with the places on the photograph.

a. cardo c. forum e. triumphal arch g. public baths
b. decumanus d. temple f. theatre
Write a short description of the Roman city of Timgad.
2. Investigate.
Find the Roman names for the Greek gods below. What were they the gods of?
Greek god Roman god God of

Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Athena
Hades
Hermes
Hera
Poseidon
Zeus
136
3. Read the text and then complete the sentences.
Pompeii is a city in the south-west of Italy, close to Mount
Vesuvius. Like the inhabitants of Naples today, people in Roman
times were used to small earth tremors.
However, in 62 AD, a severe earthquake hit Pompeii and
nearby cities, destroying temples, houses, bridges and roads.
Seventeen years later, in August 79 AD, the city was still being
rebuilt when Mount Vesuvius erupted. The flow of ash and lava
killed and buried around two thousand people in Pompeii and
the nearby town of Herculaneum.
These cities were rediscovered in
the 16th century, but it was not
th
until the 18 century that excavation work was started. After the cities were buried
during the eruption, no air or moisture could reach the buried objects.
Consequently, they were very well preserved and have provided us with
considerable information about everyday life in Roman times. A large food market,
small restaurants and a hotel have been found, in addition to the forum, an
amphitheatre and two theatres. Today, around two and a half million people visit
Pompeii every year.
a. Pompeii is located in . d. Serious excavation work started in .
b. In 62 AD, Pompeii was hit by an . e. Thanks to the excavations, we have discovered
c. Mount Vesuvius erupted in . a lot of information about .
4. Finding information in sculptures.

Reliefs and sculptures are an important source of information about Roman life.
Roman sculpture was based on Greek sculpture but was more realistic.
Roman portraits were a faithful reflection of the features of the people they represented.
Only emperors were idealised. Roman reliefs showed important events with great realism.
Trajans Column is an exceptional example of Roman art. It commemorates the Roman
conquest of Dacia (now Romania) between 101 and 106 AD. It is 31 metres tall.
It is decorated with reliefs which show the different episodes of the military campaign
of the emperor Trajan.
Answer these questions.
a. What does the scene represent?
Give it a title.
b. Find the following people
in the relief: Trajan, Roman
generals, legionaries and
a captured enemy soldier.
137
Key Language
Maps
REPORTING DESCRIPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS
The Earth is spherical.
Asia is the largest continent.
Maps are two-dimensional.
Physical maps give information on relief.
Globes represent the Earth accurately.
Ask and answer questions.

You: Your partner:
Is the Earth spherical? Yes, it is. / No, it isnt.
Are maps three-dimensional? Yes, they are. / No, they arent.
Do globes represent the Earth accurately? Yes, they do. / No, they dont.
The key contains the symbols represent information on the map.
Meridians are imaginary semicircles which go from one pole to the other.
Parallels are circles are perpendicular to the meridians.
Complete the sentences:

The key contains the symbols which
EXPRESSING ABILITIES
The arrow enables us to establish orientation.
Horizontal lines enable us to identify the exact location of places on Earth.
Rewrite the sentences and make more:

Using the arrow, we can establish orientation.
138
Relief
REPORTING FACTS AND EVENTS
The Earths crust has a solid part.
The Earths crust is divided into different plates.
The Earths surface is not flat.
The Earths relief changes continually.
Talk about the Earth:

The Earths crust has a solid part. It is divided
When a volcano erupts, it ejects ash and gases.
When two plates crash, there is a release of energy.
When water freezes, it expands.
When the slopes are gentler, the water moves more slowly.

You: What happens when a volcano erupts?
Your partner: It ejects ash and gases.
DEFINING
Oceans large masses of salt water.
Plains low, flat areas of land.
Plateaus are large, raised plains.
Basins natural depressions, or low areas of land.
Ocean trenches large, deep depressions in the ocean floor.
Match.
You: Oceans are Your partner: large masses of salt water.
MAKING COMPARISONS
The deepest ocean trench Challenger Deep.
is
The highest mountain in the world Mount Everest.
Complete.
You: The deepest ocean trench Your partner: is Challenger Deep.
Look for more examples in Unit 2.
139
Water
EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT
Lake Chad has got smaller water has evaporated.
because
Groundwater is very valuable it is a source of drinking water.

