Building Construction Management

Study Material
on the subject
Building Construction Management
PRACTISING VALUERS ASSOCIATION INDIA
www.pvai.org
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CONTENTS
1. CHAPTER I CONCEPT OF PLAN, ELEVATION, SIDE ELEVATION
2. CHAPTER II BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE AND MANAGEMENT
3. CHAPTER III ROOF AND ROOF COVERINGS
4. CHAPTER IV FLOORS
5. CHAPTER V BEAMS
6. CHAPTER VI WALLS
7. CHAPTER VII COLUMNS
8. CHAPTER VIII STAIRS
9. CHAPTER IX LINTELS AND ARCHES
10. CHAPTER X FOUNDATIONS
11. CHAPTER XI WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

(PLUMBING WORKS) IN BUILDING
12. CHAPTER XII CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
13. CHAPTER XIII SKETCHES
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Chapter I
CONCEPT OF PLAN, ELEVATION, SIDE ELEVATION:
All objects in space can be located specifically by stating its perpendicular

distances from three imaginary planes, at right angles. In other words, the
co-ordinates of a point in space specify its location, in reference to the three
planes at right angles to the each other.
Refer to sketch sheet - 1, P is a point in space and XZ, XY and YZ are the
three planes at right angles. XZ is horizontal plane, XY is a vertical plane at
right angles to XZ plane and YZ is also a vertical plane at right angles to
horizontal XZ plane and also at right angles to vertical XY plane. The
location of point P in space is depicted by its distances from XZ plane equal
to h, and XZ being a horizontal surface h can be called as height of the point
P above horizontal plane. The point P is at a distance of l from YZ plane and
b from XY plane. In solid geometry, the co-ordinates x, y and z of the point
are equal to l, h and b respectively. If it is imagined that the three planes at
right angles are rotated so as that the three planes lie on a single plane,
then plan, elevation and side elevations of the point P are obtained. Plan
view of P shows the horizontal distances of point P from vertical planes XY
and YZ as b and l respectively. The elevation view indicates its height or
vertical distance from horizontal plane XZ as h and horizontal distance from
vertical YZ pane as l. The side elevation view, besides showing the height h
from XZ plane, shows its distance b from vertical XY plane. Similarly, the
position of another point Q can be located by its co-ordinates l1, h1, and b1.
Hence if P and Q are joined by a straight line, the plan, elevation and side
elevation views of the line PQ are obtained. This concept can be extended to
all objects - a point, a line, a two dimensional surface or a three
dimensioned body, since all these objects are built up by number of points
only. The plan, elevation and side elevation are generated by dropping
perpendicular lines from all the points on the boundary line of the object, to
the horizontal and vertical planes.
Consider the case of a right angled pyramid on a square base sketch sheet
1. Since the shape is symmetrical about the line (axis) joining the vertex and
centre of base, all elevations on vertical planes X,Y & Z shall be same when
the sides of the base are kept parallel to the vertical planes, and the base
itself kept parallel to XZ plane.
If an imaginary plane, parallel to the base at a height of H from the base,

cuts the pyramid, the cut surface generated shall be a square of smaller size
than the square of base, but parallel to and concentric to it. The size of the
square cut surface shall decrease or increase as H shall increase or decrease
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respectively. In limits, when H is equal to zero, the cut surface coincides

with the base square fully and when H increases to exact height for the
pyramid, the cut surface becomes a point, at the intersection of the
diagonals.
Sketch sheet 2 shows the elevations and plan view of a pyramid, one face
of which is at right angle with the square base. This is not symmetrical
about the centre line joining the vertex and centre of square. So the
elevation view and side elevation view shall be different. As one face is
vertical, one side of cut surface square shall always coincide with one side of
base. The axis in the first pyramid is perpendicular to base, but in the
second pyramid the same is inclined.
Three dimensional views of two pitched roof buildings are shown in sketch
sheet 2. Elevation views on North (or South) disclose the length and height
of the building and other features on that face. Similar views on East (or
West) reveal width, height and features on that face.
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Chapter II
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE AND MANAGEMENT
Different components and functions of individual components of
(i) Single and Multistoried Building of load bearing wall
(ii) Simple Low Rise and High Rise R.C.C. framed building
Type of building on functional requirements
1. Residential
(a) Private family dwellings: These provide for living and sleeping
accommodation for a single or joint family up to say, 20 inmates.
(b) Dormitories: Which provide mainly sleeping accommodation for more

people. community living and common dining space. Examples:
Hostels, for schools & colleges, hostels for nurses, police and military
barracks.
(c) Hotels: Provide food and lodging temporarily to guests for one day or
more on payment of service charges, food charges, room rent. Rooms
can be single occupation, double or more, seldom exceeding four.
(d) Apartment Houses or Flat Buildings: Single block or a number of

blocks each having four or frequently more units of flats containing
living space, dining space, kitchen, bed room, toilets etc. each
independent from other. Each unit is in most cases suitable for
single family.
(e) Old age home: Provide for living, lodging and food to inmates
occupying single room / double room etc. including dormitories etc.
otherwise similar to hostels.
(f) Orphanages: Provide for living, lodging and food similar to old age
homes with additional arrangement for childrens upbringing.
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2. Institutional Buildings
(a) Educational, (b) Health, (c) Recreation, (d) Administration, (e) Religion
(a) Educational
(i) Schools and Colleges: Buildings that contain facilities for

imparting education to students for limited hours of day and so
not contain any sleeping accommodation excepting for guards
and caretakers.
(ii) Laboratory buildings: Buildings that are used for performing
experiments in different branches of science solely for
educational purpose. These can be separate units or can be a
part of a school or college building.
(iii) Libraries: For storing and reading of books, subject to
occupation for limited period of day.
(b) Health
(i) Hospitals, Nursing Homes: Buildings used for treatment of patients

who are to be residents in single, double or more occupancy rooms,
in dormitories having arrangement for food, sleeping, otherwise as
in case of a hotel.
(ii) Sanatoriums/ Asylums for mentally retarded: Similar to hospitals

but in smaller capacity. Do not generally have any surgery facility,
but provides recreational facilities.
(iii) Clinics: Contain one or more Doctors Consultancy

Chambers. Many contain treatment facility to visiting patients only,
without any residential accommodation.
(iv) Clinical and Pathological Laboratories: These units of buildings used

for various scientific examinations for medical treatment. These
can be separate units or can from a part of hospital, nursing home
or a clinic.
(v) Mortuary: These are buildings required for storing dead human
bodies for some limited period prior to identification, autopsy or
disposal by relations. These are generally a part of
hospital/nursing homes but can be a separate unit also.
(c) Recreation
(i) Club House: These are buildings used solely for social meeting of a
group of people who are members of the club and their guests, for a
limited period of a day only. Besides having
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arrangement for games, swimming these have restaurants, dance

halls and may contain limited residential accommodation similar
to that of a hotel.
(ii) Auditoriums: These are buildings that are frequented by a large
number of persons for limited period of a day and during the
theatrical show only. The structure is generally a large hall with a
raised stage for dramatic shows, seating arrangement in hall and in
one or more tiers of balconies.
(iii) Sports Stadium: These are structures that accommodate persons in

thousands for witnessing outdoor games. In general only a part or
full of visitors accommodation is covered. But fully covered
stadiums have also been constructed.
(d) Administration
(i) Office Buildings: These are work place for discharge of mainly paper
works, meeting of executives, administrators for decision making,
both in private and public sector, and in day time only. The space
should accommodate furniture for staff, storage of files, documents
etc.
(ii) Town halls, Legislative Assemblies, Governor House, etc.: These are
Government buildings, generally of visual excellence, where people
from Government departments, policy makers, administrators
assemble for limited hours of a day to discharge functions of
Government according to the Constitution.
(iii) Court Buildings: In these buildings the process of justice is carried
out. Beside Court Rooms, these buildings contain Library Rooms,
resting accommodation for judges, lawyers and other officers
connected with the particular court.
(iv) Jails and corrective homes: These are in essence residential
buildings, where living arrangement and food etc. are provided as
per law to the inmates.
(v) Police Station: These are essentially office buildings, which
generally have a barrack for residence of policemen and one or two
residential units for the officers who are stationed there with family
members. These also contain a strong room for safe custody of
arms and lockups for custody of detainees.
(e) Religion
(i) Temples, Churches, Cathedrals, Mosques etc.: These are

usually attractive, and decorated structures for worship according
to ones own faith. These do not contain any residential
accommodation. But in most of the sites there are adjoining
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residential accommodations for monks, devotees etc. similar to

hotels, dormitories, guest houses etc.
(ii) Crematoriums: These are special buildings for disposal of the dead
according to religions faith.
3. Commercial Buildings
(a) Market (Shops and stores)
(b) Warehouse, cold storage, godowns.
(c) Banks
(d) Buildings in Transport Management.
(a) Market (Shops and Stores)
Markets can be a group of single store / buildings spread over a large area,
solely for the purpose of display and sale of merchandise. Otherwise it can
be a multistory structure where all or some of the floors are used for such
purpose.
(b) Warehouse, Cold Storage, Godowns
(i) Warehouses are storage buildings generally having more than one
floor for storage for merchandise in bulk, and generally at points of
transport terminals-sea port, rail station etc.
(ii) Cold Storages are structures where perishable goods, specially

edibles are stored in bulk quantity. These are located generally at
points of production.
(iii) Godowns are storage structures for merchandise generally located

near the point of consumption of the product.
4. Industrial Buildings
(i) Factories: Factories are buildings where manufacture of

merchandise, machines, consumer goods are done from raw
materials. These are work places for fixed number of persons and
not frequented by outsiders. These buildings are constructed with
masonry, steel work or their combination in most cases.
(ii) Power House: These are for generation of electrical power from heat
energy or from hydraulic energy. These are special buildings and
are generally under control of Government Sector.
(iii) Water and sewage treatment plants & (iv) Gas generating and
distribution stations: These are for supply of potable water to
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people, disposal of waste water and supply of piped gas for

domestic and industrial use. These are special structures and are
generally under control of Government Sector.
5.
(a) Bus terminals for passenger handling
(b) Railway Stations
(c) Air Terminals
(d) Port buildings
Characteristics of these are almost same in common features of use by

passengers round 24 hours, having ticket sale counters, waiting spaces
shops and restaurants, dispensaries for first aid and some important
locations may have residential facility for waiting passengers.
Building Component
1. Sub-structure: Portion of a building below ground level to transfer load of

building to sub soil. The soil in contact with foundation and below the base
of a foundation is sub soil.
2. Super Structure: It is the portion above plinth level used for human
activities protected from rain, sun wind.
1. Substructure
A. Foundation
(i) Shallow foundation. (ii) Deep foundation.
(i) Shallow Foundation

Isolated footing: Isolated footings are for single column resting on a
concrete pad directly. Or it can have a stepped formation of brick work
before resting on the pad.

Combined footing: Combined footings are for two or more columns resting on
one single pad, directly or through steps.

Strip footing: A combined footing on which more than two columns in a
straight line rests is generally called a strip footing. The footing under a
wall is also a strip footing.

Strap footing: Two isolated footings connected by a beam is called a strap
footing.
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Raft or mat foundation: Where more than two columns
and not in one straight line rest on a single footing pad, is called a
raft or mat. Frequently all the columns or walls of a buildings of
regular square or rectangular shape rest on a raft or mat.
(ii) Deep Foundation

Deep Footing Foundation: Where depth of footing exceeds the width of footing
foundation.

Pile Foundation: These are of materials timber, concrete or steel and of
considerable length, and like columns can support the foundation of a
building. (1) End Bearing Pile. (2) Friction Pile. (3) Combined friction
and end bearing. (4) Compacting Piles

Floating foundation: In floating foundation, the portion below ground
level is a hollow box known as basement. The weight of the quantity of
earth removed for accommodating the basement, is equal to the weight
of the building.

Piers: These are generally solid masonry works constructed below a
single or combined footing, to make up or reduce deep excavation.
Functions of the foundation are
(1) Load distribution: To distribute the load of building to subsoil in

uniform and reduced intensity which the subsoil is capable to
withstand.
(2) Anchorage: To provide anchorage of the building firmly to soil to

prevent lateral movement of the building against horizontal forces
caused by wind, flood and earthquake.
(3) Protection against soil movement: Change in physical behavior of soil

due to climatic change occurs in top layer of soil. Hence foundation
bases are placed at some depth from top of soil.
(4) Protection from undermining: The foundation provides safety of the

building structures against scouring of soil by burrowing animals,
flood waters.
(5) Provision of suitable surface: Foundation provides a sound and level

surface for the superstructure to be built upon.
B. Plinth
This is a portion of substructure above ground level generally extending, to
the lowest floor for a height of 600mm above ground.
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C. Basement
This is a portion of a building partly or fully below ground level providing an

enclosed space, which can be used as a storage space, or for parking of cars.
In buildings having floating foundation the basement space is a common
feature.
2. Superstructure
This is portion of a building above ground and above plinth level, which is
used for human activities. The height from such plinth level, should be
minimum 2.5 meters for human habitation in a single story to several
hundred meters in case of multistorey buildings.
(i) Roof: Roof is the upper most part of the building to provide a structurally
strong cover from rain. sun and wind etc. The shape of roof can be in the
form of a plate or flat surface or it can have a ridge at center with sloping
sides. Roofs can be constructed using brick masonry, timber, steel,
reinforced concrete or a combination of one or two materials. When
constructed in the form of a plate in reinforced concrete it is commonly
called roof slab.
(ii) Floor: Floor is the horizontal surface space in a building used for human
activities and accommodating furniture, implements, machinery and all
items for performance of human activities. In most cases floors are
constructed similar to roof, but definitely horizontal in orientation. When
constructed in the from of a plate in reinforced concrete, it is commonly
called floor slab.
(iii) Beams: These are structural elements which are commonly horizontal,
supporting members which impose vertical loads. The beams are supported
on vertical structural members at two points or more along its length. The
materials for construction of beam is timber, steel or reinforced concrete. In
case of timber or steel beam, the term joist is used. Beams support roof or floors,
creating uninterrupted space.
(iv) Walls: These are components which provides protection to the space on
floor from rain, sun, wind, sound, provide also privacy to users. They may
also support the roof, floor directly or through beams and joists. Walls are
constructed mostly of masonry works, cement concrete works only. Walls
have openings in the form doors and windows. Walls have length for more
than 4 times the width.
(v) Columns: Columns are isolated vertical posts, supporting weight (vertical
load) from roof or floors through the beams and joists, or may directly
support roof or floor slab in special construction in reinforced concrete.
Columns also support weight of walls directly or through beams. Columns
are constructed of masonry, reinforced concrete or steel and in
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rare case timber. Steel columns are known as stanchions. For timber the term
post is commonly used.
Columns rest directly on foundations and actually transfer total weight of

the building to the foundation. They also provide strength to the structure to
resist horizontal forces of nature wind and earthquake.
(vi) Stairs: These are for negotiating different floors.

