Evolution of Australian Biota

Section 1: Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and

continental drift indicates that Australia was once part of an ancient
super continent.
Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once part of a
landmass called Gondwana, including: matching continental margins, position of mid-ocean
ridges, spreading zones between continental plates, fossils in common on Gondwanan
continents, including Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora, and marsupials, similarities
between present day organisms on Gondwanan continents.

Matching continental margins

o Plate tectonics is the study of the movement of crustal plates.

o Continental margin is the zone between the ocean basin and the mass of the
continent.
o Continental shelf is area underwater from the shore to the continental margin.
o Continental margins of continents in southern hemisphere can be aligned to form
southern landmass Gondwana which formed when Pangaea split 150 million years
ago.
o Gondwana consists of South America, Australia, Africa, India and Antarctica.
o Process
India first separated from Australia and Antarctica and the Indian Ocean
began to widen with sea-floor spreading.
South American separated from Africa and India collided with Asia 50 million
years ago.
Australia separated from Antarctica and then South America split from
Antarctica 25 million years ago.
Australian plate collided with Pacific Island arc and formed New Guinea 15
million years ago.
o When continental margins are aligned, important rock types and structures also
align.

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 Position of mid ocean ridges

o At positions where plates move apart, molten material from under the crust moves
up to replace separating crust.
o This results in sea floor spreading.
o A mid ocean ridge then forms in which rocks become older the further one moves
away from the ridge.
o Evidence of movement comes from the age differences in the mid ocean ridge basalt
as one moves away from the ridge.

Spreading zones and subduction zones between continental plates

o Spreading zones are places where molten rock is coming out of the Earth to form
new rock.
o This results in younger rock closer to spreading zones.
o Subduction zones are places where one plate bends under another as they collide or
move against each other.
o This is because if new Earth was created, the excess mass must re-enter the Earth
somewhere as the Earth isnt gaining mass.
o Thus the rock against the subduction zone is the oldest.
o By testing the rocks near subduction and spreading zones using radiometric dating
techniques, it can be proven that the sea floor is spreading which pushes the
continents apart or together.

Fossils in common on Gondwanan continents, including Glossopteris and

Gangamopteris flora, and marsupials

o A fossil is any trace or remains of past life.

o The Glossopterids are an order of plants and the three most common genera are
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris and Palaeovittaria.
o Glossopterids lived during the Permian and were deciduous woody trees and shrubs.
o Fossils have been found on all the continents that once made up Gondwana.
o Glossopteris is a genus of seed ferns.
o It is believed Glossopteris was deciduous with mature leaves. Its seeds were several
millimetres in length so they were too big to be dispersed across seas by wind.
o Hence the presence of Glossopteris on the southern continents during the Permian
is strong evidence to show Gondwana was connected during the Permian.
o Gangamopteris is similar to Glossopteris however they do not have a midrib but a
median grove in the leaf.

o When Australia and Antarctica separated from Africa 150 million years ago,
mammals were still primitives with monotremes, marsupials and few placentals.
o Australia became isolated and Marsupials evolved and diverse species flourished.
o In other parts of the world, placental mammals evolved and monotremes became
extinct except for South American Opossum. Marsupials also became extinct.

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 o When Australia collided with Asia 15 million years ago, placental mammals such as
rats and mice were able to come to Australia.
o Fossils of such organisms can prove this.