You: Your partner:
Why has Lake Chad got smaller? Because water has evaporated.
MAKING IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS

Fresh water found in rivers, lakes and glaciers.
Salt water is found in oceans and seas.
Groundwater stored under the ground.
Rivers used to transport people and goods.
are
Harmful substances released directly into the water.
Make impersonal sentences.

You: Fresh water is found Your partner: in rivers, lakes and glaciers.
Onega
Vnern
Ladoga Baikal
Winnipeg
Superior
Huron Constance
Michigan Ontario Geneva Caspian Aral Balkhash
Sea Sea
Erie
ATLANTIC
OCEAN Chad
Maracaibo
Victoria
PACIFIC Tanganyika INDIAN
EXPRESSING ABILITIES
A shortage of water produce droughts.
An excess of water can produce floods.
Acid rain have adverse effects on plants and forests.

You: What can a shortage of water do? Your partner: produce droughts.
MAKING COMPARISONS
The Caspian Sea is lake in the world.
the largest
Lake Superior is freshwater lake in the world.
Lake Titicaca is lake in South America.

the second largest
Lake Victoria is freshwater lake in the world.

You: Which is the largest lake in the world? Your partner: The Caspian Sea.
140
Weather and climate
DESCRIBING
the climate in your area?
What is like
the weather today?
Answer the questions and ask more.
LINKING CAUSE AND EFFECT

the areas where it is day and where it is night change all the time.
temperatures are mild and vary with the seasons.
Consequently,
temperatures are always cold.
inland climates are much hotter in summer and much colder in winter.
What causes these effects?

Look for the sentences in Unit 4 and explain the causes.
DEFINING
Temperature the quantity of heat in the atmosphere.
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere in a specific place
Climate the average temperatures and precipitation

You: What is temperature? Your partner: Temperature refers to the quantity
MAKING COMPARISONS
Inland climates are colder in winter.
The Suns rays reach the Earth at a greater angle in temperate zones.
Temperatures are higher near the equator.
(much)
Inland climates are hotter in summer.
Temperatures are usually higher in lower areas.

You: When are inland climates (much) colder?
Your partner: In winter.
You: Where do the Suns rays reach the Earth at a greater angle?
Your partner: In temperate zones.
141
World landscapes
REPORTING FACTS
Rainforests are almost uninhabited.
Tropical rivers have a smaller, more irregular flow.
African savannahs are home to many herbivores.
Date palms grow near oases.
Temperatures change with altitude.
True or false? Make more sentences.

You: Rainforests are densely populated. Your partner: True. / False.
REPORTING CHANGE
Some species adapted to dry conditions.
Some towns developed in deserts.
have
Timber industries begun.
Landscapes changed considerably.
Forests cut down.

have been
Many areas transformed by tourism.
Complete the sentence.

Some species have
EXPRESSING CONTRAST
some species have adapted to dry conditions.
some nomads live in deserts.
However, in hot climates, mountains are densely populated.
in Europe, landscapes have changed considerably.
many areas have been transformed by tourism.
Can you imagine the statement which is before However?

Think and check in Unit 5.
REPORTING FACTS
no real summer in regions with a polar climate.
is very little variation in temperature in equatorial climates.
abundant precipitation in alpine climates.
There
three main climates in the temperate zones.
are two seasons in tropical climates.
two regions with a polar climate.
Match.
You: There is no real summer Your partner: in regions with a polar climate.
142
The continents
REPORTING FACTS: LENGTH AND AREA
The Andes mountain range is 7,200 km long.
The Mississippi River is 1.6 km wide.
Ayers Rock is 340 metres high.
An area of over 30 million square metres (m2)
With an area of 44 million km2
Answer these questions about Geography.