Roofs, floor, beam, wall, column and stairs are the primary components of
superstructure of any building
Other components of a masonry building commonly required for

secondary functions
1. Coping: It is a covering on exposed top of a wall to prevent seepage of

water. It is constructed of stone slab/concrete/bricks and shaped
suitably to drain out water.
2. Parapet: It is a low height wall constructed along the edge of the roof
for protection of users. A parapet also helps in collecting rain water
falling on roof and channelise the water to outlets. Ornamental parapets
with openings are known as balustrade.
3. Cornice: It is a brick masonry/stone or reinforced concrete projection

continuous on length, on outer wall at junction of roof/floor and wall.
These were used to be ornamental visually and also served as water
barrier.
4. Corbel: This is a projection on wall, constructed of a stone block,

brickwork or sometimes in reinforced concrete, in which case this is
called a bracket, to support end of a beam or joist.
5. String course: This is a projection on wall a continuous and

horizontal course, to break monotony of a large blank wall, and also to
protect the outer wall from down flowing rain water.
6. Roof terracing: Protective lime concrete work on tiled roof or RCC

slab roof..
7. Lintel: It is a horizontal member of stone brick, wood, steel or

reinforced concrete to support the masonry and super imposed load
above on door/window openings.
8. Sunshed or Chajja: These are projected reinforce concrete slab over

window openings generally, to protect window shutters from damage due
to rain and sun. These are cast integrally with lintels.
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9. Arch: It is a structural construction of masonry formed by mechanical

arrangement of wedge shaped blocks of stone or bricks, to bridge over
gap on door/window, as alternative to lintel.
10. Door/window jamb: Vertical sides of door/window openings, where

doorframe is fitted. This can be square or splayed.
11. Sill: The bottom surface of a door or window opening. In old

buildings there used be a stone block with a projected band and sloped
outwards to drain off rainwater.
12. Bed block or template: It is block of stone, or cement concrete or a

steel plate provided under a beam, where the beam rests on a masonry
wall. It distributes the concentrated load over a greater area to
prevent crushing of the masonry wall.
13. Pier: Pier is an isolated vertical mass of stone or brick masonry and
unlike walls its width may not be less than four times the thickness, but
much smaller in length than walls.
14. Pilaster: When a pier is made monolithic with the wall, the
thickness of pier projecting out of wall, this is called a pilaster.
15. Offsets: These are narrow horizontal surfaces which are formed by
reducing thickness of walls.
16. Buttress: It is sloping or stepped masonry projection from a wall to

support or strengthen the wall against overturning.
17. Gable: The triangular end of a sloped roof having a ridge at center is
called gable.
18. Eaves: The lower ends of a sloped roof is called eaves.
19. Waist slab: This is inclined reinforced concrete slab in a stair case.
20. Tread : This is horizontal surface of a step in staircase.
21. Riser: This is vertical face of a step in staircase.
22. Landing: These are horizontal surfaces in a staircase on both ends

of the inclined portion.
23. Soffit: The underside of a roof or floor or a beam is called soffit. In

case of floor/ roof the term ceiling is also used.
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24. Drip Course: It is a small projection at ends of a cornice, sunshade

etc. to prevent travel of rain water on under side of the projection.
25. Throating: It is a small groove made on underside of projection to

serve the purpose of a drip course.
26. Damp Proof Course (DPC) : It is a layer of rich cement concrete and
water proofing chemicals incorporated in brick walls at some height from
ground level, generally at plinth level, to act as a barrier against ingress
of moisture by capillary action. This can also be provided under floor
finish of ground floor when the floor is built on filled up plinth.
27. Plaster Work: It is a protective layer of lime-sand or cement-sand or

a composite of cement lime and sand mixture, in specified proportions,
and in specified thickness on all exposed surfaces of all the masonry or
concrete building components. The mixture is known as mortarcement
mortar, lime-mortar or cement lime composite mortar.
28. Patent Stone (IPS): It is a flooring item-usually 25 mm thick,

consisting a layer of cement concrete with a cement-marble dust
mixture on top surface-finished smooth.
29. Terrazzo Flooring: It is usually 25 to 35 mm thick, the base layer of

cement concrete 20mm to 25mm thick, finished with a top layer of 5 mm
to 10mm, consisting small marble chips, coloured stone chips, marble
dust and cement gray, white, or coloured. The top surface is ground
smooth and polished.
30. Tile Floor : Tiles of size 20mm X 200mm or larger, 25mm thick, of
marble, stone, or precast cement and terrazzo are set on lime soorki
mortar. Frequently gray cement precast tiles are used for roof protection,
instead of lime terracing.
31. Skirting: A top finish given on wall for a small height from floor and
usually of same material by which the floor is covered. A skirting is
usually 150mm high from floor.
32. Dado: A dado is a skirting but much greater in height from floor.
In toilets, sometimes mans height is constructed.
33. Cantilever : A beam or slab fixed at one end only, which is encastre
or built-in in brick work, concrete etc.
34. Mezzanine: An extra floor constructed between two floors, usually

between ground floor and first floor, having smaller headroom, for living
or storage space.
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35. Loft: It is like a mezzanine floor constructed between two floors,

generally on toilets, or kitchens-for storage purposes.
A FEW OTHER TECHNICAL TERMS
1. Span : The horizontal distance between two vertical supports for a

beam or slab
I. Clear Span: Clear distance between the faces of vertical

supports.
II. Centre to centre span: Distance between geometric

centres of vertical supports.
III. Effective span: Clear span plus some additional amount

depending on width of support and depth of beam or
slab supported, used in structural design/analysis.
2. Simply supported beam or slab: Where the slab or beam

rests on support without any fixation to it.
3. Encastre or built in : Where the ends of beam or slab is

embedded in masonry or concrete support, so that all movement
of the end is prevented.
4. Hinged support: Where the ends of beam or slab is so attached to

the support, that it prevents all linear movements, but allows
rotation of the member only.
5. Live load: Movable load which can be a uniformly distributed one

over entire or part of a floor or beam. Snow load is a live load.
6. Dead load: Fixed load from the weight of construction; materials,

fixtures, machines that are permanently attached to a building
component.
7. Wind load, Seismic load: These are unpredictable loadings,

which are considered in building important structures.
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Chapter III
ROOF AND ROOF COVERINGS
Roofs can be classified broadly into three categories
I. Pitched roof on a frame work.
II. Flat roof.
III. Curved or special shaped roof.
I. Pitch roof:
(A) Those can be of simple beam, rafter and purlin construction,

where all the members forming the framework act as beams.
Or
(B) These can be of framework consisting of a number of

structural members, which carries the loadings along the axis of
such members. The frame work itself acts as a beam.
(i) Lean-to-roof: It is simplest form of a roof, having slope on side. It

has small span to cover a small room or verandah.
(ii) Gable roof: This very common type roof having slopes in two sides
and have a ridge at top. At the end faces vertical triangles are
formed.
(iii) Hip roof: This has slopes on four sides. At the ends the gable
triangles are also sloping. The hip beams and ridge beams have to
rest on some support, in ordinary beam/rafter construction.
(iv) Gambrel roof: This roof like gable roof has slopes in two sides, but
each slope has a break.
(v) Mansard roof: Like hip roof slopes in four sides but each has a
break in between ridge and eaves. Internal vertical supports needed
for ordinary beam rafter construction.
(vi) Deck roof: Deck roof has slopes on four sides, but slopes end in a
horizontal plane at top. Vertical supports are needed at the internal
four points, in ordinary beam/rafter construction.
(Refer sketch sheet 3)
Pitched roof (B) (Truss) : When span of roof is large, a large area in plan is
to be covered without any vertical support in the area to be enclosed,
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a frame work of structural members of timber or steel is used. This is known

as a truss. Trusses are used for covering spans more than 5m and for
timber Truss the spacing of truss should be limited to 3m. The weight of roof
over and live load on roof is transferred to the nodal points on the rafter.
Similarly any false ceiling work or any other fittings can be suspended from
the bottom chord or tie by connection at nodal points on tie only. The truss
is considered to transfer vertical loads in same vertical plane of truss, to the
end supports.
The roof trusses are erected on end supports which can be wall, pier, or a
column and are simply supported at both ends. The spacing of truss
depends on the ridge beam size or size of purlins, which carry the weight of
the roof cover dead load, live load, wind load, snow load etc.
The rise of roof truss generally varies between one third to one sixth of span
center to center of supports or length of bottom chord. The members of a
truss are of either timber or steel.
Timber trusses can be used for spans up to 15meter at the maximum, above
which the sizes of the members become large. Apart from cost, the joinery
works at nodal points are difficult. Timber trusses are heavy compared to
steel truss, vulnerable to insect attack and fire. Timber trusses were used
specially in localities where timber was easily available. The nodal
connections are made by using tenon-mortice type joints together with
specially manufactured cast iron or steel clamps, bolting, screwing etc.
Steel trusses are considerably advantageous over timber trusses
1. The members/materials constituting a steel truss are readily available

in required dimensions, resulting in minimum wastage of materials.
2. Steel trusses are light in weight and can be fabricated in any shape
satisfying wide range of structural and architectural requirements.
3. Steel trusses are stronger and more rigid in construction. The

members are equally strong in tension as well as in compression.
4. Steel trusses can be used for any span, the limitation resting with
pitch of the truss.
5. Steel trusses are fire resistant and not attacked by insects.
6. Steel trusses are resistant to environmental agencies and have longer

life.
7. Fabrication of steel trusses is easier and quicker, since the sections

can be machined at workshop.
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8. It is easier to transport steel trusses in suitable sections from

fabrication shop to site of erection.
Fabrication of Steel truss
Steel trusses are commonly fabricated by using mild steel sections of angle,
flat and plate. In some cases channel and tee sections are used. The roof
truss is so designed that the members carry only axial force, without any
bending. The axial forces are either tension or compression. Those members
which resist compressive force are called struts and those resisting tension force,
are known as ties. Some of the members can also be neutral, that is without any
force on it. In some cases, with change in direction of wind load, some
reversal of force condition can also occur. Steel is a good material for
sustaining such force reversal. With normal loading, the top chord is always
in compression and the bottom chord in tension.
Structural members meeting at a nodal point is connected commonly by a

steel plate known as gusset plate. The members are riveted, bolted or
welded to the gusset plate, so that the centre lines of forces in the members
meet at a common point, that is the nodal point. The gusset plate should not
be less that 6 mm thick, even when design forces permit thinner size, on
consideration of corrosion factor. Flats can be use for tension members
which are not subject to force reversal. Size and shape of gusset plates and
actual length of members are determined form a scale layout. The
fabrication is done as per relevant Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian
Standards. (Refer to sketch sheet 5 ).
Large trusses are fabricated in two or more parts in shop by riveting or
welding and transported to and joined at site, after erection by site bolts or
by site riveting/welding.
At the two lower end nodal points the gusset plate is made larger for fixing
two angles of short length, which is connected to bearing plate. The bearing
plate is a steel plate attached to top wall, pillar, column, etc. by rag bolts.
Angle cleats are attached to the top chords of a truss at nodal points by
riveting / welding. Purlins, which are also of angle section mostly, are
attached to the cleats by bolt/nuts. Roofing sheets are attached to purlins
directly where sheets span in direction of slope. Otherwise, if the sheets
span at right angles to slope, secondary rafters are to be placed supported
on purlins, and the sheets attached to such secondary rafters.
Only some common forms of roof trusses have been illustrated in sketch
sheet No. 4. Many other designs are possible to take care of large spans,
requiring several loading points, on top and bottom chords.
With advance of welding technology, it has been possible to fabricate trusses

using steel hollow sections as the structural members. Tube sections, hollow
square sections are now frequently used as structural members of truss.
18
Ready made roof trusses fabricated out of hollow square or tube sections,
for different spans, are available in market.
Some technical terms of pitched roof components
1. Ridge: This is the apex

line of the sloping roof.
2. Pitch: It is the
inclination of the sides
of a roof to the
horizontal plane
expressed in degrees (angle) or as a ratio of rise to span.
3. Hip : It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping

surfaces where the exterior angle is more than 1800 (degrees).
4. Valley: It is a reverse of hip. The external angle formed by two

sloping surfaces is less than 1800 (degrees).
5. Hipped end: If the triangular end of a roof (gable) is sloping, it is
called a hipped end.
6. Ridge beam: It is the horizontal member in the form of a beam

which is provided at the apex at ridge line supported on end
walls, or pillars or on top of roof trusses. It supports the common
rafters.
7. Common rafter: These are inclined structural members running

from ridge to eaves and frequently projecting out of supporting
wall at end. At intermediate points these are supported on
purlins. Rafters support the battens, which support the roofing
materials.
8. Purlins: These are horizontal members used to support common

rafters of a roof when span is large. Frequently in case of a
trussed roof, purlins directly support the roofing materials.
9. Hip rafters: These are sloping rafters forming the hip of a sloping
roof. They run diagonally from ridge to corners of walls, and
support ends of purlins and ends of jack rafters.
10. Valley rafters: These are sloping rafters which run diagonally
from the ridge to the eaves for supporting valley gutters. They
support ends of purlins and ends of jack rafters on both sides.
19
11. Jack rafters: These are rafters of small lengths, which run from
hip or valley to the eaves.
12. Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and
ridge is known as verge.
13. Eaves board or a facia board: It is a timber plank generally,
fixed to lower projecting end of rafters at eaves ends, supporting
the roof covering at its lowest end. The eaves gutter is also fixed to
it.
14. Barge board: It is a timber plank to cover the gap between roof
covering and the verge at gable end.
15. Wall plates: These are long members, which are provided on top
of wall for the purpose of fixing the ends of common rafters. Wall
plates are secured to walls and provide connection of the roof
system to wall.
16. Post plates: These are similar to wall plates, excepting that they
run continuous over posts, where posts or pillars support roof
structure, in place of wall.
17. Battens: These are thin strips of timber which are fixed to rafters
to support roofing materials.
(Refer to sketch sheet 3)
ROOF COVERING FOR PITCHED ROOF
It is an essential component put over roof frame work, for protection from
rain, sun and other natural elements. The selection of roof cover is guided
by (i) type of building (ii) type of roof frame work, (iii) initial cost, (iv)
maintenance requirements, (v) fabrication facilities, (iv) appearance, (vii)
durability, (viii) availability of the material and (ix) climatic condition of the
area.
1. Thatch cover: Bundles of straw or reed are placed on battens and