Similarities between present day organisms on Gondwanan continents

o Many plants and animals that are found on the continents of the southern
hemisphere show Gondwanan ancestry.
o Ratites
Large flightless birds that can only be found on southern continents.
E.g. Australian emus, African ostrich, Cassowaries of New Guinea, New
Zealand Kiwis and South American rheas.
Do not have a keel on breastbone which is where flight muscles are attached
for birds of flight. Thus flat-chested.
Ratites evolved in Cretaceous period and divergent evolution occurred when
continents separated thus separating the groups.
o Southern Beach Tree, Nothofagus
Found in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and South America.
Its presence on the southern continents led scientists to believe that
continents had once been joined.
Australias only deciduous tree.
o Proteaceae
Includes many familiar plants: Waratah, Banksias, Hakeas, Grevilleas.
Low dispersal ability but many found on southern continents showing
landmass of Gondwana once existed.
E.g. Macadamias endemic to Australia but close relatives found in Sulawesi,
South Africa and South America.
Drying of centre of Australia led to division between west coast species and
east coast species.
o Araucariaceae
Family of evergreen conifers usually found in rainforests.
3 genera: Agathis, Araucaria and Wollemi.
Tress found in Australia, South America, Phillipines, New Caledonia, Fiji, New
Zealand and New Guinea.
Believed to have originated in Triassic.
Expanded during Jurassic and early Cretaceous and diversified in both
hemispheres.
Until last stages of Cainozoic, was an important part of Gondwanan flora.
Discuss current research into evolutionary relationships between extinct species, including
megafauna and extant Australian species.
o Scientists can study fossil remains of extinct Australian life forms and compare
structures with current Australian life forms.
o Similarities and differences provides information about relationships between the
groups, increases our knowledge of development of Australian fauna.
o Megafauna are animals which are similar to present day organisms but much bigger.

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 o Current research revolves around fossil evidence.
o Once fossils are found, similarities and differences with other known species, both
living and extinct, can be made so relationships can be deduced.
o Study of a range of such animals gives clues about the climatic and environmental
conditions at that time.
o Modern common wombat and Diprotodon.
Believed that modern wombat and Diprotodon shared a common ancestor
about 30 million years ago.
Diprotodon Wombat
Size Approximately 3m tall. 1m long and 35cm tall
Males weighing about at shoulder. Weighs
2500kg and females 30kg.
weighing 1000kg.
Skull shape Both Diprotodon and wombat share a similar skull
shape. However, wombat has a more flattened
skull which is an advantage for digging burrows.
Diprotodon has large nasal area and septum.
Teeth Both Wombats and Diprotodon have similar dental
arrangements.
Feet Both wombats and Diprotodon have the same
arrangements and number of toes and back feet.
Bones of Diprotodon more robust which is needed
to support its size. Wombat narrower foot with
longer claws for digging.

o Red Kangaroo and Procoptodon

Red Kangaroo is largest living kangaroo while Procoptodon was the largest
kangaroo known.
Red Kangaroo Procoptodon
Size Males were 1.8m and Procoptodon was 2-3 m
weigh 90 kg. tall and weighed 150-
200 kg.
Skull shape Naked muzzle with a Procoptodon much
longer face, more flatter face with
similar to a dingo. forward-facing eyes.
Teeth Forward pointing Procoptodon also well
incisors in lower jaw to adapted to eat grass.
grasp grass and top
incisors to tear grass
Feet Lengthened feet with 3 Procoptodon had a
toes. single large to making
foot resemble hoof.
Each hand had 2 extra
long fingers.

Solve problems to identify the positions of mid-ocean ridges and spreading zones that infer a
moving Australian continent.

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 o A divergent plate boundary occurs when two plates move apart.
o If spreading occurs on a continent, a rift zone forms between two parts of the
continent that are spreading.
o Some rift zones occur on land.
o The rift valley in East Africa is initial stage of separation. The Red Sea shows more
advanced stage of separating Africa from Arabian Peninsula.
o Under oceans, rising magma makes the rift zone a highly active volcanic zone and
lava comes out along fissures as flood basalt.
o Flood basalt forms ocean crust.
o As magma rises, it pushes the 2 continents apart. This is called a mid-ocean ridge.
o Earths magnetic field periodically changes. Magnetic reversals are recorded as a
symmetrical pattern either side of the mid-ocean ridge.

o In the above graphic, the South East Indian rise occurs along red part of the jagged
line. This also contains the Pacific Antarctic ridge and the East Pacific rise.
o The Reykjanes Ridge, Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Atlantic Indian ridge is shown by
the yellow line.
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and
use available evidence to illustrate the changing ideas of scientists in the last 200 years
about individual species such as the platypus as new information and technologies became
available.