How do we often express length / width / height in English?
How do we refer to area? To very large areas?
MAKING COMPARISONS
The River Nile the longest river.
Lake Titicaca the highest lake in the world.
The Sahara the biggest desert in the world.
is
Lake Baikal the deepest lake in the world.
Asia the largest continent.
Oceania the smallest continent.
Talk about world records.

You: Which is the longest river? Your partner: The River Nile.
EUROPE
ASIA
AMERICA AFRICA
OCEANIA
ANTARCTICA
MAKING IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS

Oceania to the southeast of Asia.
is located
Mount Kilimanjaro near the Rift Valley.
Asia is separated from Europe by the Ural Mountains
True or false? Make more sentences.

You: Oceania is located to the north of Asia. Your partner: True. / False.
LINKING CAUSE AND EFFECT

America stretches from pole to pole it has all the different climates.
Over 70 % of the country is forest or mountains so most people live in the coastal areas.
Most of Oceania is between the Tropics it has hot climates.
143
Europe and Spain
DESCRIBING PLACES
Spanish rivers are short with small, irregular flows.
generally
The flows of Spanish rivers depend on rainfall.
mainly
Russian landscapes consist of tundra and taiga.

Spanish rivers are
TEMPERATE CLIMATES
Atlantic
Continental
Mediterranean
COLD CLIMATES
Polar
Mountain North
SUBTROPICAL CIMATE Sea
Subtropical
(Canary Islands)
Ca
sp
ia
n
Se
ATLANTIC Black Sea
a
OCEAN
Mediterranean Sea
GIVING EXAMPLES
Trees pine and holm oak.
Deciduous forests beech and oak, moors and pastures.
such as
Older mountain ranges the Kjolen Mountains.
Younger mountain ranges the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Balkans.

You: Can you name some examples of trees? Your partner: Pine and holm oak.
REPORTING FACTS: LOCATION

The Mediterranean climate along the Mediterranean coast.
The continental climate in the centre and east of Europe.
is found
The polar climate in the north.
The alpine climate in the highest European mountain
ranges.
Talk about European climates.

The oceanic climate is typical of the Atlantic side of the continent.
The Mediterranean climate is found
144
Prehistory
REFERRING TO PERIODS OF TIME
Neanderthals lived in Europe 150,000 years ago.
Homo habilis appeared two million years ago.
Homo erectus appeared one and a half million years ago.
Australopithecus appeared about five million years ago.
Homo sapiens appeared in Africa about 130,000 years ago.
Homo antecessor lived about 800,000 years ago.
Talk about early human beings. Put these events in the correct chronological order.
Australopithecus appeared
MAKING IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS IN THE PAST

Excalibur in Atapuerca.
was found
A 1.2 million years old tooth in Atapuerca.
Wheat was cultivated in the Middle East and Europe.
Fire was discovered about half a million years ago.
Ask and answer questions beginning with Where / When.

You: Where was Excalibur found? Your partner: In Atapuerca.
GIVING HISTORICAL ARGUMENTS

It may mean that the first European was not a Homo antecessor.
It could be to remember them.
It could also be an astrological observatory.
Look in Unit 8 to find the corresponding questions.

Why was finding a 1.2 million years old tooth an important discovery?
145
Early civilizations
REPORTING ON LENGTH OF TIME
Egyptian civilisation about three thousand years.
The Old Kingdom around 1,000 years.
lasted
The Middle Kingdom around 300 years.
The New Kingdom about 500 years.

You: How long did the Middle Kingdom last? Your partner: Around 300 years.
3,100 BC 2,200 BC 2,050 BC 1,800 BC 1,580 BC 1,100 BC 31 BC

INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATE
SECOND
PERIOD
PERIOD
FIRST
MIDDLE N E W K I N G D O M F O R E I G N R U L E
O L D K I N G D OM
KINGDOM
DESCRIBING ARTWORK
Mesopotamians built magnificent palaces such as Khorsabad.
Mesopotamians built monumental gates, such as the Ishtar Gate.
The biggest tombs were spectacular pyramids.
The most important temples, such as the one at Karnak,
These statues are invaluable sources of information about everyday life.
Use these words to write about other artwork which appears in Unit 9.
EXPRESSING ABILITY AND PERMISSION IN THE PAST

Civil servants read, write and count.
Egyptian women inherit and own property.
could
Egyptian women get divorced.
Only the pharaoh and the priests enter certain areas of the temples.
Talk about what people could do in the past.