secured to same. The battens are closely spaced on rafters at right angles to
the rafters and fixed to rafters. The thatch is tightly secured to the battens
by ropes or twins dipped in tar. The thickness of thatch is from 20cm to
30cm and not less than 15 cm, the slope being also not less than 45 degree
for proper drainage. It is cheapest form of roof cover, used in villages. It has
fire hazard and being very light in weight, is unstable in storm.
2. Wood shingles: Shingles are thin planks of wood to cover roof. The use
of shingles is restricted to hilly areas where timber is available at low cost.
The shingles are sawn out of well seasoned timber, for lengths 30cm to
40cm, width 6cm to 25cm and thickness about 10mm. The pitch of shingles
20
cover roof should be . Shingles are light in weight, but not fire and termite
resistant.
3. Tiles: Tiles are manufactured by burning clay and can be of various

shapes and types. They can be plain flat with or without inter locking
arrangement. Half round curved tiles are also very common. They are known
by various names like, Ranigunj Tiles, Mangalore Tiles Italian or Allahabad
Tiles etc. The tile sizes determine spacing of battens on the rafters. The pitch
should be 1/3. Tiled roofs are still popular specially in small towns and rural
areas. The main advantage is that individual damaged tiles can be replaced
easily. Ridge and valley pieces can be manufactured to shape.
4. Slate: Slate is hard fine grained sedimentary stone, obtained from open
quarries or mines in the form of blocks. The blocks are sawn first to smaller
blocks and then hand split carefully into thin slabs or slates of thickness 4
mm to 8 mm suitable for roofing. The sizes of slates varies from
600 mm X 300 mm to 400 mm X 200 mm. The ridges and valleys are formed
by burnt clay tiles or sheet metal.
In better constructions, below the state layer a timber board covered by felt
is provided to exclude moisture and for thermal insulation. The
recommended pitch for state roof 1/3 to .
5. Asbestos Cement (A.C. sheets): Asbestos cement is manufactured from
common (Portland) cement and Asbestos fibre. A.C. sheets are cheap, heat
insulating, durable, water tight, fire resistant and insect resistant. Since
these are available in larger units than tiles, supporting framework is cheap.
The pitch can vary from 1/4 to 1/6 Asbestos cement is used for
manufacture of plain sheets, and corrugated sheets. The corrugated sheets
are also of two types-Big six and Trafford type as manufactured by Everest
A.C. Company. There are also other manufacturers producing similar
sheeting products. A.C. roofing sheets are light in weight, compared to tile
and slates, but are brittle.
6. Galvanized corrugated iron (GCI) Sheets: These are stronger than

A.C. sheets but more costly. These are also available in large units and light
in weight compared to tiles. If properly maintained these have along life, not
susceptible to easy damage. The pitch should preferably be not less than ,
but can be less if end laps are increased.
7. Corrugated aluminum sheets: Though these are costly, but they are
light in weight, not susceptible to rusting. In other respects they are similar
to G.C.I. sheets. They are also fire resistant.
8. Corrugated sheets of fiber glass, HDPE, Asphalt felt, plastic-non

metallic synthetic materials manufactured under property trade names
by different manufacturing companies are also used. The manufacturers
provide fixing instructions with recommendation of slope.
21
The fixing of sheets are done from lower ends or eaves end towards ridge.
The ridge pieces and valley pieces are also supplied by the manufacturers of
tiles and sheets.
Titles, slates and sheets are all layed with side laps and end laps. In case of
proprietary items, the manufacturers, specify the measurements of laps, and
also specifies the fixing arrangement. Nails, screws, J-hook, bolt, L-hook
bolts with bituminous washers, conical washers are used. Drill holes are
made on top of corrugation only.
For insulation from heat, a false ceiling is provided at level of bottom chord
or below, in case of metal roof particularly.
Flat Roof: Flat roof is the one which is horizontal or practically horizontal
with slope Less than 10 degree. Flat roof provides additional space in
building for human activities. They provide space for over head water tank,
lift machine rooms. Where design provision exists, an extra story can be
added using the flat roof as floor. Flat roof can be used for recreation
purposes and for gardening etc.
Flat roofs are however of restricted spans, unless intermediate columns are
used. The initial cost is high, and once damaged-difficult to repair. However
in towns of large population in developed area not subject to heavy rains or
mow fall, flat roof construction is preferred to pitched roof.
Structural construction of a roof is similar to that of an upper floor in a

building. The top finish is only different in case of a roof, and an upper floor.
Flat roof/floor construction can be classified into following groups.
1. Timber beam, batten type construction: Timber beams or joists placed

on wall or pillar supports at two ends spanning shorter direction of the
rectangular area to be covered. The center to center distance (spacing) of
such joists were 4 0 (1200 mm). Over the timber joists, timber battens
placed at right angles to main joists, i.e. parallel to longer side of area to be
covered. The spacing of battens were 12 (300 mm) to 18 (450 mm), (or a
little smaller) were placed on the batten, bridging the gap between
battens. The tiles were 1 (25 mm) to 1 (40 mm) thick, and some times
manufactured in size as desired by the owner.
The tiles were placed in a single layer or in two layers. The second layer
of tiles were laid over (12 mm) bed of lime mortar over first layer and
breaking joints in both directions with layer underneath.
Over the tile layer, lime concrete roof finishing were provided for average
thickness of 4 inch (100 mm), with slopes to drain off water. The tiled
joints sealed with lime putty and white washed.
22
This type of roof construction was very common in old days more than
300 years old buildings have such roof construction.
2. Rolled steel joist tee type construction: Thereafter, since

introduction of rolled steel structural sections, the timber beams were
replaced by steel joists and the battens by tee-sections placed with the
flange at bottom. The tiles were place in between vertical legs of tees
supported on flanges. The rest of the construction was similar to timber
beam-batten type.
3. Rolled steel joist (RSJ) arch construction or jack arch

construction: Arches were constructed by brick work, resting between
rolled steel joists for arch spans usually 4 ft. (1.2m) to 6 ft. (1.8m), with
the arch thickness 5 (125 mm) or half brick set in lime mortar and rise
of arch 1/6 to 1/12 of arch span. For larger spans up to 20 ft. (6m) the
rise will be up to of span and thickness not less than 10 (250mm) or
one brick thick.
Tie rods were provide for the end spans or under concentrated loads. In a
series of arches tie rods were provided in every 4th or 5th span. They were
generally (12 mm) diameter for small spans, and 1 (25 mm) to 1-1/8
(28 mm) dia for large spans, and 6 ft. (1.8m) to 8ft. (2.4m) apart. Tie rods
were threaded generally on both ends, passing through holes in webs of
joists and tightened by nut. The roof was then built-up with lime concrete
as in case of other roofs. The end arch is supported on wall by RSJ or
angle iron or plates of cast iron or mild steel. Jack arches were also
constructed using cement concrete instead of bricks, after introduction of
use of cement. (Refer to sketch sheet 6).
4. Rolled steel joist (RSJ) reinforced concrete slab construction: This

is a very common and easy method adopted after introduction of
reinforced cement concrete constructions, involving combination of steel
joist and reinforced concrete, and being widely used these days. Steel
joists are placed spanning shorter direction of the area to be covered and
suitably spaced. Over this a reinforced concrete slab of designed
thickness is cast resting on the joists and spanning at right angles to the
joists. Over the reinforced concrete slab, the roof coverings like lime
terracing etc. are layed.
Where the spacing of the steel joists are large, there the slab become very
thick and heavy, adding to dead weight. In such cases secondary beams
or cross beams or cross girders are placed in between the main beams or
main girders and supported on main girders at two ends at suitable
spacing. The concrete slab is cast over the grid work of girders, but
designed to span the spacing of cross girder, which are smaller than the
spacing of main girders.
23
In some cases, the girders are also encased in concrete, integrally cast
with the slab.
5. Reinforced cement concrete beam slab construction: This is an all

RCC construction, having the load support system similar to the RSJ
reinforced concrete construction. It is preferable to cast the beams and
slab in one operation, but sometimes, where the volume of casting is very
large, the beam casting can be done first, followed by the slab casting,
with some precautionary measures.
The RCC slab can also be constructed using hollow blocks precast in
RCC and available in custom made shapes and sizes. Various precast
RCC units are also available with can form a part of structural slab, as
well as function as form work for casting slab.
Where the rectangular bays formed by main beams and cross beams, or
by wall supports, are of such rectangular shape that the longer side is
not more than 2 times the shorter side, then the slab cab be constructed
more economically and so designed that it spans in the two directions of
main beams and cross beams. Such a slab is known as a two way slab.
In some cases, where the beams and cross beams are to be avoided for
more head room, slabs can be constructed on columns directly without
beams, by special design methods. Such slab is known as flat slab.
.
Roof finishing for flat roof
The common type of roof finishing in flat roofs is provided by lime concrete
which consists well burnt brick chips 7 parts, brick dust or soorki from well
burnt bricks 2 parts and good quality lime 2 parts. The average thickness
provided 150 mm to 200 mm, with slopes towards the edges where drain
outlets are provided. This thickness is provided in case of roof structure
consisting timber or steel joist, timber battens or steel tee-sections and flat
clay tiles and jack arch roof. This lime concrete thickness itself forms a part
of the roof structure in these cases.
In case of reinforced concrete slab roof, the average thickness of lime

concrete (terracing) is 10 cm.
The alternative to lime terracing on a reinforced cement concrete roof slab, is

to provide a layer of cement tiles, precast at factory, set in lime soorki 1:3
mortar bed and at slope to drain out rain water. The tiles are 300 mm X 300
mm and 20 to 25 mm thick, having a 15 to 20 mm thick 1 Cement 2 Sand 4
Stone Chips base concrete with a hard 5 mm top layer.
Though not mandatory, but it is a good practice to provide a bitumen

painted surface before lime terracing or before tile laying.
24
For a roof area of 40sqm. One drain outlet of 100 mm dia pipe should be
provided, and one 150 mm dia pipe is needed for roof area of 90 sqm in an
area which can have a rainfall of 100 mm per hour.
Besides, the two types of roof water proofing and insulating methods, a
bituminous protection can be given if the roof is not used by people. In this
method first the roof is leveled by filling up depressions with cement mortar.
Then a layer of hot bitumen is applied. Then a layer of tar-felt is layed firmly
pasted to hot bitumen layer so that there is no air bubble entrapped. The
top is again painted with hot bitumen and spread with pea-gravel or grit. In
general this is known as tar-felting and the work should be done as per
relevant code of practice of BIS.
Curved or special shape roof
1. Domes:
Domes were previously constructed by stone blocks or bricks. In recent days

domes, where needed to be constructed, are invariably of reinforced cement
concrete. Domes in most of the constructions are in circular shape on plan
and constructed in the manner of a circular arch. If a series of circular
arched are constructed around circumference of a circular area, to be
covered, a three dimensional arch or dome is produced. Though common
types of domes are hemispherical in shape, they can also be of other shapes.
They are found in shape of a segment of a sphere, circular in plan but
parabolic in elevation, or conical, formed by two arcs of circles meeting at
apex.
Domes can also be of square, hexagonal, octagonal on plan. There are many
ancient domes constructed on such shapes. In most cases they were
constructed by corbelling out stone blocks, instead of following the arch type
construction. Examples can be found in many existing temples of India.
(Refer to sketch sheet 8).
2. Shells
Shell structures are recent constructions, after adoption of and some

improvement in reinforced cement concrete technology. The egg shell is
extremely thin, but considerably strong in some particular directions
because of its double curvature shape. Shell structure is a construction
where the reinforced concrete slab is in the form of a curved thin membrane,
possessing great strength by virtue of its intrinsic shape. With shell concrete
construction it is possible to construct domes with much thinner thickness
and hence smaller dead weight of concrete. The free edges of a shell
structure is to be stiffened by beams. In case of a domical shell, a ring beam
is provided as bottom. A shell circular in plan can rest on three or more
columns. The shell thickness can be as small as 1/450 of the span.
25
Shell can be of various shapes. A semicircular or segmental shell, curved in

one direction is commonly constructed. They are known as barrel vault or
cylindrical barrels. A parabolic shape single curvature shell can also be
constructed, where the apex of the shell corresponds to vertex of a parabola.
In a hyperbolic paraboloid shell there are curvatures in two directions at

right angles. If one corner of a perfectly elastic sheet, rectangular or square
in shape in plan, is lifted (or depressed) keeping other three corners fixed,
then the warped surface of the sheet have curvatures in two directions along
the two diagonals. Such a curved surface is called a hyperbolic paraboloid.
The edges have to be made stronger, forming beams. A combination of a
number of such shell units can cover very large areas.
(Refer to sketch sheet 8 & 9).
3. Folded plate roofs
The logic of load supporting in these roofs can be identified with corrugated
asbestos cement or GCI, roofing. By introduction of the fold the slab is made
strong to support vertical loads covering large spans between supports.
In a two element folded plate, there are two inclined slab forming an angular
valley or angular ridge. In a three element construction, besides two inclined
slabs and angular valley, the ridge is a flat surface. In four element
construction, there are two inclined slabs, a flat ridge and a flat valley. In
folded plate construction stiffening beams are provided at right angles to
folds, and such beams also support the roof load and the beams span on
column supports.
Shuttering work is difficult and costly for doubly curved surfaces. but since
plywood of various thickness are available, any shape can now be formed.
Where large repetitions of castings are expected, it is advisable to fabricate a
few sets of form work by sheet metal.
The insulation and water proofing of curved and inclined roof, is generally
provided by tar felting. Several chemical based compounds are available in
market for water proofing, manufactured by reputed companies as
proprietary items, which can be used only after comparing different
products, and preferably after a sample application.
26
Chapter IV
FLOORS
Floors can be of two identities. The one that is constructed at ground level or
a little above ground level, (plinth level) is called ground floor. The other
floors above the ground floor are to be constructed having supports on walls,
columns, beams and should be identified as a suspended floor and their
construction is same as that of a flat roof, but without any slope whatsoever.
Suspended floors were constructed fully with timber, in hill areas where
timber was easily available. In areas of extreme cold, damp, the ground
floors are also constructed as suspended floors.
Ground floors are commonly constructed at plinth level. The space between
ground level and plinth level being filled up with good earth or fine river
sand and well compacted by watering and ramming. This operation is
termed, Plinth filling. The top level of earth or sand is leveled and left
about 225 m below the plinth level. Over this, either two layers of BF soling
are layed or a single layer brick on edge is provided. Over this brick layer, in
old constructions 100 mm thick well rammed lime concrete was provided; in
present day, it is usual to provide a 75 mm thick layer of 1:3:6 cement
concrete, with or without wire mesh reinforcement. The intention is to
provide a strong surface to withstand superimposed loads, as well as to
facilitate construction of partition walls 75 mm or 125 mm thick, without
any separate foundation for them. The top of concrete layer is made flush
with the plinth level.
Over this base concrete surface, it is good practice, to provide a water

proofing compound or membrane, before floor finishing is provided.
Floor Finish work
The choice of floor finishing materials, which in short is termed flooring

materials depend on following factors:
1. Initial cost - the cost of the material should be in conformity with the
type of building and its use.
2. Appearance the floor covering should offer a pleasing effect in terms

of colour and texture. Terrazzo, mosaic and marble provide pleasing
appearance.
3. Cleaning ease the floor covering should be such that the same can
be cleaned easily. It should not allow absorption of oil, grease etc.
27
4. Durability the flooring should have sufficient resistance to normal

wear, temperature changes, disintegration with time and decay.
Flooring of stone, terrazzo, mosaic, concrete etc. are considered to be
best.
5. Damp resistance floor should offer sufficient resistance to damp for
maintaining healthy environment. Timber, brick or rubber flooring
are not suitable for preventing damp condition.
6. Sound insulation flooring should insulate noise, should absorb noise
when users walk on floors. Floorings of timber, cork or rubber, PVC
etc. are good for sound insulations.
7. Thermal insulation the flooring should offer reasonably good thermal

insulation so that residents and users feel comfortable. Timber,
rubber, cork, asphalt, PVC are good for this purpose.
8. Fire resistance this is more important for suspended floors or upper

floors. Concrete, stone, terrazzo, etc. have good fire resistance.
9. Smoothness the floor surface should be smooth and even, but not
slippery.
10. Hardness - it should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to

indentation marks, imprints etc. likely to be caused by users,
furnitures, equipments etc.
11. Maintenance the flooring material should require least maintenance.