Knowledge about Platypus

Then
Aboriginals believed that it was a
cross between duck and water rat.
Scientists in Britain who received a
specimen from colonists in Australia
Now
Mammal Monotreme
Suckles young with milk
Has mammary patches instead of
nipples like other mammals.

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 thought it was a hoax. Endotherm.
Electroreceptors in bill which it uses
to sense prey.
52 chromosomes.
Have 10 sex chromosomes.
Fossils of platypus have been
discovered in South America
suggesting that Australia and South
America were once joined.
Able to compare the fossils with
living specimen.

Technology used to research platypus

Then Now
Dissection. DNA sequence which can be used to
Observations by eye. determine whether platypuses are
Use of weapons to kill live specimens marsupial mammal or placental
so they can be studied. But this mammal.
means that scientists are limited to Specialised cameras can be used to
dead specimens. look at platypus young in burrow.
Endoscope with video camera.
Specialised drills that do not disturb
platypus with minimal
environmental disturbance.
Infra-red cameras for better video
quality in dark areas in the animals
burrow.
Microphones can be attached onto
cameras to record sound of platypus
in burrows.
Radio tracking in which transmitter
is attached to platypus.
Genetic finger printing allowed
discovery of chromosomes of
platypus.

Platypus characteristic Mammal or Non-mammal

Mouth Bill, no teeth Non mammal.
Feet Webbed feet Non mammal.
Reproduction Internal fertilisation, but egg Non mammal.
laying (Oviparous.)
Parental care feeding young Mammary glands for milk Mammal.
production; young are suckled
Regulation of body Endotherms body heat is Mammal.
temperature generated from internal
sources. Body temperature is
constant and hardly fluctuates
with that of the external

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 environment.

o The platypus is now considered a mammal

This is because it is warm blooded as it generates its own heat.
It suckles its young.
It has hair of some sort.

Section 2: The changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of

years have happened through evolution
Discuss examples of variation between members of a species.
o A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
o However, within a species, there are variations between individuals.
E.g. in domestic dogs, there are great differences in size, colour, hair length
etc.
Humans have bred different breeds so we now have German shepherds,
Chihuahuas, poodles etc.
o Variations are important in a changing environment.
o A particular adaptation may provide an advantage. E.g. protection from predators or
attract a mate.
o Causes of variation.
Mutation in genetic code can arise in both sexually and asexually
reproducing organisms. Leads to variation.
A mutation that occurs in a body cell is lost when individual dies.
Therefore, mutations must occur in sex cell as this will be passed onto the
next generation.
Variation also occurs in sexually reproducing organisms through random
segregation of chromosomes during meiosis or crossing over during meiosis.
Sexual reproduction involves union of 2 gametes. Therefore, half of
characteristics come from one parent and other half from other parent.
Thus offspring not identical to either parent.
o Epacris impressa
Is a flowering plant referred to as common heath or coastal heath.
Found in dry sclerophyll forests and coastal heaths of Tasmania, Victoria,
southern NSW and South Australia.
Polymorphic species.
Polymorphic many forms and in the common heath the variety
exists in leaf size, indumentum (amount of hair on stems and leaves),
corolla size and colour, flowering time and regeneration method.
Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances of survival of
species when environmental change occurs.
o Theory of evolution states different species of today have arisen from simpler
organisms of the past.

