IEEE TRANSACTIONS O N COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. COM-27, NO.
5, MAY 1979
P.PorzioGiusto,L-PSK: a new type ofPSK modulation,
Alta Frequenza, vol. 43, pp. 981-987, Dec. 1974.
B. Goldand C. M. Rader, Digital Processing of Signals. New
York: McGraw Hill, 1969.
P. D. Welch, The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estima-
tion of power spectra: a method based on time averaging over
shortmodifiedperiodograms, IEEE Trans. AudioElectro-
acoustics, vol. AU-15, pp. 70-73, June 1967.
L. Moreno,Analisi spettrale disegnalidigitalicontecniche
numeriche, Alta Frequenza, vol. 46, pp. 214-224, May 1977.
International RadioConsultativeCommittee(CCIR), XIIZth
Plenary Assembly, Geneva 1974, vol. IX, Recommendation 497,
Report 608, Report 609.
C. Colavito and M. SantAgostino, Binary and quaternary PSK
radiosystemsin a multiple-interferenceenvironment, IEEE
Trans. Commun., vol. COM-21, pp. 1056-1067, Sept. 1973.
P. Ruella,Linearized
multistage
IMPATT amplifier,
in
Con$ Rec. IEEE Int. Con$ Communications, Chicago,Ill.,
June 1977.
G. Robinson, 0. Shimbo,and R. Fang,PSKsignalpower
spectrumspreadproduced by memorylessnonlinear TWTs,
COMSAT Tech. Rev., vol. 3, pp. 227-256, Fall 1973.
Empirical Rain Attenuation Model for EarthSatellitePaths
SING H. LIN, MEMBER, IEEE
Abstruct-A set of three simple empirical formulas is given for the
calculation of long-term rain attenuation distributionson earth-satellite
microwave radio paths from long-term (220 yr) distributions of S-min
point rain rates. The calculated results agree well with six sets of rain
attenuation data on earthsatellite paths measured in Illinois, Georgia
andNewJersey.Thissimple method, whichis an extensionof that
obtained previously by the author for terrestrial radio application, is
useful in the engineeringof satellitecommunicationsystems at fre-
quencies above 10 GHz.
1. INTRODUCTION
The engineering of satellite communication systems at fre-
quencies above 10 GHz requires a method for estimating rain
caused outage probabilities on earthsatellite microwave radio
paths. Most available long-term data on rain rate statistics are
measured by a single rain gauge at a given geographic location.
A procedurefor calculatinga rainattenuationdistribution
from a point rain rate distribution is, therefore, needed.
However, the available experimental data indicate that on a
short-term basis (e.g., storm-bystorm basis) the relationship
between the path attenuation a and the surface pointrain rate
R measured by a single rain gauge is not unique. Inother
words, it is impractical to attempt to predict the short-term
path rain attenuation from short-term measurementof surface
point rain rate. There are two important factors contributing
to this erratic variation of short-term a-R relationship: (1) The
rain attenuation depends not only onrain rate, but also on the
distributions of sizes and canting angles of the nonspherical
raindrops. Thecommonly used Laws and Parsons raindrop
size distribution is valid onlyon long-term average. On a
storm-by-storm basis, thedrop size distribution candeviate
Paperapproved by the EditorforSpaceCommunicationof the
IEEE Communications Society for publication after presentationat the
IEEE Electronics and Aerospace Systems Convention, Arlington, VA,
September 1978. Manuscript received June 16, 1978; revised December
21, 1978.
The author is with Bell Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ 07733.
0090-6778/79/0500-0812$00.75 0 1979 IEEE
significantly from Laws and Parsons distribution. For a given