It should be such that in case of damage, repair is easy. Concrete
floors, stone floors require less maintenance than other floorings.
Types of flooring
1. Brick flooring this is used in cheap construction, where good bricks

are available. Brick flooring is constructed by laying flats or on edges,
at right angles to walls or in herring bone pattern over a layer of lime
mortar or cement mortar. Brick flooring can be done on ground floor
only on plinth filling work. Brick flooring can be layed directly on the
brick soling work on mortar bed or a fine sand bed. The joints are filled
up with 1:4 cement mortar and flush pointed.
Brick flooring is done in warehouses, godowns etc. and in open to sky

court yards of residential buildings.
2. Flag stone flooring flag stone is any laminated sand stone slabs 20
mm to 40 mm thick and square 30 cm X 30 cm to 60 cm X 60 cm or
rectangular 65 cm X 45 cm size. These are layed on the lime concrete
or cement concrete base of ground floor on a bed of lime or cement
mortar 20 mm thick in proper level. After laying, the joints are raked
28
out and sealed and flush pointed with 1:3 cement mortar. This type is
for ground floor only.
3. Indian Patent Stone - this is most common cement concrete floor,

durable, moderately cheap and easy to construct. The flooring has total
thickness varying from 25 mm minimum to 40 mm at maximum, and
contain two layers. In a 25 mm thickness, 1:2:4 cement concrete is
layed on structural slab or lime concrete or cement concrete of
suspended floor or solid ground floor to a thickness of 22 mm about in
panels. When the surface has hardened, a 3 mm thick neat cement
layer is provided, which consists cement and marble dust in proportion
2:1, and finished smooth with trowel.
4. Granolithic floor where very hard wearing surfaces are needed, as in

industrial buildings a granolithic finish is provided for a thickness of
25 mm to 40 m, as in case of IPS. In this flooring the concrete
thickness is made up of very hard and tough coarse aggregate such as
granite, basalt, quartzite etc. of graded sizes, and rich concrete mix 1:
1:2 or 1:1:3. The top surface is prepared with cement, finely crushed
granite and sprinkled with abrasive grits during trowelling. Iron filings
are also sometimes used in place of grits or in mixture with grits. A
trade name for such floor is Ironite Flooring.
5. Terrazzo floor like the IPS the thickness is from 25 mm to 35 mm.

The bottom 20 mm to 25 mm is of 1:2:4 cement concrete and the top
portion contains gray, white or coloured cement, marble dust and
white and coloured marble chips of size 3 mm to 6 mm, for total
thickness of 5 mm to 10 mm. The surface is exposed by grinding with
carborundum stones and given a polish. Cast in situ is exposed by
grinding with carborundum stones and given a polish. Cast in situ
terrazzo floors are layed in panels and within divider strips of copper,
aluminum or glass.
6. Mosaic flooring in this type, small pieces of broken tiles of china

clay glazed, cement or marble etc. are cut to shapes and sizes and
these are embedded in a layer of lime soorki mortar 50 mm to 80 mm
thick, to from various designs.
7. Marble flooring marble slabs of thickness varying from 5 mm to 20

mm are layed in different sizes, square or rectangular shape, over a
lime soorki or cement sand mortar bed. This is a costly superior type
of flooring used in bathrooms, kitchens of residential buildings, in
hospitals, sanatoriums, temples where cleanliness is essential
requirement.
8. Tiled flooring the tiled flooring, when manufactured from cement

concrete, is same as Indian Patent Stone or Terrazzo in composition.
The tiles are precast in factory in square shapes, 20 cm X 20 cm X or
29
30 cm X 30 cm and 20 mm thick, though other shapes like hexagon

can also be manufactured, when required.
Cement concrete tiles an also have a chequered surface for use in

driveways, walkways, courtyards at ground floor only.
Ceramic tiles are also used in glazed or unglazed types for toilets,
kitchens etc. The unglazed tiles are used on floors and the glazed tiles
are fixed on walls as dado or skirtings. These are available in market in
various colours and designs, and manufactured under proprietary
rights with different brand names. The sizes of floor tiles are available
in 100 mm X 100 mm to 300 mm square. The smaller sizes upto 150
mm X 150 mm can be used in shirting or dado also. But for higher
sizes, rectangular shapes 200 mm X 150 mm or 300 mm X 150 mm
are available. The tiles are layed on lime surki mortar (1:3) bed. A
thin layer of cement slurry is also often used for better bond.
9. Timber floor this flooring is used for dancing, halls, auditoriums etc.
not commonly used in residential buildings. In hill areas however
they are very common. In ground floor, over base concrete, or in upper
floor over the floor slab, a layer of mastic asphalt is applied. Timber
blocks 20 cm X 8 cm to 30 cm X 8 cm and thickness 2 to 4 cm., are
then layed over it in some pattern or design.
10. Asphalt floor Such type of flooring are either layed by pouring hot
mix on base concrete, or are manufactured in the form of tiles and
then fixed to concrete base by bituminous compound. The filler in
asphalt in all cases being sand or grit or sometimes marble chips. The
material is manufactured and sold in market under brand name.
Asphalt floors are not used in residential buildings. They are sound
proof, resilient, damp proof and acid resistant.
11. Cork flooring cork is the outer bark of cork oak tree from which cork
tiles are manufactured. They are known to have been used as flooring
material in libraries, art galleries etc. to provide sound insulation.
12. Rubber flooring and PVC flooring etc. these are manufactured in
the form of sheets or tiles. Rubber sheets or tiles, available in variety of
colours, consists of rubber with cotton fiber or asbestos fiber. Rubber
sheet or tiles and PVC tiles are fixed to base concrete by adhesives.
They are resilient, sound proof, smooth and easy to clean. Their use
however is restricted to office buildings or public buildings only,
though residential ones can also have such flooring in drawing room,
bed room etc. Such floorings are liable to damage when in contact with
burning objects.
30
Chapter V
BEAMS
Beams in ancient times were used to be of large stone slabs. But modern
time constructions use timber, steel and reinforced cement concrete for
beams.
Beams as already stated assumed to carry vertical loads, in the same

vertical plane passing through centroidal axis of the beam. Beams may also
have to sustain horizontal force caused by wind, earth pressure etc,
assumed in same horizontal plane passing through centroidal axis of the
beam.
Beams can be supported on two ends on columns or walls, or can be
supported on a number of columns or walls, on same line, in which case it is
called a continuous beam. The support conditions can be simply supported, hinged
or encastre or built in. Beams can also be supported on another beam, in which
case the former is called a cross beam or secondary beam, ad the latter
becomes main beam or primary beam.
Beams can also be curved in plan, where the columns supporting the beam
lie in a curved alignment.
General shape of the cross section of a beam is rectangular. The longer side
is termed depth (denoted by letter d) and shorter side breadth (denoted by letter
b). Loads in a beam causes the beam to bend downwards and the beam takes
the shape of a circular arc. This is known as flexure of beam.
Such a bent shape of beam causes tension in portion of beam below the
centroidal horizontal plane due to elongation in length of material, and
compression in upper portion due to shortening in length of material. The
centroidal plane does not alter in length under load, and not having any
tension or compression, is called a neutral plane. The tension or
compression starts from a value of zero to maximum allowable values at the
two edges. The theory of structural mechanics establishes, the strength of a
beam against bending, which is called flexural strength; to sustain load as
proportional to product of breadth and square of depth, when the depth side is
placed in the plane of bending. Mf = K bd2 where Mf = flexural strength, K =
constant.
In majority of structures the beams are subjected to vertical loading only

and the larger side d is placed vertical for greater strength. But beams are also
subject to horizontal loading when the longer side d should be placed horizontal
for more strength. Besides these two directions, beams can be loaded
axially, like a column in horizontal position.
31
Loading of beam vertical or horizontal, cause another type of deformation

other than bending. This is a relative movement tendency between vertical
planes under loading, without bending, a phenomenon known as shear.
The combined effect of bending and shear produces a sliding tendency of
horizontal planes and vertical planes one over another. The strength of a
beam against shear to sustain load is proportional to the product of
breadth and depth V = kbd, where V = shear strength, k = constant.
Timber Beams
These are rectangular in section, sizes may vary from 100mm X 75 mm to

say 400 mm X 300 mm. Higher sizes are restricted by maximum available
girth of tree trunks. The spans are also governed by available sizes of single
length of timber. Splicing or jointing of timber beams along length were
generally avoided, since joints are much weaker than beam section.
Timber beams or joists can be used along with steel plates, as a

combination, to have higher strength. Steel plates can be bolted or screwed
to timber, so that there will not be any relative movement between steel and
timber and the two materials of composite section shall share the loads in
proportion to their strengths. These are called flitched beams.
Steel Beams
I. Rolled Steel Joist: These are rolled steel sections in the shape of I, or
Channel. Steel rolling mills roll them in different sizes. BIS
Section Hand Book specifies in light, medium and heavy categories for
I Section, from sizes 100 mm depth X 75 mm flange width with weight
11.5 Kg. per meter, to 600 mm depth X 250 mm flange width and unit
weight of 145.1 kg. per meter. Corresponding sizes for channel
sections specified are from 75 mm depth X 40 mm flange X unit
weight 5.7 kg. per meter to 400 mm depth X 100 mm flange X unit
weight 49.4 kg. per meter. The flange that is subjected to compression
force has to be made strong against bending sidewise .
The rolling mills are required to roll sections as per BIS and as per
detailed specification laid down by BIS. The section Hand Book
contains all informations regarding the dimensions of flanges, webs, roots,
sectional area etc. as may be required by structural design, estimator,
or builders.
II. Compound girders: For covering large spans, that is where the end
supports are at large distance, structural design my calculate a rolled
steel joist section, larger than the maximum size rolled. In such case,
the flexural strength of a rolled steel joist section can be increased by
using- riveted or welded compound girder.
32
A compound girder is made up from two or more structural sections.

The most common being a standard I section joist with steel plates
connected to top flange or to bottom flange or to both flanges. The
different components are connected either by riveting or now more
commonly by welding.
III. Plate girders (or built up girders) : In fabrication of a plate girder,

use of rolled steel structural sections like I section, channel section or
angle section can be avoided, using steel plates of various thicknesses
and sizes only. But in this case welding has to be adopted for jointing
the elements.
By using steel plates and angle sections plate girders can be

fabricated by riveting. One web plate, with flange angles only, is the
simplest form. In addition to flange angles one or more flange plates
can be used.
Plate girders can also be fabricated in the shape of a box section

giving it the name box girder. Like compound girder, the webs of plate
girders, are strengthened or stiffened with plates or angles (Stiffeners).
IV. Castella Section: These special sections can be produced by a simple

method of increasing the depth of a beam without increasing its
weight. By a combination of gas cutting and welding, an ordinary
standard section can be converted to a deeper section.
V. Open Web Girders: In recent years many types of light girders with
open webs have been produced which are used as purlins or floor/roof
girders. Such girders may consist of Tee-sections at top and bottom
members and loops of round steel bars welded to the web of Tee
section.
For heavier or stronger girders, the Tee-sections are replaced by

double angles and two sets of looping round bars, so as to form a box
shaped girder. Again the double angles can be replaced by channel
sections.
VI. Reinforce Concrete Beams or RCC Beams: These are essentially a

composite construction of steel rods and cement concrete. RCC beams
can be rectangular, Tee, I or of other shapes (of section). steel rods are
provided in concrete beams in the portion of the beam which is
subject to tension and in such proportion that the steel rods carry full
tension neglecting the small tension strength of concrete itself.
Steel rods are provided in that portion of beam which is subjected to
compression also, where the compressive strength of concrete alone
falls short of required designed strength.
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For a beam bent down wards, between two support, under vertical load
tension occurs at bottom and steel roads are provided in the lower side of
beam and farther from the centroidal axis (or neutral plain). Steel rods,
in this type of bending if needed to be placed for supplementing
compressive strength, are placed in the upper side of beam and farthest
from neutral axis. The theory of structural mechanics establishes that
the force causing bending of a beam, known as bending moment, is
largest at center of span and also below the load point. This force of
bending or bending moment reduces towards the two supports and is of
zero value at support point
(in case where the beam is simply supported at two ends only). So in
many cases, it is usual to provide more tension steel rods at central
part, with reduction at both ends.
In order to strengthen the RCC beam strong to withstand shear force, rods
in the form of a rectangular ring, surrounding the bottom rods or
tension rods are provided vertically at calculated intervals. For facility
of binding and vertical positioning of the rectangular ring, two rods are
provided at two top corners of the beam along length, whether or not
steel in compression side is required for strength.
Structural mechanics theory establishes that the force causing shear in

beams is largest at support and decreases towards center of the span.
The rectangular ring are therefore, generally, spaced at close distance near
the supports, and gradually spaced wider in the center region.
These reinforcing steel rods, to carry the shear force in beams, bent in
rectangular profile and encompassing the compression and tension
rods, are known as rings, hangers, etc. but as stirrups in more technical
term.
Where a beam is continuous and rests on more than two supports