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 o Mechanism for evolution is known as natural selection. Found by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Wallace.
o New species could arise over time because of selection of favourable genetic
characteristics within a population.
o Characteristics enable survival of particular individuals while those without do not
survive.
o Survivors pass on favourable gene to next generation until nearly all members of
population possesses this favourable characteristic.
o Eventually results in development of new species.
o Selecting agents factors which select favourable gene characteristics and include
physical and chemical changes in environment.
o Survival of species through natural selection only occurs if variation exists among
individual members.
o Natural selection and formation of new species can also occur from variations if
some sort of isolating mechanism prevents variant populations from interbreeding.
E.g. Snow gums exhibit variations in height, bark thickness and leaf length
depending on their altitude.
Identify and describe evidence of changing environments in Australia over millions of years.
o Main evidence comes from rock types and fossils.
o Palaeoclimates can be determined by comparing extinct species with closely related
extant species looking at range of fossils at one site.
o Evidence of glaciation
As river of ice grinds over land, it polishes rocks making them smooth.
Also picks up debris to carry along and debris leaves grooves and scratches
in rocks with grooves parallel to each other.
Australia had glaciers in late Carboniferous and early Permian when it was
near South Pole.
o Evidence of swamps.
Australia had large glaciers in early Permian.
Temperatures rose and ice melted causing sea level to rise.
Many coastal areas around east coast thus became swamps.
Evidence for change shown by plant fossils.
Glossopteris was a seed fern that lived in swamps and this is basis for
Permian coal deposits.
o Evidence for warmer climate
Climates in Triassic warmed and changing plant life shows this.
Glossopterids disappeared and new fork-frond seed ferns, conifers and
Ginkgos appeared.
o Evidence for rainforests in Central Australia.
Fossils of Nothofagus were found in rocks in central Australia. 20 30
million years ago.
Suggests that rainforests once existed in central Australia.
Fossil beds form stratigraphic layers showing sequence of events.
During Cainozoic, climate fluctuations related to Ice Age periods and the
rainforests and Nothofagus disappeared from central Australia.

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 o Australia becomes drier
Tertiary fossils from central Australia show presence of permanent
freshwater lakes surrounded by rainforest.
Fossils include Diprotodons, marsupial lion, flamingos, crocodiles, koalas and
freshwater dolphins.
Fossils show rainforests slowly being replaced by open vegetation and
arboreal animals replaced by ground dwellers.
Ice sheets increase in size, global air circulation chanes cuasing colder and
more drying winds.
Aridity increases and forests replaced by woodland, grasslands and desert.
Shown by changes in plants to Eucalypts then to saltbush, wattle and
Spinifex.
Spreading of icesheet at Antarctica caused greatest aridity in Australia and
100m drop in sea level.
Evidence for this shown in formation of large gypsum dunes at Lake
Eyre and Lake Frome.
Identify areas within Australia that experiences significant variations in temperature and
water availability.

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 Identify changes in the distribution of Australian species, as rainforests contracted and
sclerophyll communities and grasslands spread, as indicated by fossil evidence.
o 65 mya
Moist climates supported rainforests.
Fauna included early relatives of koalas, kangaroos, bats, crocodiles and
possums.
o 45 mya
Australia drifted upwards and climate dried out.
Rainforests contracted from central Australia.
This gave way to open forests and woodlands.
Animals evolve to more familiar species such as hopping kangaroos.
o As the rainforests contracted, this gave rise to grassland and sclerophyll
communities.
E.g. Extinction of Nothofagus shown its fossils in central Australia.
This gave way to more fire tolerant species.
o Marsupials now only found in Australia and South America.
Marsupials flourished in warmer climate as Australia drifted north.
On Northern continents, many marsupials were outcompeted by placental
mammals.
Discuss current theories that provide a model to account for these changes.
o Changes in flora and fauna over time occurred changing environment and human
activities.
o Environment acts as selecting agent for organisms that have been better suited for
their surroundings and populations have changed because of natural selection.
o Climatic variations caused by continental drift.
o Australia = tropical climate before Gondwana broke away from Pangaea. Close to
equator.
o Gondwana moved south 200 million years ago so climates became cooler.