Civil servants could
REPORTING FACTS AND EVENTS IN THE PAST

Egyptians had a god represented the river.
They made linen which was used to make clothes.
All had funeral chambers were hidden from thieves.
The biggest tombs were the pyramids were built for the pharaohs.
Match.
You: The water from the Nile left mud Your partner: which made the fields fertile.
146
Ancient Greece
GIVING HISTORICAL RECOUNTS
The Greeks grew vines, wheat and olives.
The Greeks made excellent pottery.
Greek citizens met regularly at assemblies.
Greek peasants went to the cities to sell their crops.
Greek gods fought like human beings.
Talk about the Greeks:

The Greeks grew
GIVING HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS (CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES)

many Greeks migrated and founded colonies.
Consequently, Greek culture spread towards the east.
it was important to know the opinion of the gods.
What caused these consequences?

Look in Unit 10 to find the causes.
EXPRESSING PURPOSE
Greek citizens met regularly at assemblies to make decisions.
Greeks and Phoenicians fought to control commerce.
Peasants went to the cities to sell their crops.
Even rulers used to go to Delphi to ask the opinion of the gods.

You: Why did Greek citizens meet at assemblies? Your partner: To make decisions.
GIVING A TIME FRAME

During the Archaic Age, the Greeks started to live in city-states.
Later, democracy replaced aristocracy.
Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Greece went through a period of crisis.
In the middle of the 6th century BC, the Persians expanded their territories.
In 499 BC, these Greek poleis rebelled.
Match.
You: During the Archaic Age, Your partner: the Greeks started to live in city-states.
147
Ancient Rome
GIVING HISTORICAL RECOUNTS
Each province was controlled by a governor.
Rome was governed by a king.
This king was chosen by the most important families.
The king was helped by the senate.
The first triumvirate was formed by Julius Caesar, Crassus and Pompey.
Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators.
Rome was conquered by the Etruscans.
The Christians were persecuted by the Romans.

You: Who controlled each province? Your partner: A governor.
GIVING HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS: EXPRESSING CONTRAST

the Christians were persecuted by the Romans.
in 62 AD, a severe earthquake hit Pompeii.
the Romans fought against the Etruscans.
However,
the plebeians fought for equal rights.
the first triumvirate soon disagreed and a civil war broke out.
citizens could own property and manage businesses.
Can you imagine the statements which are before However? Think and check in Unit 11.
GIVING HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS (CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES)

Consequently, these cities were very well preserved.
Initially, only the patricians had political rights.
As a result, trade collapsed.
Moreover, the baths were places where the Romans could meet their friends.
For example, the Romans adopted all the Greek gods.
Introduce the sentence in a similar way.

You: Consequently, these cities Your partner: As a result, these cities
148
Glossary
UNIT 1 isthmus reservoir

arrow lava salinity
cardinal point lower course salt water /
compass lower mantle sea water
equator magma source
geographical mantle spring
coordinate marine erosion tide
geoid middle course tourism
globe mountain tributary
graphic scale mountain range wadi
hemisphere ocean ridge water cycle
key ocean trench water pollution
latitude peninsula water supply
longitude pipe wave
meridian plain UNIT 4
numeric scale plateau
altitude
parallel sediment
anticlockwise
physical map sedimentation
anticyclone
political map solution
atmospheric
prime / Greenwich tectonic plate pressure
meridian temperature average
scale tsunami axis
thematic map upper course climate
topographic map upper mantle climate zone
UNIT 2 valley cloud
volcano convectional
alluvial plain
waterfall depression
archipelago
basin UNIT 3 equinox
bay acid rain front
beach aquifer frontal
canyon basin high pressure
cape canal humidity
cliff consumption local wind
continental drift dam low pressure
continental shelf directly maximum
continental slope drought minimum
core flood monsoon
course flow oblique
crater fresh water orbit
crust glacier orographic / relief
delta groundwater periodic wind
dissolve high tide perpendicular
earthquake hydroelectric pole
erosion power station precipitation
estuary iceberg prevailing wind
fault indirectly rainfall
fluvial erosion inland sea rotation
fold lagoon season
gulf low tide solstice
island ocean current sphere
149
Glossary
synoptic wind stony desert cave art