(supports in same straight line), then under vertical load tension
occurs at bottom part and compression occurs at top part, in the
length of beam at span or in the length between supports. But at the
support points, the beam bends upwards, where tension and
compression steel are provided at top and bottom respectively.
A reinforced concrete rectangular beam can support a reinforced

concrete slab in two manners. The RCC slab can rest on a RCC beam,
without any bond or fixity at the beam slab junction. In such case the
total measurement from top of slab to bottom of beam is equal to the
thickness of the RCC slab plus depth of the RCC beam. The strength
of beam is determined by breadth of beam (rib portion) and depth of
beam forming a rectangle. In this type of construction the depth of
beam only contributes towards strength and so is not economic. Much
advantage in terms of greater flexural strength can be had if the slab
thickness is incorporated in the depth of the beam, so as to make the
34
top of slab and top of beam flush, and a part of RCC slab forms the
flange of a R.C.C. Tee Section. In such Tee-section the strength of the
beam is determined by breadth of flange and depth as before. This
type of construction is now usual and widely adopted.
The designed quantities of steel needed to withstand tension or

compression is calculated as area of steel in sq.mm. or sq.cm. and
steel rods of same diameter or different diameter, in suitable numbers
are provided so that the requisite area is provided. If number of rods
are large, two layers of rods can be provided.
RCC beams can be of shapes other than rectangular or

Tee-section. I section and box sections are also used, though their field
of use are mostly in bridges, industrial structures.
VII. Composite steel beam RCC slab construction: When a concrete
slab rests on a steel joist on top flange, and the slab is loaded both the
slab and joist deflects downwards individually. If there was some kind
of bond between the slab and the joist, then together they would have
acted as a single beam in the shape of a Tee, increasing the strength of
the composite section against flexure or bending. Such composite
action can be provided by using shear connectors, such as cutting
from plates, angles, channels, spirals, or bent and hooked bars which
are welded to the top flange of the joist or girder.
Codes of Practice for Structural Design specifies what should be taken

as width of a flange for such a Tee beam of composite construction.
VIII Prestressed concrete beams: Are a special type of RCC beams,

where the beam is made strong to withstand tension force, which has
to be taken care in a RCC beam primarily. This strengthening is done
by prestressing the beam or subjecting the beam to a compressive
force. When the beam is subject to imposed loading then tension has
to occur after neutralising the compressing force subjected initially.
35
Chapter VI
WALLS
Considering the functional aspects, walls can be grouped broadly as
1. Load bearing walls:
Load bearing walls carry superimposed vertical loads (weight) from upper
walls, floors and roof, through the system of beams, slabs etc. in addition to
the own weight of the wall itself, that is self weight. These should also be
reasonably strong against normal horizontal forces caused by wind and
earthquakes. Load bearing walls are efficient structurally when the load is
uniformly distributed on its entire length, without concentration of loads at
certain points.
The building floor plans should be such that center lines of all load bearing
walls on each floor coincide with the center line of foundation for such
walls, so that no eccentricity of load occurs. The openings in load bearing
walls for doors and windows should be minimum in size and number, and
so positioned that heavy concentration of load is avoided.
Thickness of walls depends on the (i) strength of construction materials,

that is masonry, concrete etc. (ii) unsupported vertical height, that is height
between floor/roof and (iii) unsupported length, that is the distance
between columns, piers, pilasters or cross walls, and (iv) total height. The
ratio of effective height or effective length (which ever is smaller) to the
thickness is called slenderness ratio of the wall. The effective height of a
load bearing wall is determined by the rigidity of connection at floor or roof
with the wall. Effective length is determined by end conditions free, or
continuous, supports from cross walls, piers, pilasters, and presence of
openings. Higher slenderness ratio indicates lower strength and vice versa.
For a particular strength of brick masonry, the walls shall be of large
thickness in lower storeys, with decreasing thickness for upper storeys, each
of fixed heights, and thinnest in top storey.
Example (1): For a seven storey residential or office building, having

ground floor plus six floors above, total height between 23.5 m to 32.0 m
and with unsupported length of wall more than 10m, the minimum
thickness at plinth level shall be 100 cm, at ground floor shall be 90 cm,
progressively reduced in upper floors, 30 cm in the sixth floor.
Example (2): For a four storey residential or office building, having ground
floor plus three floors above, total height not exceeding 13.5 m and with
36
unsupported length less than 10 m, the minimum thickness shall be, at

plinth level 50 cm, at ground floor 40 cm, at first and second floor 30
cm and at third or top floor 20 cm.
The sizes in the examples are valid for brick masonry using conventional
bricks 25 cm X 12.5 cm X 7.5 cm (10 X 5 X 3) nominal size or modular
bricks 20 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm nominal size, set in 1:3 lime mortar, or 1:6
cement mortar or 1:2:9 cement - lime composite mortar. They apply to all
load bearing external and inner walls.
Municipal or other statutory building rules do not permit thickness of
external brick masonry walls, load bearing or not, less than 20 cm, in any
floor for any height, where such wall forms a part of room or enclosures
used by inhabitants. It is therefore very economic to construct a 2 storey
building with load bearing walls, where length of any wall does nor exceed
10 m, with one brick thick walls in both floors, which is safe, since the 20
cm thickness is also minimum required structurally.
It is a good practice to provide a RCC band continuous over load bearing

walls, equal to wall width and thickness 150 mm to 225 mm which serves
to bridge the openings in walls for doors and windows. This provides a
horizontal stiffness to walls and anchorage with cross walls.
Residential buildings of apartment house types have been built recently up

to four storeys, with one brick (250 mm) thick wall from ground floor to top.
This has been possible due to careful floor planning, improved quality of
bricks sand cement mortar.
2. Non load bearing walls.
Non load bearing walls do not transmit vertical loads excepting for their self
weight. They may have to often resist horizontal forces due to wind or
earthquakes, but not subject to vertical loads.
Example of non load bearing walls:

Panel Wall: An exterior wall constructed in a frame work of beams and
columns, forming into a unit in each storey. As per municipal rules,
brick masonry panel external walls are not less than 20 cm. These
often have openings as windows.

Partition Wall: An interior wall constructed in structural frame work of
beams and columns, or elsewhere for partitioning large spaces into
smaller rooms. They can be of full storey height, that is floor to
underside of next higher floor, or can be less. They can be made less
than 20 cm thickness, partition walls are 12.5 cm, 10 cm or 7.5 cm
thick in 1:4 or 1:3 cement sand mortar. Specifications require use of
37
wire netting in every third or fifth course of brick works for better
strength.

Parapet Wall : Such walls on roof are constructed for short height, say
1m, usually 12.5 cm thick brick work, with pilasters at some distances,
say 2.5 m.apart.

Compound, perimeter or boundary wall: Such walls do not carry superimposed
loads, but are expected to resist lateral wind pressure.
Heights of boundary walls range from 1.5 m to 6 m. low height walls
can have uniform thickness of 12.5 cm over height, with 25 cm X 25
cm pilasters at 2.5 m distances. Higher walls can have as much as 50
cm thickness at bottom, with reduction in thickness upwards.
Alternatively, they can be of one uniform thickness of say 25 cm but
with strong pilasters of large size say 62.5 cm X 50 cm. Boundary walls
can also be constructed with less thickness, if the alignment in plan is
zig-zag, or corrugated. Such a shape provides strength against
overturning. For long lengths walls should be constructed, in limited
segments of 25 m to 40m, with gap of 15 to 20 mm between two
lengths. At the junction two pilasters are constructed with such gap.
Besides allowing thermal expansion, the gaps limit length of damaged
wall incase of overturning.

Curtain wall: a self supporting wall, carrying no superimposed vertical
load, but subjected to lateral loads, extending for full height of building
as exterior wall. It has lateral supports by horizontal structural
members like floor or roof extended up to the wall and so connected to
it as if hinged. Curtain walls are external walls with window openings
and features like cornices, string course etc. can be incorporated on
them. Curtain walls are also built along with columns as pilasters
which support vertical loads from floor beams.
2. Retaining walls.
Retaining walls are constructed to resist horizontal pressure created by

retained granular materials, earth or water. It is commonly required in
retention of hill slopes, for construction of dams, wing walls of bridges and
basement walls of buildings.
Because of increase of earth pressure with increase in the depth of earth fill
(or water) the section of retaining wall increases from top towards bottom.
Both faces of walls can be stepped or sloped, but generally one side is kept
vertical and the other stepped. The face that retains the earth, is generally
stepped or sloped.
When the height of filling is large, simple retaining walls becomes very
thick and uneconomical. In such case lateral supports are provided in the
form of buttresses or counter-forts, Buttress is a thickened portion of wall,
similar in construction to retaining wall, provided in the face opposite
38
to the loaded face. Counterfort is similar to a buttress in construction and

function, but is provided on the loaded face. So counterforts must be tied
to main wall with iron ties to prevent separation of main wall from the
lateral support, in a masonry wall. Counter-forted retaining walls are
mostly constructed in RCC, where such ties are provided by reinforcement
rods.
Materials for construction of walls
1. Stone masonry walls
2. Brick masonry walls
3. Cavity walls
4. Hollow concrete block masonry walls
5. Reinforced brick masonry walls
6. RCC construction walls
7. Composite masonry walls
8. Other
1. Stone masonry walls: Dry rubble masonry walls can be constructed

using roughly dressed stone blocks without using any mortar. Such
walls can be constructed for low height compound walls or for low
height retaining walls and not for load bearing walls. Their use can be
found in hill areas.
Rubble masonry with lime soorki / sand (1:3) or cement sand (1:8 to
1:4) mortar can be used to construct load bearing walls for single
storey buildings, in hill area. Thickness of walls are seldom less than
30 cm and frequently 45 cm.
Ashlar work consists of masonry in lime or cement mortar using very

finely dressed regular shaped stone blocks. The thickness of mortar
joints shall be not more than 5 mm in fine dressed work, 10 mm being
maximum for a coarsely dressed rustic Ashlar work.
2. Brick masonry wall: Burnt clay bricks of conventional nominal size 25

cm 3 12.5 cm 3 7.5 cm or modular nominal size 20 cm310 cm310 cm
are commonly used. Thickness of partition walls can be 12.5 cm or
7.5 cm by using conventional bricks as brick flat or brick on edge
position respectively. Modular bricks can produce smallest thickness
of wall 10 cm. Three courses of brick flat and two courses of brick on
39
edge with conventional bricks, can construct a 20 cm or 8 inch wall

thickness, which is minimum required for a load bearing wall.
Fly ash of thermal power stations is also now being used to produce
bricks in replacement of burnt clay. But since availability of fly ash
bricks is restricted with a few manufacturers only, it has not been
popular yet with builders.
Precast solid plain cement concrete blocks can be used as building

blocks for construction of walls. Their sizes can be varied over wide
range as they can be cast to required sizes at site.
3. Cavity Walls: A cavity wall or hollow wall consists of two separate

walls called leaves with a gap or cavity in between. The two leaves of a
cavity wall can be of same thickness or different. For non load bearing
walls the leaves are of same size, and in case of load bearing wall, the
inner leaf is thicker than the outer one. Since cavity walls are
constructed principally for thermal insulation and for preventing
ingress of damp, they are constructed as outer walls only.Cavity wall
constructions are more common in cold countries overseas, than in
countries having hot and humid climate, with heavy rainfall.
4. Precast hollow concrete blocks can be manufactured in large sizes 39

cm 3 9 cm 3 30 cm, 39 cm 319 cm 3 20 cm and 39 cm 3 19 cm 3 10
cm. The blocks should have at least 2 hollow cores. The net solid area
should at least be 55% to 60% of total area. The concrete shall not be
less than 1:2:4 mix and shall be well cured before use. Though hollow
blocks can be used as load bearing walls for smaller load, it is popular
as partition wall or panel wall only. Walls constructed with hollow
blocks are light in weight and provides good thermal insulation.
Hollow blocks are machine made. Special shaped blocks are
manufactured for wall corners, junction, door-window panels, sills etc.
5. Rainforced Brick wall: Brick walls can be rainforced horizontally and

vertically by incorporating wrought iron or mild steel flats in
horizontal courses of bricks or by placement of vertical rods in brick
work near two faces. For accommodating vertical rods, the bricks
should have grooves cut on the edges, and tied by wires at some
intervals. Vertically reinforced brick walls are strong against
horizontal force. Reinforced brick walls can be used as retaining walls
of low heights say up to 4m, when it may work out to be cheaper than
a RCC wall. Their use in building walls are rare, because of
discontinuity at door and window openings, defeats the purpose of
providing reinforcement, and the higher cost involved.
Moisture absorption by brick work cause rusting of steel embedded in

brick work, - a disadvantage in reinforced brick construction.
40
6. RCC wall : Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) wall construction are

adopted widely in retaining walls to withstand horizontal pressure. In
multistory buildings they are used as load bearing walls or shear
walls. Walls of lift wells, strong rooms etc. (of banks etc.) are generally
constructed in RCC. In addition to the normal function of providing a
strong protective cover, they may support vertical loads also. Walls of
basement floors in buildings are of RCC, withstand horizontal soil
pressure and vertical loads also in many cases. Basement retaining
walls in buildings are often counterforted, that is supported on the
earth retained side, so that the basement floor space is clear of any
protrusions.
Compound walls can be easily constructed with precast RCC slabs, of
thickness 25 mm to 75 mm and secured to RCC posts or pillars
having grooves on vertical side faces, to hold the precast slabs. The
RCC posts or pillars can be precast or cast-in-situ. The concrete mix
used is 1:1:3 OR 1:2 :4 cement, sand, stone chips, the joints
grouted with 1:4 cement sand mortar.
7. Composite masonry walls: These are walls constructed of a

combination of stone and brick masonry. In some special cases RCC
wall and brick masonry wall combined have been used.
(a) In a combination of rubble masonry and ashlar masonry the

ashlar surface forms outer face for good appearance, and the
backing is formed by rubble masonry. In order that both the
facing and backing act monolithically, construction should be
carefully done with some specific methods.
(b) In a brick backed ashlar masonry, the ashlar may be rough

tooled or highly polished. The thickness of each ashlar layer
should be in multiples of brick-flat layers plus total thickness of
masonry joints, so that uniform coursed masonry is obtained.
The four constructions features as in case of (a) above is also
applicable.
(c) Frequently brick walls are face with stone slabs or stone tiles.
The stone slabs can be of marble or granite polished in superior
works. In other less costly works, sand stones are commonly
used. The slabs or tiles are in large panels and metal champs or
fasteners are use to hold the facing slabs with backing brick
work.
(d) In locations where rubble stone is available in large quantities,

but not ashlar, the rubble masonry wall backing can have a
brick masonry facing, brick work layed in courses. The usual
procedure and precautions in construction to be followed as
described in (a).
41
(e) RCC retaining walls in basement, when in contact with soil

containing ground water, require some protection from direct
contact of such soil. The easiest method is to provide a half
brick (10 cm or 12.5 cm) wall cladding on the wall surface. In
severely moist soil, a bituminous protective layer, or any other
synthetic coating is applied on the concrete surface, and a
protective course of brick work is constructed covering such
coating from contact with soil.
8. Glass brick wall: Hollow or solid blocks of specially treated glass are in
use for construction of non load bearing walls, panel walls mostly.
These are attractive visually, insulating and allows light to pass. These
are also easy to clean. They can be set in 1:4 cement lime paste
mortar or suitable adhesives.
Wall covering or wall finishes
Permanent wall coverings (that is wall papers, timber panel etc. excluded)
are provided to:
(I) protect the external surface against penetration of

rain water and other atmospheric agencies like wind
etc.
(II) provide a smooth surface where dust or dirt can not

accumulate;
(III) provide a decorative effect;
(IV) protect surfaces against attack of vermin;
(V) conceal or compensate inferior materials or defective

workmanship.
Wall surfaces, can however be kept exposed also, which may offer visually
pleasant effect, if such exposed surfaces can be kept protected from weather
action.
External walls
1. Brick surface plastered inner and / or outer surface.
2. Brick surface covered with tiles, polished stone, etc.
42
3. Exposed brick surfaces, with flush pointing, rule pointing tuck

pointing, and recessed pointing.
4. Exposed brick surfaces with cement based paint, chemical etc.
5. Exposed stone surface rough finished, fine finished or polished.
1. Brick surface plastered inner and / or outer surface. It is the most

common covering on walls (or any masonry or concrete in general, above
ground level, exposed to atmosphere). Mortar of lime and sand was
extensively used previously, now a mortar of cement and sand or a
composite of cement, lime and sand is used in specified proportions.
Where sand is not available, crushed stone is used. The thickness of
plaster on average varies from 6 mm (for ceilings or concrete surfaces) to
20 mm, to cover unevenness of brick surfaces. External plastered
surfaces can be of variety of designs, such designs being engraved or
incorporated when the plaster has not fully set. The surface can be
pebble or gravel finished or rough cast.
Usually on external plastered surface, a cement based paint is provided.