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 o Club-moss forests and swamps replaced by seed fern and conifer forests.
o Australia moved northwards after breaking from Antarctica.
o Flowering plants and rainforests became abundant and animals evolved to adapt.
o 1.6 mya, climate cooler and drier and desert formed in Central Australia.
o Grass, Eucalypts and Wattles replaced rainforests in dry areas.
Supported by fossil evidence at Riversleigh.
Woodlands replaced forests.

o 100,000 years ago, humans also affected distribution and abundance of flora and
fauna.
o Theory of extinction of mega fauna: hunted by Aboriginals.
o Humans use fire around this period which may modify environment resulting in
more fire-tolerant vegetation.
o Arrival of Europeans and industry, land clearing, pollution and farming. Affected
abundance of Australian plants and animals as they become outcompeted and
habitats destroyed.
Discuss Darwins observations of Australian flora and fauna and relate these to his theory of
evolution.
o Darwin visited Australia in 1836 on Beagle.
o Found that although Australian flora and fauna exhibited many differences to
northern hemisphere counterparts, some superficially resembled those from other
countries in appearance and behaviour.
o Called this convergent evolution different organisms living in similar environments
show similar adaptations.
E.g. crows looked and behaved like English Jackdaws.
Kangaroos similar digestive habits to northern hemisphere ruminants.
Carnivorous marsupials such as the thylacine occupy similar environmental
niche to lions and tigers.
o Explained this in terms of environment selecting individuals with most favourable
characteristics for survival.
o When 2 environments similar, similar type of organism will eventually prevail in each
location as favourable characteristics ensure survival and passed from generation to
generation.
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to develop a timeline that
identifies key events in the formation of Australia as an island continent from its origins as
part of Gondwana
Years ago Event
300 million Australia part of supercontinent Pangaea.
150 million Pangaea split into 2 landmasses. Gondwana
forms.
135 million Gondwana began to split apart. India and
South America split from Australia.
65 million Dinosaurs became extinct.
38 million Australia split from Antarctica and moved
north.
25 million Marsupial diversity at its greatest and

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 Australian plate collided with Asian plate.
15 million Placental mammals invaded. E.g. rodents.
2 million years Glaciation lowered sea levels so land bridge
formed between Australia and New Guinea.
Tropical vegetation and mammals enter
Australia.
100 000 years ago Humans possibly arrived. Definitely present
40 000 years ago.
40 000 years ago Megafauna died out.
5000 years ago Dingo introduced and many mainland
animals became extinct. E.g. Thylacine.
200 years ago Europeans arrived. Introduced new plants
and animals. E.g. rabbit, cat, sheep, prickly
pear cactus.

Gather information from secondary sources to describe some Australian fossils, where these
fossils were found and use available evidence to explain how they contribute to the
development of understanding about the evolution of species in Australia.
Perform a first-hand investigation, gather information of named Australian fossil samples
and use available evidence to identify similarities and differences between current and
extinct Australian life forms.
o Marsupial lion
Pliocene Epoch.
Found at Naracoorte caves.
Carnivorous mammal. Wide heavy, short-snouted skull. Long shearing teeth.
Showed period of Megafauna. Able to compare features of megafauna with
modern day organisms.
Extant relative: Wombat, koala.
Similarities.
Both marsupials.
Differences:
Herbivore and carnivore.
Large megafauna size and small modern day organisms.

o Thunder bird
Pleistocene Epoch.
Found at Lake Callabonna.

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 2m tall bird with tiny wings and large hind legs.
Megafauna co-existed with humans as there are rock paintings of thunder
bird.
Extant relatives: Emu, Cassowaries, Rheas.
Similarities.
Both are ratites. Flightless birds.
Good for running at high speeds.
Herbivores.
Differences.
Thunder bird is much larger.

o Swamp Crocodile
Skull found at Riversleigh.
55 million years ago.
Lives in swamps.
Reptilian scales, long and strong tail, large snout
and sharp carnivorous teeth.
Swamp crocodile much smaller than present-day crocodiles. 1.5 m in length
only.
Present information from secondary sources to discuss the Huxley Wilberforce debate on
Darwins theory of evolution.
o Darwin not present at debate.
o Topic of presentation Darwins theory of evolution.
o Held at Oxford University in 1860 by the British Association for the advancement of
science.
Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information of examples of variation in at least
two species of living organisms.