temperate swell copper
tilted temperate cultivate
trade wind timber industry dolmen
water vapour tropical climate domesticate
weather tropics farmland
weather station tundra fibula
uninhabited fishing
UNIT 5
valley forge
abundant vegetation gathering
alpine climate village hammer
cactus
hand mill
canopy UNIT 6
helmet
Chinese climate archipelago
Homo antecessor
climate zone cyclone
Homo erectus
coniferous forest / depression
Homo habilis
taiga desert
Homo sapiens
continental climate flow
hunting
deciduous forest island
hut
densely populated lake
loom
desert climate mountain range
mammoth
drought plain
megalith
dry season plateau
menhir
dune river
Metal Ages
equatorial climate typhoon
mineral
extremely
UNIT 7 Neanderthal
forest floor
alpine (high Neolithic Age
frozen
mountain) Neolithic
grassland / climate revolution
savannah
Atlantic climate nomadic
inland
central plateau outdoors
liana
coast oven
meadow
continental climate Palaeolithic Age
Mediterranean
Mediterranean palisade
climate
climate pit trap
mild
mountain range plough
moor
oceanic / maritime polished stone
oasis climate
oceanic / pottery
plain
maritime Prehistory
plateau
climate priest
polar climate
polar climate realistic
subtropical climate
populated rite
temperate climate
prairie sail
rainforest UNIT 8 scaffolding
rainy season animal pen sedentary
reservoir archaeological sickle
rocky desert Australopithecus smelting
sandy desert bolas spear
shrub bronze Stone Age
ski station bury stone circle
steppe cave stone tool
150
storehouse pharaoh leather
supernatural force political logic
textile polytheistic mask
tin privileged metope
torc profile myth
torch pyramid oracle
trader relief order
tribe religious pediment
upright river civilisation priest / priestess
warrior sailing ship reasoning
weave sanctuary shaft
wheel sarcophagus stylobate
wood hut scribe
UNIT 11
sculpture
UNIT 9 arcade
serpent
adobe barefoot
servant
afterlife basilica
slave
arch caldarium
stairway
architecture capitol
static
aristocracy cardo
statue
army Christianity
temple
beard comitia
tomb
beetle consul
vault
brick curia
vulture
canal decumanus
whip
chariot domus
ziggurat
civil servant forum
craftsman UNIT 10 freedman
crook aristocracy frigidarium
cuneiform writing architrave governor
dam assembly imperial currency
elite beauty insula
expand capital Latin
flood citizen magistratus
funeral chamber city-state / polis market
headdress colony mining
hierarchical Corinthian non-citizen
hieroglyphics column palaestra
hypogeum cornice patrician
idealised council plebeian
immortal crisis province
irrigation canal democracy republic
linen Doric column senate
mastaba drachma senator
merchant foreigner tepidarium
monument frieze thermae / baths
mummy god / goddess tolerant
nobleman hero triumphal arch
papyrus highly triumvirate
peasant illiterate unequal
perspective Ionic column villa
151
Essential Geography and History 1 is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education
department at Santillana, under the supervision of ENRIQUE JUAN REDAL, TERESA GRENCE RUIZ and MICHELE C. GUERRINI
Contributing authors: Jos M. Caballero Martnez, Ana Isabel Calvo Villalba, Cynthia Donson,
Olga Espino de Torres-Peralta, Teresa Grence Ruiz, Lyndon Heal, Manuel Lpez Muoz, Martin Minchom,
Antonia Perales lvarez and Gabriela Prieto
Revision: M. Antonia Hervada Bermdez de Castro, Cristina Delgado Vico, Elena Mara Martn Monje,
Elena del Pozo, Javier Santa-Isabel Hernndez, Sophie Gonick, Jeannette West
Language consultant: Ana Llinares Garca (Professor at the Autnoma University, Madrid)
Editors: Martin Minchom, Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish and Sheila Klaiber
Art director: Jos Crespo