Paints are available in market, for a wide range of quality, colour etc.
under many brand names by different reputed or local manufacturers.
2. Brick surfaces on outer side can also be covered by tiles of terracotta,

polished stone, mosaic of vitreous blocks arranged in various designs.
3. Exposed brick surfaces, are left without any plaster covering when the
bricks are well burnt and of good shape with sharp edges. By some
special treatment to joints in brick work a decorative appearance can be
achieved.
(i) Flush pointing the mortar joints (horizontal and vertical) are raked
first, then fresh mortar is pressed in and finished flush with brick
surface.
(ii) Rule pointing or groove pointing after raking of joint in, fresh
mortar is pressed, made flush with brick surface and a V groove is
cut in the flush finished face.
(iii) Tuck pointing after raking of joints, a plaster thickness of about 10

mm is provided covering the joints, and while the mortar is green,
the edges of joint are cut in parallel lines 10 mm apart, so that a
raised band 10 mm X 10 mm is formed along joints, keeping brick
work exposed.
(iv) Recessed pointing after raking joints, fresh mortar is pressed into
joints and depressed about 5 mm inside from the outer brick face by
a suitable tool.
43
4. Exposed brick surfaces can be left as exposed without any paint or

chemical coating. But this leaves the surface to natural weather action.
Large surfaces cannot be expected to contain all bricks of uniformly
good quality. So it is better to provide a cement based point on the brick
surfaces as a protective cover. By using different colours for the pointed
joints, decoration can be achieved. Transparent water proofing chemicals
like silicone can be used on exposed brick surface to render it water
repelling.
5. Stone masonry faces are left in natural conditions, as they are, exposed
to weather. Finely finished surfaces are more durable than rough
finished ones. The polished surfaces are most durable. Stone surfaces
need no plaster or paint covers. But if unpolished surfaces are coated
with some transparent water resisting chemical like silicone, the durability
increases manifold.
Internal Walls
Internal surfaces of brick walls are given a plaster cover, similar to outer
surfaces, over which some simple or decorative wall finishes are provided.
Exposed brick work in internal walls can be found in godowns, factories etc.
only.
1. Lime punning on sand plaster: A mixture of shell lime one part and
stone lime three parts, is thoroughly slaked in water, strained through
cloth to remove course and grit particles. After the lime in water
settles down, the water is drained and the lime paste is used for
punning. The plastered base is cleaned and the lime paste is applied
in thickness of 1.5 mm to 2 mm about, by a wooden trowel first, then
polished smooth with steel trowel to give a white shining surface. The
finished surface is kept wet for some days. This is not commonly used
now.
2. Plaster of Paris: This is gypsum or Sulphate of calcium, applied on

plaster surface and can be finished very smooth. Over this surface
paint can be used. This is available in market for ready use with
water. The thickness should be 1.5 mm.
3. Plain lime wash or white wash : This is most common and cheapest
wall finish on plastered surface. Slaked stone lime, properly screened
to remove grits, mixed with adhesive and indigo like Robin Blue etc., is
applied in two or three coatings, to provide a bright white, clean and
hygienic wall finish.
4. Coloured lime based paint: Several pigments or stainers are available

in market, which can be used in lime wash, for decorative colour
treatment to walls.
44
5. Distemper Pint: This type of paint was used earlier, when improved
type of oil bound or plastic emulsion paints were not available.
Distemper paints are either water bound or oil bound. Oil bound
distempers are washable.
6. Plastic emulsion paint: Ready mixed paints of reputed and local

manufacturers are available in market. These are applied on gypsum
plastered (Plaster of Paris) surfaces, with primer as recommended by
manufacturer of a particular brand. The painted surfaces can be
cleaned by washing.
7. Cast in situ or tiled coverings: Like floor finish, cast in situ

terrazzo, terrazzo tiles, ceramic tiles are used in walls of kitchens,
toilets, as dado.
45
Chapter VII
COLUMNS
Columns are vertical structural components to support vertical loads
axially, but with some strength to withstand horizontal forces also due to
wind, earthquakes of low intensity and has to be strong against side
buckling. In a framed structure, in addition to vertical axial loads, columns
have to withstand bending laterally, as a beam in vertical position.
Vertical loading in column can be concentric or eccentric. When the line
of vertical force, coincides with the vertical axis (centre of gravity line), the
force is concentric; and when the line of loading is away from axis, it is a
case of eccentric loading. Concentric loading produces direct compression
(stress) only, in column, of uniform intensity over the section; but eccentric
loading produces bending in column, causing (bending) tension (stress) to
occur, in some region of column section, in addition to direct compression
(stress), and causing (bending) compression stress, in other side of central
axis, in addition to direct compression (stress). So under eccentric loading,
in column section, intensity of compression shall be very high in one side of
the central axis and compression shall be reduced in intensity on other side
of the central axis. If the eccentricity is large, then the intensity of
compression can get totally neutralised and even some residual (bending)
tension (stress) may occur on that side of axis. When a column bends, as a
beam in vertical position, compression (stress) occurs at the concave side
and tension (stress) occurs on the convex side, under large eccentricity.
Columns that are constructed by such materials which are weak in tension,
should not be subjected to such large eccentric loading, so as to induce
tension in the material.
Shape in plan
Columns in plan can be circular, square, rectangular, polygonal or in the

shape of a cross or any other shape designed for structural advantage. The
size in plan can be uniform over its entire length, or can be tapered upwards
to a smaller cross section. The strength of a column to support vertical load
is dependent on the (i) strength of the materials by which the column is
constructed; (ii) on the cross sectional area of the column; and (iii) on a
factor slenderness ratio which is a relation between the length of column
and lateral dimension of a column.
Column can be solid or hollow, depending on the materials of construction.
Construction materials for columns

46
1) Stone masonry.
2) Brick masonry.
3) Timber.
4) Cast Iron.
5) Steel.
6) Reinforced cement concrete. (R.C.C.)
1) Columns constructed with stone masonry can be found in

ancient building or in buildings constructed from medieval ages
to early twentieth century. Stone columns constructed are of
rough dressed or finely dressed ashlar stone work and frequently
with ornamental decorative designs worked by chiesels on the
stone surfaces.
2) Brick masonry columns are constructed in similar specification

as for brick masonry walls. Such columns are commonly of
rectangular or square cross section (that is the shape on plan)
and sides of the rectangular or square being in terms of multiples
of half brick. Thus a five half brick wide side means 62.5 cm,
with conventional bricks and 50.0 cm with modular bricks. In
rectangular column the longer side is called width and the shorter side
as thickness. In a masonry column the longer side is not generally
more than 2.5 times the shorter side, when the same is
constructed as an isolated column. For larger dimension, the
term pier is used and when constructed monolithically with wall,
it is called a pilaster.
The slenderness ratio for load bearing columns shall not be more
than 12 for safe construction.
Stone columns and brick columns should be constructed with

concentric axial loading, since masonry works are week in
tension.
3) Timber columns are popularly called wooden posts and their use
is restricted to two or three storied timber buildings in areas
where timber is cheap. In modern times, even in places near
forest, use of timber in building construction as structural
members is discouraged from environment consideration and to
prevent destruction of forest.
Like other columns, strength of timber columns is also

dependent on cross sectional area, the strength of the type of
47
timber used and also on slenderness ratio. Moreover strength of

timber varies, depending on the relative direction of timber fibers
or grains and the direction of load.
Slenderness ratio should not be more than 11 for timber column.
4) Cast iron columns have also been widely used earlier,

particularly in last three centuries in building constructions.
Cast iron (C.I. in short) columns are invariably hollow and mostly
of circular, cross section. They have been used as inner load
bearing columns and also for supporting external balconies,
porticos and arcades. C.I. columns (or pillars as they are also
called) are decorative with carvings and ornamentation moulded
on surface during casting. Cast iron is very strong in
withstanding compression force, but comparatively weak in
tension. The strength for supporting vertical loads is dependent
on slenderness ratio, like other columns. Cast iron columns are
extremely durable against weather action and maintenance is
very simple. However C.I. is brittle and can not sustain impact.
Once cracked or damaged, repair work can not be done, complete
replacement is needed. C.I. columns are heavy and has to be
manufactured in correct measurements to match floor to floor
distances as in between jointing (splicing) can not be done.
Because of these disadvantages, C.I. columns are not used now.
The slenderness ratio for C.I. columns can be more than 12 but
less than 60 for steel columns.
5) Steel columns : Columns of mild steel materials are formed by

structural steel sections like solid round, hollow round, hollow
square, I-section, channel section, angle section etc.
The strength of a steel column, like other columns, is dependent

on slenderness ratio. In case of steel columns this ratio is
express as l/r, where l is the effective length and r is radius of
gyration, a geometric property of the horizontal cross section shape of
solid round, hollow round, I-section, etc.. Maximum l/r ratio for
steel stanchion is allowed as 60.
Steel columns are strong and occupies less area on plan. But
they are to be protected against corrosion. If columns are left
bare, a protective paint is to be applied. However, it is always
advisable to encase steel columns in brick work or concrete, to
serve two purposes (i) protection to corrosion and (ii)protection
from fire.
48
Encasement with R.C.C. can be done by proper design so that

R.C.C. casing also sustain some load, thus a encased composite
steel column can support much higher loads than a bare
column.
6) Reinforced Concrete Columns (R.C.C. Column): A reinforced

concrete column is a composite structural member of steel rods
and cement concrete.
Steel rods that are placed vertical parallel to the vertical axis of
column, are main steel. When under load, the main steel rods
support load each functioning as a vertical steel column and are
therefore to be prevented from buckling.
For R.C.C. columns having slenderness ratio not more than 12,
the term short column is used.
In design/ construction of short columns only direct compressive
axial load is considered. In case of columns, where the
slenderness ratio exceeds 12, the same is called a long column
and here side buckling or bending stress have also to be taken
into account for design / construction of the columns. Of course
in a framed structure, or in case of a column subject to bending
force, in addition to vertical load, the column has to be designed
so, as to withstand all the forces, even if it may fall in
short column category.
Certain guidelines for construction of a R.C.C. columns are

narrated below:
1. The grade of concrete shall not be less than M15 (1:2:4

nominal volume mix.)
2. Number of main bars shall be 4 minimum.
3. Diameter of main bars shall be 12 mm minimum.
4. The main bars in a circular, hexagonal octagonal etc.

sections, shall be minimum six in numbers.
5. Spacing of main bars measured along the periphery of the

column shall not exceed 300 mm.
6. The cross sectional total area of main bars shall not be

less than 0.8 per cent nor more than 6 per cent of gross
sectional area of the column.
49
A R.C.C. column shall have transverse reinforcement so

disposed that every main (longitudinal) bar nearest to the
(compression) face has effective lateral support against
buckling. The effective lateral support is given by
transverse reinforcement either in the form of circular
rings or by polygonal links (lateral ties) with internal
angles not exceeding 135 degrees.
7. For a circular or polygonal column with 6 or more main

bars, transverse reinforcement shall be helical or circular
rings with adequate lap.
8. Diameter of transverse steel rods shall not be less than 5

mm or less than of largest main bar diameter, and need
not exceed 20 mm.
9. The pitch (or intervals) of lateral ties or rings shall not be

more than the least of the following dimensions:-
(i) the least lateral dimension of column;

(ii) 16 times the smallest diameter of main bars;
(iii) 48 times the diameter of the transverse steel.
10. The pitch of helical reinforcement shall
(a) not be more than :-
(i) 75 mm (where helical rods adds to strength).

(ii) One sixth of the core diameter.
(Core: the area within helical circle).
(b) not less than :-
(i) 25 mm.
(ii) three times diameter of helical reinforcement.
(Refer to sketch sheet 25 ).
50
Chapter VIII
STAIRS
Stairs are structures for facilitating movement between lower and higher
floors in a building. Ramps also serve the same purpose, which like stairs
have a inclined surface without any steps but with a gentle slope. Ramps
naturally require more space in plan, and are constructed in some special
buildings like hospitals, multi- level car parking etc.
Staircase consists combined structural system of steps, waist, landings,

hand rails and the supporting beams and other parts of building structure
that encloses it.
Types of Staircases
1) Straight flight : Such stair runs between two floors in straight

alignment.
They may consist a single flight (slopes) or two flights (slope)

with a landing in between.
2) Half turn Ne-wel stairs or Dogleg stair : In these two types of

stairs, the direction of flight reverses after a landing at more or
less half floor height. In Ne-wel stair, there are some triangular
shaped extra steps at half landing, known as winders. Dog leg
stairs are similar to Ne-wel, but generally do not have winders at
half landing; or at best may have one winder at quarter landing.
3) Open well or half turn open Newel : These are otherwise similar
to Dogleg half turn Newel types but have a gap in between the
two flights, which looks like an well from top, where there are a
number of stair flights. The gap ranges from 15 cm to 100 cm.
When the space is larger than a tread width, a small flight
containing two to four steps may be introduced at the turn,
between two quarter space landings.
4) Geometric half turn stairs: The stringers are continuous- the

hand rails are continuous in this type of open well staircase.
These may be either with half space landing or without landing,
having splayed or triangular steps.
51
5) Ne-wel quarter turn: This type changes its direction either to the
left or right, the turn being effected either by a quarter space
landing or by winders.
6) Geometric quarter turn : The steps are similar to Newel
quarter turn, but the stringer is continuous. The stairs can be
without any landing, helical, with steps radiating from one
point.
7) Bifurcated : This is a type common in public buildings. The
bottom wide flight is divided at landing into two narrower
flights, which branch off to right and left. In a double quarter
turn stair each side flight is continued with an additional quarter
turn.
8) Three quarter turn : This stair has its direction changed three
times, with its upper flight crossing the bottom one.
A few nomenclatures connected with stair
1. Stringer :
These are inclined beams supporting the steps, on which the steps
span.
2. Waist :
( See Page 9 of Note).
3. Step :
This is combination of tread and riser, supported on stringers. Steps

can be splayed.
4. Tread :
Horizontal surface of a step.
5. Riser :
Vertical surface of a step.
6. Flight :
A continuous set of steps extending from floor to floor, or floor to

landing or landing to landing.
7. Landing :
It is a platform between two flights for rest and for turning a stair.
52
8. Rise :
Vertical distance between two treads.
9. Going :
Width of a tread or distance between two risers.
10. Nosing :
Front edge of a tread projecting beyond the face of riser below.
11. Scotia :
A concave moulded decorative feature below nosing.
12. Line of Nosing:
Line that can be drawn to touch the projecting edges or nosing of the
treads.
13. Nosing Line:
Line drawn for setting out steps joining inter section points of risers
and treads.
14. Pitch or slope:
It is the angle between the line of nosing (or nosing line where there is
no nosing) and the floor or landing.
15. Newel Post or Newels:
Vertical members supporting hand rails. In timber stair they are

substantial members supporting stringers, placed at the ends of flight.
16. Run:
Total horizontal distance between lowest riser and top - most riser in
one flight.
17. Winders:
Tapering steps as if radiating from a point.
18. Spandrel or Spandril :
Spandril is the triangular surface between outer stringer and floor.