Section 3: Continuation of species has resulted, in part, from the

reproductive adaptations that have evolved in Australian plants and
animals.
Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in terms of daughter cells
produced.

Number of daughter cells
produced
Types of cells this process
occurs in.
Purpose
Number of divisions
Relative number of
Mitosis Meiosis
2 4
Normal body cells Sex cells
Repair, Growth and Production of gametes (sex
replacement of cells cells).
1 2
Same number. Known as Half the number. Known as

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 chromosomes in daughter diploid number Haploid number.
cells

o Sex cells able to achieve full number of chromosomes through the formation of
zygote in the unity of 2 gametes.

o Meiosis produces offspring that are genetically different to parents.

o A homologous pair of chromosomes consist of 2 similar chromosomes: one pair is of
maternal origin and the other is paternal.
o 3 reasons for variation
Crossing over of chromosomes also results in variation because genetic
information is exchanged.
Random fertilisation of sex cells.
Random segregation of homologous pairs of chromosomes.
Compare and contrast external and internal fertilisation
Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in relation to the colonisation of
terrestrial and aquatic environments.
o Male gametes need to unit with female gametes for fertilisation.

External fertilisation

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 o Organisms that colonised aquatic environments often have adaptations to ensure
gametes and fertilised eggs are not swept away.
o In aquatic environments this can only take place outside the body.
Gametes surrounded by water so will not dry out.
o Normally occurs in fish, marine invertebrates and amphibians.
o Large numbers of gametes produced and eggs and sperm released at same time.
o Large numbers offspring are consequently produced but do not develop inside
female so more susceptible to predators.
o Large numbers ensure some will survive to maturity.

Internal fertilisation

o Successfully colonised land cannot rely on water to bring gametes together.

o Male gamete unites with female gamete.
o Ensures that gametes and fertilised eggs do not dry out.
o Introduction of sperm in courtship rituals ensures that gametes are not wasted in
most cases of internal fertilisation.
o Gametes do not have to be produced in large numbers.
o Land plants must rely on wind or other pollinating agents.
o Some land plants still rely on water to carry male gamete to female egg so restricted
to moist environments.
Describe some of the mechanisms found in Australian flora for: pollination, seed dispersal,
asexual reproduction with reference to local examples.

Pollination

o Male parts of flowers are stamens consisting of anthers at the end of filaments.
o Pollen grains containing male gametes in anthers.
o Female parts are pistils containing stigma, style and ovary.
o Female gamete, or zygote, is found in ovary.
o Pollination is transfer of male gamete to stigma.
o Male gamete travels down pollen tube to female gamete.
o Ovum formed when 2 gametes unite in fertilisation. Later becomes seed.
o Cross pollination better than self pollination because more genetic variation
among offspring.
o Casuarina trees have male and female flowers on separate plants to ensure cross
pollination.
o Mountain devil, Lambertia attracts honeyeater birds with rich nectar.
o Pollinators attracted by scent, colour and flowers that imitate appearance of
females.

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 Seed dispersal

o Seeds do not grow if fall under parent plant, as too much competition for nutrients
and light under plant.
o Seeds distributed by animals either carried by animal and pass out in faeces or
discarded by animal when eating.
o Can also cling to animal fur.
o Some plants have brightly coloured, fleshy fruit to attract birds.
Asexual reproduction
o Involves mitosis.
o Advantages
Only on parent is needed.
Offspring produced rapidly to quickly colonise an area.
Good when need to colonise an area rapidly or in cases of drought where
gametes could easily dry out.
o Disadvantages.
Offspring identical to parent.
Species vulnerable to environmental changes such as diseases as there is no
variation in species to defend against threat and ensure continuity.
o Runners structures where new plants grow from nodes along horizontal stems,
roots or rhizomes.
E.g. flowering plants Scaevola and Commelina.
o Suckers new shoots that can develop in to mature plants.
E.g. Wattles and Eucalypts.
o Underground lignotubers or tuberoids New plant grows from underground stems.
E.g. Lilies: Dianella and Lomandra.
Waratahs and Eucalypts developed underground lignotubers to survive
against bush fires.
Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure: fertilisation, survival of the
embryo and of the young after birth.