Design coordinator: Rosa Marn
Design Team:
Cover: Martn Len-Barreto
Interior: Manuel Garca
Coordinator, design development: Javier Tejeda
Design development: Jos Luis Garca and Ral de Andrs
Technical director: ngel Garca Encinar

Technical coordinator: Marisa Valbuena
Layout: Pedro Valencia and Javier Pulido
Artwork coordinator: Carlos Aguilera
Illustrations: Joaqun Marn and Antonio Muoz Tenllado
Cartography: Jos Luis Gil, Beln Hernndez, Jos Manuel Solano and Francisco Javier Fernndez
Research and photographic selection: Amparo Rodrguez and Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish
Photographs: A. Toimil; Algar; C. Jimnez; CEPAP, Centre dEstudis del Patrimoni Arqueolgic de la Prehistria-Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona;
D. Lezama; F. Po; F. Rodrguez/Archivo Fotogrfico.; G. M. Azumendi; GARCA-PELAYO/Juancho; I. Melndez; J. A. Lpez; J. C. Martnez; J. C. Muoz;
J. Escandell.com; J. Lucas; J. M. Borrero; J. M. Escudero; J. M. Regalado; J. V. Resino; J. Zorita; Krauel; M. Barcenilla; M. Blanco; M. G. Vicente;
Michele di Piccione; ORONOZ; P. Lpez; Prats i Camps; R. Manent; R. Teja; R. Toln; R. Vela; S. Cid; S. Enrquez; S. Padura; T. Arias; X. S. Lobato;
A. G. E. FOTOSTOCK/Sylvain Grandadam, Sinclair Stammers, Jos Fuste Raga, David Parker, Wojtek Buss, Doug Scott, Dinodia; AGENCIA ZARDOYA;
ALTAIR; ARXIU MAS; COMSTOCK; COVER/ CORBIS SYGMA/Alain Nogues, ORONOZ; DIGITALVISION; EFE/ Andreas F. Voegelin, Ulises Rodrguez,
Jaume Sellart, DIGITALGLOBE, EUMETSAT, EPA/STR, M. Bruque, EPA/DPA/Stephanie Pilick; EFE/SIPA-PRESS/Aiuppy, Dickinson, Mohammed El Dakhakhany,
Pall Stefansson, Pavlov, Thomas Haley; FOAT; HIGHRES PRESS STOCK/AbleStock.com; I. Preysler; J. M. Barres; JOHN FOXX IMAGES; KEYSTONE-NEMES;
MELBA AGENCY; MUSEUM ICONOGRAFA/J. A. Bedoya, J. Martin; NASA/Provided by the Sea WiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center,
and ORBIMAGE, Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC, Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team; PAISAJES ESPAOLES;
PHOTODISC; SAFI 2000; SCALA GROUP S.P.A; T. LPEZ; Arabako Arkeologia Museoa/Museo de Arqueologa de lava/Quintas; BIBLIOTECA NACIONAL, MADRID;
F. Martnez; H. Palacios; INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE METEOROLOGA, MADRID; J. A. Botillo; Magellan; MATTON-BILD; MUSEO ARQUEOLGICO E HISTRICO,
LA CORUA; MUSEO ARQUEOLGICO NACIONAL, FLORENCIA; MUSEO ARQUEOLGICO NACIONAL, MADRID; MUSEO ARQUEOLGICO, ATENAS;
MUSEO ARQUEOLGICO, ESTAMBUL; MUSEO ARQUEOLOXICO DO CASTRO DE VILADONGA, LUGO; MUSEO CAPITOLINO, ROMA; MUSEO DE LA ACRPOLIS,
ATENAS; MUSEO DE LAS TERMAS, ROMA; MUSEO DE PREHISTORIA Y ARQUEOLOGA DE CANTABRIA; MUSEO DE PREHISTORIA, VALENCIA;
MUSEO DEL CAPITOLIO, ROMA; MUSEO DEL LOUVRE, PARS; MUSEO DEL VATICANO, ROMA; MUSEO DELLA CIVILT ROMANA, ROMA; MUSEO NACIONAL
DE HISTORIA Y ANTROPOLOGA, MXICO; MUSEO NAZIONALE SAN MARTINO, NPOLES; MUSEO PROVINCIAL, LUGO; Parque Prehistrico de Mlaga;
REAL ACADEMIA DE LA HISTORIA, MADRID; SERIDEC PHOTOIMAGENES CD/Image Source Limited; THE BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON;
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK; ARCHIVO SANTILLANA
The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the following teachers for their insightful comments
and useful suggestions throughout the preparation of Essential Geography and History 1:
Carlos lvarez Santos (Liceo Zuloaga); Elaine Blaus (British School of Alicante); Mara Gonzlez Sanz
(Colegio B. V. Mara, IBVM); David Hinojar San Romn; Irena Jaroszynska (IES Ciudad de Jan);
Jos Ramn Noya (Liceo Zuloaga); Juan Carlos Ocaa Aybar; Maureen Vidal Gafford.
2008 by Santillana Educacin, S. L. / Richmond Publishing Richmond Publishing