rain rate, different distributions of raindrop sizes and canting
angles can produce considerablydifferent attenuations. (2)
The spatial structureof rainfall and the altitudeof water freez-
ing level of rain clouds vary erratically from storm to storm.
The short-term measurement of rain rate at a point is insuffi-
cient to predict the corresponding short termspatial extent of
rainfall, and hence the attenuation, on the entire radio path.
The prediction of path rain attenuation distribution from a
point rain rate distribution is, therefore, meaningful only if the
time base is sufficiently long to yield a stable, unique, average
relationship. Consequently this paper addresses only the long-
term average relationship.
Oneshould note that the difficulty in theprediction of
instantaneous path rain attenuation from short-term measure-
ment of surface point rain rate does not impose anysignificant
impediment to the engineering of satellite communication sys-
tems. This is because the reliability requirement of communi-
cation systems is usually specified in terms of allowable total
outage time per year which is a long-term average number. In
other words, short-term prediction is usually not required.
The rain attenuation on a microwave radio path is a compli-
cated function of the nonuniform rain rates on the path, the
raindrop size distribution,raindrop shapes andorientations,
the speed, the local direction and thegradient of wind and the
rain temperature. Rigorous analyses of rain attenuation prob-
lems, even on long-term basis, are fairly complex0-12.21,22.
For engineering applications, a simple but accurate method is
required. This paper presents a simple empirical model, con-
sisting of three simple equations, which gives long-term rain
attenuation distribution computed from path parameters and
from the available rain rate data.
Several radiometerand satellite
beacon
experi-
ments1-4,17,23p24 have been carried out at various locations
to gather rain attenuationstatisticsonearthsatellitepaths.
Long-term p 2 0 yr) distributions of 5-min point rain rates*
for 200 U.S. locations have also become available r e ~ e n t l y . ~ ~
It is shown that the resultscalculatedbythissimple model
agree well withthe rain attenuationdataonearthsatellite
paths measured in Illinois, Georgia and New Jersey. The calcu-
lations indicate that a possible way to reduce the rain caused
outage time or to reduce the required fademargin to meet the
reliability objective is t o select a satellite position to maximize
the satellite elevation angle as viewed from the ground stations
located in heavy rain zones.
2. THE BACKGROUND OF THE EMPIRICAL APPROACH
The set of empirical formulasforearthsatellitepath
attenuation is an extension of those obtained previously for
terrestrial microwave radio paths.5 In the case of terrestrial
paths, the calculation of the expected rain attenuation distri-
bution from a long-term ( 2 2 0 yr) distribution of 5-min point
rain rates is accomplished using empirical formulasdeduced
from available rain rate and rain attenuation data measured on
nine 11 GHz radio paths, ranging from 5 to 43 km, at five dif-
ferent U.S. locations.5
These formulas are
P(R) = a X R b dB/km , (1)
* A 5-min rain rate is the average value of the randomly varying rain
rate in a 5-min interval and iscalculatedas AH/A7 where AH is the
5-min accumulated depth of rainfall and7 = 1/12 h or 5-min.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
COMMUNICATIONS,
ON VOL.
NO.
COM-27, 5, MAY 1979 813