53
19. Walking line :
Represents the average line of travel taken by a person when ascending

or descending a stair, and is usually 450 mm ( 1-6 ) from the hand rail or
Newel.
20. Fliers :
These are common steps, rectangular in plan uniform width.
Width of Stairs
(i) Minimum clear width of staircase in residential buildings shall

not be less than 1 m except in the case of a single family (three
storied building), in which case, the width of stair may be
reduced to 0.75 m.
(ii) In case of public building, the width shall not be less than 1.0m,
generally 1.2 m is adopted.
Maximum rise
(i) For public buildings : 175 mm.
(ii) For domestic buildings: 190 mm.
Minimum going or tread width
(i) For public buildings : 275 mm.
(ii) For domestic buildings :250mm.

(exclusive of nosing, if provided.)
Construction of Stairs
1. Construction of masonry stair has followed the

development of construction technique in flat roof or
floors. So there are (i) timber stringer beam timber
batten- clay tile lime concrete construction. (ii) steel joist
stringer beam- inverted steel tee- clay tile lime concrete
54
construction, prior to introduction of R.C.C. construction.

The steps, in these types of stairs were in brick work.
2. Reinforced cement concrete or R.C.C. stairs: Use of

R..C. C. has made construction of stairs much easier and
in varieties, as these can be constructed in various shapes
and support systems.
(i) Waist slab resting on supports at two ends: In this case the
landings at two ends of a flight, together with inclined slab rest
on two walls, or two beams at two ends. Here the slab spans in
direction of flight.
(ii) Waist slab- inclined portion resting on beam at two ends: In this
type the inclined portion of waist slab rests on beams at two
ends, and the landings may project out as cantilevers of flights.
Here also the slab spans in the direction of flights.
(iii) Waist slab resting on landing slabs at two ends: Here the
landings at two ends are supported on walls or beams at the
two opposite sides, parallel to the flight. The landing slabs at
upper end and lower end span in the direction parallel to the
steps but at right angles to the direction of flight. The inclined
waist slab rests on landing slabs, and the waist slab spans in
the direction of flight.
(iv) Waist slab spanning in direction of steps: Here the waist slab,
along the two sides in the direction flight rests on two stringers
(beams) at two sides, or on one stringer at one side and on wall,
in a groove cut in wall, at other end.
There can be a single stringer beam at centre of a stair width,

the waist slab projecting out on two sides as cantilevers. The
waist slab can also project out or cantilever out from a stringer
beam, embedded on one side wall only.
In these types the waist slab spans in the direction of steps that
is perpendicular to the direction of flight.
(v) Spiral Stairs: Waist slab can be constructed as a spiral ramp,

supported on wall or beam on one side only, cantilevered out
from the beam or wall support.
The above described types of stairs require construction of a

waist slab, which supports the steps constructed on it. Steps
can be of brick work or of plain cement concrete. But stairs can
also be constructed without a waist slab.
55
(vi) R.C.C. steps on two stringer beams or one stringer and another
wall support can be constructed, each step behaving as a beam
supported on two ends.
(vii) R.C.C. steps can be constructed on a single stringer running at

center of flight, the step behaving as a beam supported at centre
and cantilevering out on both sides.
(viii) R.C.C. steps can also be constructed as supported at one end as

a cantilever, projecting out of a supporting beam embedded in
side wall.
(ix) Spiral stair with steps only, can be constructed in similar way
as in (viii), where the supporting end beam can be constructed
as a spiral.
In all the cases mentioned in (iv) to (ix), the waist slabs or the
steps, span in the direction of steps, that is perpendicular to the
direction of flights. So these have to be reinforced accordingly.
(x) Free standing stair: In this type the waist slab spans in the
direction of flight, the intermediate landing between two floors,
without any support. The two landings at two floor levels and
two inclined slabs and one Intermediate landing compositely act
as a cantilever triangular frame for stability.
(xi) Tread Riser Stair: In this type there is no waist slab. Or,
the waist slab is constructed in a folded pattern to form treads
and risers, and with properly designed reinforcement. Such slab
span in the direction of flight and can be supported at two ends,
as described under No.(i),(ii), and (iii).
3. Cast Iron Stairs: Cast iron has been long in use for
construction of stair case, but invariably in the shape of a
spiral stair. In this type there is a central hollow round
post of cast iron and the splayed tread units of cast iron
with a round ring at one end, are fitted on to the post one
above another.
Cast Iron (C.I.) stairs are fitted as a fire escape or a service stair, on
outer wall of a building. For access to a water tank above roof level,
a C.I. stair can be used.
4. Steel stair case : Steel stair cases are constructed by using

rolled steel structural sections, that are I-sections, channel
sections, angles, plates etc. Commonly channel sections
are used for two stringers and in between two stringers,
plates are fitted by angle cleats to form the treads. The
plates used for treads are chequered plates, perforated
56
plates or can be gratings of mild steel or cast iron .Use of

steel stairs are restricted to industrial buildings only. But
they have been used as an outside staircase, in
multistoried buildings, to serve as fire escapes.
(Refer to sketch sheets 21, 22, 23 & 24 ).
57
Chapter IX
LINTELS AND ARCHES
To bridge over gaps or openings in walls, for doors and windows, lintels and
arches are in use for centuries.
A. Lintels
The lintels are essentially beams and provide a horizontal soffit. The width of
lintels are equal to the thickness of walls on which they are constructed.
The length is equal to the gaps to be bridged over, plus adequate bearing
lengths on both ends. Lintels are normally not exposed to view since these
remain covered under plaster work.
The lintel has to carry the load of the masonry on the gap portion, and
transfer this load equally to the two sides of opening. Due to arch action, the
load can be assumed to be that from a masonry area of an equilateral
triangle of side equal to clear opening plus some extra length at both ends
(Effective Span). But if any part of upper floor or an end of a supported beam
falls within the triangle, then additional load has to be considered as
imposed on the lintel.
In the case of a rubble masonry wall the arch action is uncertain. A lintel on
such wall should be considered to be subject to a load of masonry from
rectangular area, one side equal to the clear span and the height (other side)
equal to 1 to 1.5 times the span, uniformly distributed on the length of
lintel, that is over the span of lintel.
Since lintels are for bridging door and window openings, the spans are in
the range 60 cm. to 180 cm., in most cases.
Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.): has established to be a very

satisfactory material for lintel construction, as it has for all other structural
components. Its construction is exactly similar to that of a R.C.C. beam. The
thickness is equal to that of the wall and the depth vary from 150 mm for
spans (or gaps) up to 120 mm to 225 mm for spans upto 180 cm. The end
bearing lengths should not be less than 150 mm to 225 mm, i.e. not less
than a distance equal to depth of lintel, at each end.
With R.C.C. lintel it is very convenient to construct sunshades or chajja,

for protecting door or window from rains, sun etc. This is a slab
cantilevering out from lintel for a projection of 500 mm generally, integrally
cast with lintel. The thickness at lintel end is constructed thicker (100 mm)
58
than that at free end (75 mm ), the soffit being horizontal, top having a
sloped surface, for draining out rain water.
( Refer to sketch sheet 17).
B. Arches
An arch is a structure comprising a number of relatively small units such as

bricks or masonry which are wedge shaped, joined together with mortar, and
spanning an opening (for doors, windows or others) to support the weight
above. Because of their wedge like form, the units support each other, the
load tends to make them compact and enables them to transmit the load (or
pressure) down wards, partly down wards partly side-wise, or fully side-wise,
to the supports. The shape of the arch determines the nature of load (or
pressure) transmission to the supports
Technical terms applied to an arch and adjacent structure :
1. Voussoirs: The wedge- shaped bricks or blocks of stone which

constitute an arch; the last voussoir to be placed in position is usually
the central one and is called as the key brick or key stone.
2. Ring, Rim or Ring Course : The circular course or courses

comprising the arch.
3. Extrados or back: The external curve of the arch.
4. Intrados : The inner curve of the arch.
5. Soffit : The inner or under surface of the arch; some time the terms
soffit and intrados are accepted as meaning the same.
6. Abutments: The portions of the wall which support the arch.
7. Skewbacks : The inclined or splayed surfaces of the abutments

prepared to receive the arch and from which the arch springs
(starts).
8. Springing points: The points at the intersection between the skewbacks

and the intrados.
9. Springing line : The horizontal line joining the two springing points.
10. Springers : The lowest voussoirs immediately adjacent to the skewback
11. Crown : The highest point of the extrados.

59
12. Haunch : The lower half of the arch between the crown and
a skewback.
13. Span : The horizontal distance between the springing points.
14. Rise : The vertical distance between springing line and the highest point
of the intrados.
15. Centre (or striking point) : Centre of curvature of the intrados or

extrados.
16. Radius : Radius of curvature of intrados or extrados.
17. Depth or Height : The distance between the extrados and intrados.
18. Face : The surface between extrados and intrados.

19. Thickness : The horizontal distance between and at right
angles to the front and back faces; it is sometimes referred
to as the width or breadth of the soffit.
20. Bed joints : The joints between the voussoirs which radiate from the
centre.
21. Spandril : The triangular portion of wall enclosed by
the
extrados, a vertical line from the top of a
skewback, and a
horizontal line from the crown; where arches adjoin,
the
spandril is bounded by the two outer curves and the
horizontal
line between the two crowns.
22. Impost : The projecting course or courses at the upper
part of a pier or other abutment to stress the
springing line;
it is sometimes moulded and known as a cap.
23. Plinth : The projecting brickwork at the base of a wall or pier
which
gives the appearance of additional strength; also known as a base.
24. Arcade : A series of arches, adjoining each other, supporting a wall

and being supported by piers.
Different types of arches
1. Circular or Bulls- Eye Arch: The arches is constructed in a full circular

shape. The weight above the arch is uniformly transmitted to the wall
60
below the opening. Circular openings on external wall is adopted as

an decorative feature, a circular window with a pivoted sash.
2. Elliptical Arch : This is an alternative to circular arch, being in the

shape of an ellipse. The load transmission behaviour is same as that
for circular arch.
3. Semi circular Arch : Here the Impost and spring line is at same level.
The extrados and intrados are exactly semicircular. The weight above
the opening is transferred to the side abutments/walls/piers vertically
at the springing level.
4. Semi-elliptical Arch: Here the arch is in the shape of half of an ellipse,

where the major axis is equal to span of arch and the springing line
coincides with the major axis. The load is transferred vertically to the
side supports.
5. Pointed Arches : These are also known as Gothic arches, as the

pointed arch is characteristic of this style of architecture. The intrados
and extrados of each of the several forms of this type of arch are
segmental curves which intersect at the pointed apex at which each
half abuts to form a vertical joint on the centre line. It is therefore not
usual to have a key. The transfer of weight or load is also vertical to
the side supports.
6. Flat Arch: Straight Arch or Camber Arch: In this type the extrados is
horizontal and the intrados given a slight curvature or camber by providing
a rise of 5 mm to 10 mm per meter of span. The camber is given to
avoid the appearance of sagging, which is produced if the intrados is
perfectly horizontal, and which defect will be accentuated if slightest
deflection occurs. The transfer of load is pendicular to skewback and
so similar to that of a segmental arch, so that the supports has to
withstand vertical as well as horizontal load (force).
(Refer to sketch sheets 18, 19 & 20 ).
61
Chapter X
FOUNDATIONS
I. Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads - on depth
criterion :
A. Shallow foundations : Where depth of foundation is not more
than foundation width shallow foundation. Minimum depth
from top soil- 50 cm.
B. Deep foundations: In cases depth of foundation exceeding

width measurement deep foundation.
II. Alternative classification criteria:
A. Where a foundation can be constructed by open

excavation of soil shallow foundation.
B. Where open excavation is not practically feasible and

special methods are to be adopted for construction- deep
foundation.
III. Broad classification on mode of load distribution to bearing stratum:
A. Spread foundations distribute load from superstructure to bearing

strata on a large surface area. These are shallow foundations.
B. Piers : Masonry or concrete - transfer loads to bearing stratum

directly.
C. Piles, wells, caissons transfer load from super-structure to bearing

stratum directly and by skin friction with intervening strata along
depth. These are deep foundations.
A. Safe bearing pressure: - on foundation supporting stratum should

not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the stratum divided by a
factor of safety of 2.5. Ultimate bearing capacity is that strength that
is determined by methods of soil mechanics at which the settlement
shall not be such, so as to impair functional requirements of a
structure.
62
Classification of bearing strata: and Maximum Safe Bearing capacity

in tonne per sq.m.
1. Rocks :
1.1 Hard rock without laminations and defects :

Granite, trap, diorite .330
1.2 Laminated rocks in sound condition : Sand stone, limestone .165
1.3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rock and
hard shale, cemented material . 90
1.4. Soft rock. . 45
2. Soils : Non cohesive :
2.1. Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering high resistance to
penetrations when excavated by tools. . 45
2.2. Coarse sand compact and dry . . 45
2.3. Medium sand compact and dry. . 25
2.4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverised by fingers). . 15
2.5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture; loose coarse to medium
sand, dry. . 25
2.6. Fine sand loose and dry. . 10
3. Soils Cohesive : ( this group is susceptible to long term

consolidation settlement).
3.1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed dry. . 45