Torrelaguna, 60. 28043 Madrid 4 Kings Street Cloisters
Albion Place
Richmond Publishing is an imprint
London W6 0QT
of Santillana Educacin, S. L.
United Kingdom
PRINTED IN SPAIN
Printed in Spain
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

ISBN: 978-84-294-0683-2 in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
CP: 843135 electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
D.L.: without the prior permission in writing of the publisher.

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Contents

04 Weather and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

07 Europe and Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

10 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

11 Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Unit ............................ Unit ............................

Unit ............................ Unit ............................ Unit ............................

IBERIAN PENINSULA a Mount Olympus

Unit ............................ Unit ............................ Unit ............................

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

EUROPE AND SPAIN

Recognise different features of the Earth Expressing abilities:

What do you think you will learn about in Unit 1?

Now look at the rest of Unit 1.

Content objectives Key language

Locate places on maps Describing things:

Recognise different features of the Earth Expressing abilities:

Basic elements of a map

180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

A N ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AROUND THE WORLD 60

PRECIPITATION (in mm)

150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

2. Now study map A more closely.

The equator divides the Earth into the

The prime meridian divides the Earth into

Arct 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Look at Saint Petersburg. It

Look carefully at the lines of latitude

City Latitude Longitude 20 20

Wallasey Lisbon is 495 km in a straight line.

2. Use a map to plan a trip.

b. Work with a classmate or in a group. Choose one of the cities.

Content objectives Key language

The internal structure of the Earth

Upper mantle: this layer of Crust: this layer of the

Did you know?

The Earths crust

Activity Did you know?

continental shelf island

The different kinds

The collision of plates has produced many mountains.

P LATE AM ERICAN PLATE Fayal Vesuvius PLATE

SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

PLATE INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE

Plate boundaries Tristan

A volcanic eruption A tsunami

e. Why are there two shades of azon

2. Look at the map and find: POLYNESIA

in the southern hemisphere 6,959

c. A peninsula in North America

d. A large plateau in Asia

e. The deepest ocean trench

St Mag Georgia Island

Baik Amu li n Cape Lopatka

r r a Etna Crete Island g

AHAGGAR DESERT Hezar Taiw an Isla nd

MOUNTA INS TIBESTI D Ganges M I 20

Tahat PENINSULA L Deccan Luzon Island ES

Jabel Shan L - K T Plateau IA

Lake Ras Dashan

ETHIOPIAN Cape Sea

HIGHLANDS Guardafui Sri Lanka ME

Victoria 5,199 Archipelago