R is the 5-min point rain rate in mm/h, L is the radio path b 1.0 a
length in km, a(R, L ) is the path rain attenuation in dB at the
same probability level as that of R , andthe parameters a
and b are functions13,14*15~31,36~37 of radio freequency, **
as shown in Figure 1.
Equation (1) is well known and has been used extensively
in the literature.10-12p31.32144*45 Strictly speaking, the pre-
cise, theoretical relationship between p and R is very complex
and arigorouscalculationrequires the use of a high power
computer.21*22 However, many authors have found that, in
practice, equation ( 1 ) is asimple but reasonably accurate
0.1
approximation to the complicated problem. The simplicity of 6 8 10 12 44 46 18
the empirical formula (1) is highly desirable in many practical FREOUENCY IN GHZ
engineering applications.
Fig. 1 Dependence of parameters a and b on the radio frequency.
Similarly, the rigorous analyses carried out previously by
the author12 and by o t h e r ~ ~showed ~ ~ ~thatl ~thel theoreti-
~
cal relationships among a(R, t), P(R) and L are very compli-
serve as solid bases for model development. On the other hand,
cated. In the same spirit of equation (1) in the pursuit of sim-
to my knowledge, no measured long-term (220 yr) distribu-
plicity, we have spent considerable effort in finding an empiri-
tions of one minute rain rates are available anywhere to cali-
cal short-cut to the complicated relationships among a(R, L ) ,
bratethe accuracy of several approximate models of one
O(R) and L . Equation (2), deduced from rain rateand rain
minute point rain rate distribution in the literature. The time
attenuation data measured on nine 1 1 GHz radio paths,5 is the
bases of available measured oneminute rain ratedata are
result of suchaneffort. In this approach,onlytwo simple
mostly considerably shorter than 10 yr and are insufficient t o
equations, (1) and (2), are required to predict the rain attenua- yield stable representative statistics5 for accurate model devel-
tion distribution on aterrestrial microwave radio path from
opment. Second, our experience5 indicates that the distribu-
the long-term distribution of 5-min point rain rate.
tion of 5-min point rain rates is fairly close to the distributions
The literatures of rain attenuation problems on microwave
of effective path average rain rates for a wide range of radio
radio paths generally recognize the need for rain rate data with
path lengths of interest.The slight differences betweenthe
long time base (220 yr) and with rain gauge integration times
distributions of 5-min point rain rates and of path average rain
in theorder of minutesor shorter.10-12.26-28,34,35,42-46
rates can be compensated for by a mild correction factor as
The bases for using 5-min point rain rates in this paper and in
discussed in the following.
Reference 5 are twofold. First, in theavailable long-term ( 2 2 0 If the rain rates were uniform over a radio path of length L ,
yr) rain ratedata published by the NationalClimaticCen- the path rain attenuation a(R, L ) would be simply p ( R ) x L ,
ter,29930 theshortest rain gauge integrationtime is 5 min. representingalinearrelationship betweenand L . However,
Twenty to fifty year distributionsof 5-min point rain rates for actual rainfalls are not uniform over. the entire radio path, and
more than 200 U.S. locations*** have already been obtained
therefore on long-term average the increase of a(R, L ) with L
from these publication^.^-^ To obtain long-term rain rate dis- ~ ~ factors in
at a given probability level is n 0 n l i n e a r . ~ 6 ?Two
tributionswithintegration times shorterthan 5 min will
the empirical methodaccountforthe radio path averaging
require very costly, time consuming and tedious reprocessing effect. First, the method is based upon the long-term distribu-
of a very large volume of original strip chart records of rain- tion of 5 m i n point rain rates in which the 5-min time averag-
falls maintainedby the NationalClimatic Center.Further- ing partially accounts for the fact that the radio path performs
more,these Weather Bureau rain gauges and the associated a spatial averaging of non-uniformrain rates.18-20 A 5-min
strip chart recorders were designed to measure rainfall accumu- average of the rain rate seen at a point corresponds to spatially
lationsin 5-min intervals or longer. Attempting to estimate averaging approximately 2.1 km of vertically variable rain
high rain rates in durationsmuchshorterthan 5 min from
rates, assuming 7 m/s average descent velocity of rain-
these strip charts will encounter significant uncertainty. The
d r o p ~ . ~ ~ , ~ ~
difficulty stems from the fact that the rain rate is the deriva- Fig. 2 shows how the point rain rate distribution, from two
tive of the rainfall accumulation as a function of time recorded years of measurements atPalmetto, Ga., depends onthe
on these strip charts on which the width of the pen trace is averaging time intervals (range: 0.5-60 min). The probability
generally wider than a minute. of a 5-min rain rate exceeding the 40 mm/h threshold is 1/2
In other words, measured long-term (>20 yr) distributions
that of a 0.5-min rain rate exceeding the same threshold. From
of 5-min point rain rates are available at many locations to another viewpoint, increasing the averaging time interval from
0.5 to 5 min reduces the 0.01 percentile (i.e., 53 minlyr) rain
** Strictly speaking, the parameters a and b are also functions of rate from 87 to 58 mm/h. Additional data on the effects of
wave polarization.
*** Similarresultshave also been obtained for ten locations near averaging time intervals on rain rate distributions can be found
the Vancouver area in Canada.41 in References 43 and 44.
 814 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. COM-27, NO. 5, MAY 1979