Fertilisation

o Mature sperm must meet ripe egg.

o Fixed breeding season to coincide with high sexual activity and for optimal growing
season such as spring.

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 o Monotremes have a cloaca which is a common opening for faeces, urine and
gametes.
o Echidnas use their details as coupling to ensure fertilisation.
o Eggs hatch after 10 days of incubation in nest.

o Marsupial young born in underdeveloped state and crawl to pouch to complete

development.
o Some have ability to delay development of young in uterus. Called embryonic
diapause.
o This is to ensure that some young will remain alive if another one dies.

o Birds are monogamous. Only one relationship and this may last a very long time.
o Courtship dances to attract females to ensure fertilisation.
o Synchronises release of mature sperm with release of ripe egg.
Survival of young
o Internal fertilisation ensures zygote protected in enclosed space.
o Desiccation loss of water.
o Eggs fertilised externally have little protection and paternal care.
o Oviparous young develop outside female.
o Viviparous young born alive.
o Shelled egg.
Embryo develops in egg which has a series of membranes.
Yolk sac holds yolk which is food for embryo.
Amnion is inner membrane surrounds embryo allowing it to grow in watery
medium.
Allantois receives and stores embryos urinary wastes.
Blood vessels near shell ensure gas exchange.
Chorion is outer membrane that surrounds everything.
o Care for young.
Inverse relationship between number of eggs released and amount of
parental care.
More eggs = less care.
In some organisms, the parent leaves after laying eggs but once the
offspring hatch, they will return to care for young.
Higher levels of parental care ensure young is well adapted to environment
and able to support themselves, thereby increasing chances of survival.
Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased the chances of
continuity of the species in the Australian environment.
o Adaptations to produce large numbers of offspring able to increase survival chances
as there are more offspring.
o Adaptations to provide high levels of parental care ensure that most if not all young
survive to maturity despite low fertilisation rates.
Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous, with reference
to specific Australian examples.

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 Plants

o One parent and offspring is clone of parent.

o Many plants are able to reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation.
o Vegetative propagation parts of parent plant detach and will grow into new
individuals.
o Advantage.
Less time and energy needed to produce offspring.
Need for pollinators, pollination, fertilisation, production of seeds and seed
dispersal removed.
o Disadvantage
Lack of genetic diversity.
o Tubers are swollen underground stems that store food.
o A potato is a tuber and the eye of the potato are buds which can grow into a new
plant.
o Rhizomes are underground stems that give rise to new roots and shoots at nodes.
E.g. Kangaroo paws, native ginger.
o Suckers are new shoots that arise from roots or underground stems, often after fires.
o Bulbs consist of modified stem which is base of plant and on top are a number of
non-photosynthesising leaves. E.g. onion.
Animals
o Usually invertebrates have ability to reproduce asexually.
o Australian environment is arid, asexual reproduction is means of using less energy to
produce offspring.
o Sponges.
Adults produce buds which are clones of parent.
These break off and grow into new sponges.
When rivers dry up, sponges form gemmules which are drought-resistant
buds and remain dormant until immersed in water again.
o Parthenogenesis
Development of unfertilised egg into adults.
E.g. ants, wasps and bees.
Offspring identical to parent.
Allows build-up of population in short time without need to find mate.
Aphids use this method to quickly produce new females to colonise a new
area.
Some lizards also use this to reproduce asexually. E.g. Bynoes gecko.
Analyse information from secondary sources to tabulate the differences that distinguish the
process of mitosis and meiosis.
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and
use available evidence to discuss the relative success of internal and external fertilisation in
relation to the colonisation of terrestrial and aquatic environments.
Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first hand investigation to gather and
present information about flowers of native species of angiosperms to identify features that
may be adaptations for wind and insect/bird/mammal pollination.

Preliminary Biology: Evolution of Australian Biota Page 18