10000

4000

100

0 40 00 120 160
RAINRATE IN mmlhr
Fig. 2! Dependence of rain rate distribution on rain gauge integration
time from two years of measurement at Palmetto,Ga.

However, since most radio paths of interest are longer than
2.1 km, the fixed 5-min averaging interval cannot adequately
account for all the path length variations. This deficiency is
compensated for by a path length correction factor:
1
(4)
L
+
1:
L(R)
in equation ( 2 ) . In other words, the auxiliary nonlinear factor
(4)represents theeffective terrestrial path length at a given rain
rate divided bytheactual terrestrial pathlength. Since the
significant difference between the 5-min point rain rate and
0.5-min point rain rate in Fig. 2 already accountsforthe
major portion of the difference between the radio path average
rain rate and the 0.5 min point rain rate, the auxiliary factor
(4)is a weak? nonlinear function of L . Obviously, many dif-
ferentanalyticfunctions canbe used to approximatethis
t Other approaches use rain rate distribution with rain gauge inte-
gration time in the order ofseconds.Such distribution of short dura-
tion rain rates differs substantially from those
of path average rain rates
and require a more severe correction factor for path rain attenuation
calculation.Oneadvantageofusing5-minpointrain rate is that the
required path length correction factor (4) is fairly close to unity for a
wide range of rain rate and path lengthof interest.
mildly nonlinear behavior. We select the single parameter func-
tion (4) forits simplicity. Theadequacy of this simple ap-
proximation is supported by the rain rate and rain attenuation
data measured on nine, 11 GHz, terrestrial radio paths at five
U.S. locations.5
3. THE EMPIRICAL MODEL FOR
EARTH-SATELLITE PATH
To extend the method to earthsatellite paths, let H be the
long-term average height of the (water) freezing level in the
atmosphere, measured relative to the sea level. The effective
average length of the earthsatellite path affected by rain is
then
L = ( H - G)/sin 9 (5)
where 0 is the satellite elevation angle as viewed from the earth
station, and G is the ground elevation measured from the sea
level. The radarmeasurements of rainfallreflectivity at Wal-
lops Island, Virginia indicate that on the average over raining
&ys,16.25,38,39
HZ4km. (6)
Thus, given the elevation angle 0 , the ground elevation G and
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. COM-27, NO. 5 , MAY 1979 815
n
5000 5000 I I I I I I I
- Y I I I I I I I I
-A
- GRANT PARK, ILLINOIS HOLMDEL, NEW JERSEY
GROUND ELEVATION: NEGLIGIBLE
GROUND ELEVATION =0.2km
SATELLITE ELEVATION ANGLE.27.3O-
a A ADATA,
A RADIOMETER
v) 3 YEARS ( 4 / 6 9 - 9 / 7 2 ]
z
0
ELEVATION ANGLE = 32O
Oo0 I Y E A RD A T A( 7 / 7 6 - 6 / 7 7 ) - m 000 CTS
SATELLITE BEACON

- CALCULATED ln
n
W
W
-
DATA, I YEAR ( 4 / 7 6 - 4 / 7 7 1 1
ELEVATIONANGLE = 27O
CALCULATED, NEWARK,N.J.
:
-
- --
0 20 YEARS
X
W CALCULATED, TRENTON,N.J.-
28.56 GHz, z 20 YEARS

t3 -
RADIOMETER z
w - i-
2 IOOl
0
I .I
10
I I
20
I
30
I I
40
I I 1
50
a
0
100 -
a
W
A T T E N U A T I O N I N dB >
0
Fig. 3 Comparisonofmeasured and calculated(solidlines)distribu- W
a
tions of rain attenuation on earth-satellite path at Grant Park, Illinois. m
W
3
5
I
I LL
0
PALMETT0,GEORGIA -
E L E V A T I O NA N G L E - 4 9 . 5 6
m
10
GROUND ELEVATION 3 9 KM x

f
3
nn COMSTAR BEACON DATA z
001( 8 / 7 7 - 8 / 2 8 ) W
(I)
-CALCULATED
2W
3

1
0 10 20 30 40
ATTENUATION IN dB

Fig. 5 Comparisonofmeasuredandcalculated(solidlines)distribu-
tions of rain attenuation on earth-satellite path at Holmdel,NJ.
28GHz

appears that 4 km is a good approximation for H in eastern

W
2 calculation,
6 10
z 0.0 10.0 20.0
R A I NA T T E N U A T I O N
Fig. 4 Comparison of measuredandcalculated(solidlines)distribu-
tions of rain attenuation on earth-satellite path at Palmetto, Ga.
the distribution of 5-min point rain rates, we can calculate the
rain attenuation distribution of the earthsatellite path through
the use of the three simple equations (l), (2)and (5).
Notice that equation (5) does not imply that the path rain
attenuation a(R, L ) varies exactly as the cosecant of the eleva-
tion angle 8 because of the nonlinear path length factor (4).
4. COMPARISON OF MEASURED VERSUS
CALCULATED RESULTS
Figures 3 , 4 and 5 show close agreement between calculated
results and measured data at Grant Park, Illinois,l Palmetto,
. ~ these calculations
Georgia4 and Holmdel, New J e r ~ e y . . ~ All
are based on 20-yr distributions of 5-min point rain rates5- at
the respective locations (Fig. 6 ) , and assume 4 km for H . It
U.S.A. wheretheserain attenuation data aremeasured. The
19GHz slight differences betweenthe measured andthe calculated
results in Figures 3, 4 and 5 may be caused by the following
factors:
1. the time bases (G3 yr) of attenuation measurements are
shorter than those (20 yr) of point rain rate data for
2. the polarization dependence of rain attenuation is
30.0 40.0 neglected, and
IN dB 3. the value of H may not be exactly 4 km and may vary
slightly from one location to another. Strictly speaking,
H i s a function of season and geographic latitude.33
At Holmdel, N.J., simultaneousmeasurements of earth-
satellite path rain attenuationsfromtwodifferent satellites
(1 9 GHz Comstar beacon and 1 1.7 GHz CTS satellite) at two
different elevation angles (18 and 27) were made.3 Fig. 7
shows the close agreement between the measured and calcu-
lated dependences of rain attenuation on frequency andeleva-
tion angle.
These simple formulas are valid only on long-term average.
Theshort-term relationships betweenthe surface point rain
rate and the earth-satellite path rain attenuation, on a storm-
by-storm basis, are erratic anddifficult to predict.
Pigure 2 indicates that the distribution of point rain rates,
at any given geographic location, is not unique unless the rain
gauge integration time is specified. The occurrence probability
of high rain rate varies considerably with integration time. The
calculated rain attenuation distribution is, therefore, also not
816 IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. COM-27, NO. 5 , MAY 1979

E 20 -
0-
I-
N
I
- I
CALCULATED
I I I I

0 0 0 MEASURE01A.J.RUSTAKO)
0
i% 15 - CRAWFORD H1LL.N.J. -
p
Nz
JULY 29- AUG. 27.1976

;c
55 10-
El-
4 C
-14
35
zz 5 -
-
4
,
I
. I I I I I 1
Z O
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
RAIN ATTENUATION IN dB
~ ~ G H ~ . V E R T I CPOLARIZATION,
AL e w . COYSTAR BEACON
Fig. 7 Comparison of measured and calculated (solid line) dependence
of earth-satellite path rain attenuation on frequency and elevation
angle 0.

PALMETT0,GEOffiIA
GROUND ELEVATION=O.29 KM
CALCULATED RESULTS

0 40 80 i2 0 160
5 MINUTE POINT RAIN RATE IN mm/hr

Fig. 6 Twenty year distributions of 5-min point rain rates at Atlanta,

Ga., Chicago, Illinois, andNew York, N.Y.

unique unless the integration time of the basis rain rate data is
specified. The formulas in this paper are applicable only to
5-min rain rate distribution. Applying these formulas to rain
ratedistributionswithotherintegrationtimes (e.g., one
minute or one hour)may result in substantial errors dueto the
variations of rain rate statistics with the integration time.
5. EFFECT O F ELEVATION ANGLE 0.0 l0.0 20.0 30.0 4on 50.0 601)

Equation (5) indicates that the average path length, L , af-
fectedby rain increases as the elevation angle 0 decreases.
Figure 8 shows that decreasing the elevation angle w iincrease
l tribution at Palmetto, Georgia.
the outage probability for a given fade margin, or will increase
the required fade margin to meet a given reliability objective.
Therefore, one possible way to reduce the rain outage time or
to reduce the required fade margin is to select a suitable satel-
lite position t o maximize the elevation angle. This is especially
importantforgroundstationslocatedin heavy rainzones,
such as southeastern U.S.A., where rain attenuation is a severe
limitation on the systemreliability.
6. CONCLUSION
Asimple method is presented for the calculation of rain
attenuationdistributionsonearthsatellitepathsfrom long-
term (>20 yr) rain ratedistributions. These formulas are
supported bysix sets of rain rate and rain attenuation data
measured in Illinois, Georgia and New Jersey. The simplicity
of the methodis desirable in system planning where the con-
13.6GHrATTENUATIONIN dB
Fig. 8 Effect of elevationangle on 13.6 GHz rain attenuation dis-
figuration and the parameters of the satellite communication
systems are varied to search for the optimum solution under
certain criteria. Therequired rain ratestatisticsforsuch
available in References 5 to 9.
studies in the United States are
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am grateful to A. J. Rustako, Jr. for providing the 11.7
GHz data in Figure 5 and to H. J. Bergmann for providing the
13.6, 19.0 and 28.56 GHz data in Figures 3 and 4.
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