3.2 Medium clay, readily indented with a thumb nail. . 25
3.3 Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with strong
thumb pressure. . 15
3.4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure. .. 10
3.5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several inches with the thumb.
.5
3.6 Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry
condition (50 percent saturation). . 10
A. Peat : A dark, spongy and fibrous soil of vegetable origin. No

generalised values for safe bearing pressures can be given. It is to be
determined after expert site investigation. Peat may occur in very
spongy condition or may be quite firm and compact. While ultimate
bearing capacity may be high, in the compact cases, very large
consolidation settlement occur even under small pressures and the
movement continue for decades.
B. Made up soil : Fills or made up ground No generalised values for
safe bearing pressure can be given. It is to be determined after expert
site investigation.
The strength of made up ground depends on the nature of the

material, its depth, age and the methods used for consolidating it.
63
Test for - compactness looseness
Compactness or looseness of non cohesive soils may be determined by

driving a wooden picket of dimension 5 cm x 5 cm x 70 cm. with a sharp
point. The picket shall be pushed vertically into the soil by the full weight of
a person weighing at least 70 kg. If the penetration of the picket exceeds 20
cm., the soil material is considered loose.
Dry Soil : Dry means that the ground water level is at a distance or depth
not less than width of the foundation, below the base of the foundation.
B. Allowable Bearing Pressure
1. The allowable bearing pressure shall be taken as either of the

following, whichever is less:
(a) the maximum safe bearing capacity;
(b) the maximum safe pressure that the soil can withstand without
exceeding permissible settlements ( as given under para H ).
C. Increase or decrease in allowable bearing values
(a) The allowable bearing values may be increased by an amount equal to

the weight of the soil material removed from above the bearing level,
that is the base of the foundation.
(b) For non cohesive soils, the allowable bearing value shall be reduced by
50 percent if the water table is above or near the soil bearing surface. If
the water level is below the soil bearing surface at a distance at least
equal to the width of the foundation, no such reduction need be made.
For intermediate depths of the water table, proportional reduction of the
allowable bearing value, may be made.
D. Spreading of pressure to lower stratum
Where the bearing materials directly under a foundation over lie a stratum
having smaller maximum safe bearing capacity, these smaller values shall
not be exceeded at the level of such stratum. Computations of the vertical
pressures in the bearing materials at any depth below a foundation may be
made on the assumption that, the load is spread uniformly at an angle of 60
degree with the horizontal or by using any other recognized method. If the
areas thus determined for one load overlaps that for an adjacent load, the
resultant effective area for the two loads shall be taken as equal to the sum
of the respective areas for each load, minus the area of overlap.
64
E. Suitability of Soils
The relative suitabilities of soils for the foundation construction purposes,

can be expressed as under :-
(a) Unsuitable,
(b) Very poor,
(c) Poor,
(d) Moderately fair,
(e) Fair,
(f) Moderately good,
(g) Good,
(h) Very good.
F. Particle sizes of soil media
Gravel: larger than 2 mm, smaller than/equal to 60 mm.

Coarse sand 0.6 2
Medium sand 0.2 0.6
Fine sand 0.06 0.2
Silt, coarse 0.02 0.06
Silt, medium 0.006 0.02
Silt, fine 0.002 0.006
Clay -- 0.002
G. Settlement of Structures
Principal causes of settlement : The principal problem in all foundation

engineering is to design the foundation so that the settlement will be as
small and as uniform as it is possible to make them at a reasonable cost. In
order to approach the settlement problem, it is necessary to understand the
principal causes of settlement .Such an outline is given below.
(a) By static loads:
(i) Elastic deformation.

(ii) Plastic flow.
(iii) Consolidation of saturated clay beds.
(b) By dynamic loads :

Settlement from this cause occur in all sorts of soil, but are
most common in loose sand beds. The settlements are due to
action of stress waves radiating from a source of disturbance
and the inertia forces. The source of disturbance might be a
65
reciprocating machine, heavy traffic, pile driving operation or an

earth quake.
(c) By lowering of ground water :
Lowering of ground water causes change in stress conditions of
soil, in some cases; in other cases it causes shrinkage of soil
both resulting in settlement.
(d) By adjacent operations :
(i) New structures.

(ii) Tunnels.
(iii) Open cuts.
(iv) Pier excavations.
(e) Miscellaneous Causes :
(i) Underground erosion.

(ii) Chemical changes in soil chemical changes might occur in
filled ground, specially where the fill contains materials, that
would slowly oxidize and disintegrate. A bed of peat is subject to
slow chemical changes, and it shrinks while it changes from peat
to lignite and then to coal. So, structures built on soils of peat
beds would be subject to long term settlement due to this cause,
in addition to settlement due to compression of the peat.
H. Permissible settlements
Foundations may fail by excessive settlement due to consolidation of the

soil. For most of the ordinary concrete structures, such as office buildings,
apartment houses, factories, differential settlement may be permissible such
that the angular distortion of the frame of the building does not exceed
1/500 normally, and 1/1000 where it is particularly desired to avoid any
kind of damage.
The maximum differential settlement should not exceed 4 cm. in the case of
foundation on clayey soil and 2.5 cm in case of sandy soil.
The maximum total settlement shall generally be limited to the following

values:
(i) Isolated foundation on clay 6.5 cm.
(ii) Isolated foundation on sand 4 cm.
(iii) Raft foundation on clay 6.5 to 10 cm.
(iv) Raft foundation on sand 4 cm. to 6.5 cm.
J. Computation of safe bearing pressure and expected settlement

Modern soil mechanics have established methods for determining the safe
bearing pressures and expected settlements, based on testing of soil samples
and finding out various inter-related parameters that controls behaviour of a
soil under load.
66
K. Improvement of bearing capacity of soil
There are several methods for improving soil condition :

(i) Removal of weak soil layers and land filling well compacted.
Filling of well compacted fine sand provides reasonably good

bearing strata.
(ii) Compaction of soil with vibratory or sheep foot rollers.
(iii) Pre-loading of soil with provision to drain out sub-soil water.
(iv) Close timber piling to compact the soil- in this type the timber
piles are short and driven into soil to increase bearing power.
For economy, the piles can be withdrawn immediately after
driving and filling the holes with compacted sand. These are
called sand piles. They can be placed without regard to the
elevation of ground water level, but can not be used if there is
any danger of scour or in regions subject to earth quake.
A. Spread Foundation
1. Isolated footing for column (a) uniformly thick pad footing,

(b) stepped footing/ sloped footing.
2. Strip footing (a) Uniformly thick continuous pad base,(b)

stepped/sloped continuous base - for walls.
3. Mat or raft foundation .

Isolated column footings are square, rectangular or circular in
shape, generally in similarity with shape of columns they
support, though not essential to be so.
The base of every footing (which may be called a pad or mat) in

direct contact with bearing surface, are constructed of lime
concrete (in old structures), plain cement concrete or reinforced
cement concrete. The columns they carry may be brick work,
R.C.C., steel, or any other structural materials; the walls and
columns of R.C.C. however shall invariably have a R.C.C. base.
The area of contact of base with soil is called area of footing and
the same is determined from total load from the column
including the weight of footing and the safe bearing pressure.
If P is the total load on the soil surface in contact with base

transmitted by the column and foundation, and q is allowable
67
safe bearing capacity of the soil, then area of base needed is

given by the rule - A= P / q where area A is in square meter,
P is in tonne, and
q is in tonne per sq. meter.
In other words, the safe allowable total load that can be placed
on the soil surface in contact with base, in tonne is equal to
P = A x q.
For a square base of side a, A = a x a;
for rectangular base of side a and b, A = a x b;
for a circular base of radius r , A = x r x r.
For a strip footing, below a wall bearing load uniformly over its
length, the width of strip footing can be determined similar to
isolated footing, as a rectangular base, one side of rectangle is
considered for unit length. So if W is total load on contact surface
from wall and foundation, per meter length of wall, then width B
of strip footing shall be - B = W / q , where W is in tone per
meter, q is in tonne per square meter and B is in meter.
The width of a footing for wall or column shall not be less than,
B = 2 T + 30 cm. where B = width of footing in cm. T is
thickness of wall or column in cm.
Simple pad footing (for columns or walls in brickwork):
The total width as determined for safe allowable bearing capacity of bearing
soil, B, shall be T + 2a where T is thickness of column (on respective side),
thickness of wall; a' is equal offset or projection from edge of column (on respective
side) or from edge of wall on both sides; where d is thickness of pad,
for a lime concrete pad, thickness d of pad, should not be less than 1.5
times offset a;
for a plain cement concrete pad, thickness d of pad should be equal to offset
a, at least;
for R.C.C. pads, the sizes are determined by structural design calculations;
Stepped footings (for columns or walls):
Where the load from brick column and wall (including their foundations) are
large, so that the thickness of pad becomes large as to be inconvenient for
construction, then stepped construction is adopted.
The column sizes, in plan are successively increased by providing equal off
sets on four sides, and on two sides in case of wall, taking care that, the
thickness of each step is not less than twice the offset of the step.
68
The offsets are so proportioned that, the bottom offset of lime concrete or
plain cement concrete, beyond the edge of bottom layer of stepping brick
work, is not more than 2/3 of thickness of lime concrete pad, or not more
than thickness of plain cement concrete pad.
Brick work is not used for bottom footing pad, since it contains mortar
joints, where as concrete of lime or cement provides a homogeneous
material with some flexibility.
For reinforced concrete pads, stepping of footing is generally not necessary

but sloped.
The sizes of the offsets in stepping brickwork is 50 mm or 62.5 mm (quarter

brick) with modular or conventional bricks, as the case may be.
Proportion of thickness & offset of step :
n = vertical thickness
1 = horizontal offset , for cement concrete n = 1,
for lime concrete n = 3/2
for brickwork n= 2
Reinforced concrete footings
The sizes of footings are determined by structural calculations, the theory

being that of an elastic plate placed on flexible surface and subject to a
central down - ward concentrated or point load. The footing pad tends to get
bent upwards, and also tends to get punched by the column. The pad can be
of uniform thickness, or for economy, it can be comparatively thin at edges
and thick at centre to resist forces of bending and punching. The
reinforcement rods are placed at bottom portion of slab, and in both
directions.
Generally, the reinforced concrete column rests on footing pad through a

pedestal, which is a short length of column of larger sides, the increase in
size being 100 mm, over the width and thickness of supporting column.
The column reinforcements should extend up to and rest upon the footing
reinforcements at bottom.
Isolated column footings are tied with each other by horizontal tie beams,
commonly at the pedestal level, below ground.
R.C.C. footings can support brick columns or brick walls, mostly support
R.C.C. columns or R.C.C. walls, and also support steel columns or
stanchions.
1. Isolated column footings having the column centre line passing

through the geometric centre of footing base in contact with soil, is a
69
normal footing and the bearing pressure is uniform on the contact

surface, if the column carries concentric load.
2. Eccentric footing : When the column carries eccentric load, the

bearing pressure at contact surface becomes non uniform, and may
exceed the limiting allowable pressure at the edge of footing, if
the column is placed concentric with footing. In such cases the
column is placed eccentric with footing so that the resultant bearing
pressure is uniform on contact surface.
R.C.C. Combined Footings/ Continuous Footings
1) Rectangular combined :
2) Trapezoidal Combined.
3) Strap footing / cantilever footing.
4) Stepped combined footing.
A combined footing supports two columns. If it supports more than

two columns in one line, it is known as a continuous footing.
A combined footing is constructed when
(i) the columns are very near to each other so that their footings
overlap;
(ii) when the bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area
under individual footing;
(iii) when the end column is near a property line so that footing can
not be spared outwards.
In a combined footing or a continuous footing, the attempt is made to

coincide the centre of gravity of loads with centre of pressure on base
area. If this can be achieved, there will not be any pressure variation
over the surface of contact or there will be uniform pressure on the
surface.
The footing slab (pad) shall be subject to a upward pressure, due to

resistance of soil, and shall be designed and constructed as a beam
bending upwards, in between the columns. Some times the slab is
strengthened by inserting a beam in between the two columns, so that
the beam and slab act as an inverted tee-beam. Such a beam is
termed as rib beam.
(1) Rectangular combined footing : Column loads are more or less

equal in this type adopted , the centres of pressure and load are
coincided by varying offset length of footing at one end only.
70
(2) Trapezoidal combined footing : Column loads are unequal

substantially in this type and the coincidence of load and pressure
centre is done by varying width of footing, as well as varying offset
length at one end.
(3) Strap footing/cantilever footing: This is similar to rectangular or

trapezoidal combined type, with difference that the two isolated
column footings are connected with an absolutely rigid beam. This beam
is not assumed to be in contact with soil and do not transfer any
pressure to soil. This beam or strap serves to transfer the column
loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under
both footings. The individual footing areas are so an arranged that
the C.G. of the combined loads of two columns, pass through the
C.G. of the combined footing areas.
(4) Stepped combined footings: this is similar to rectangular or

trapezoidal types, but here the footings of two columns are placed
at different levels.
R.C.C. Mat or Raft Foundation :
The mat foundation or raft is a single footing for all the columns of a
structure (building) and is equal to the entire plan area of the building in
size. Raft foundations are constructed where :-
(i) the allowable bearing pressure is so low that use of isolated

footings shall cover more than half of the area in plan;
(ii) the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the soil is

sufficiently erratic so that differential settlements would be
difficult to control. A mat or raft tends to bridge over erratic
deposits and reduces differential settlement.
(iii) raft foundation is economic where there is a necessity for

construction of a basement floor, that is a floor either fully
below or partly below ground.
Floating foundation:
Where raft foundation is constructed below a basement floor, the external

side walls in contact with soil, are constructed as retaining walls.
In construction of basement large volume of soil is excavated and removed.

If the weight of removed soil mass is equal to the weight the entire structure
constructed, and the centres of gravity of excavation and structure lie in
same vertical line, settlement of structure shall be negligible, being probably
equal to the amount that the soil rebounded from unloading of the
underlying soil stratum beneath the excavation. This type is known as a
floating foundation.
71
Inverted arch footings
In old buildings inverted masonry arches constituted a very convenient

method for providing combined footing for a series of masonry columns or
piers.
Shell foundation
Foundation in R.C.C. can be constructed in the structural system of

inverted shells., circular barrel, elliptical or hyperbolic-paraboloid. These are
similar in construction to shell roof structure, but inverted in orientation.
B. Pier foundation
When a good soil strata with adequate bearing capacity is available at such
depth that open cut excavation is feasible, then a pier is constructed on the
bearing strata, to reduce height of column. The lower end of the pier is
belled or enlarged so as to increase bearing area.
Pier can be of masonry, plain cement concrete or reinforced cement
concrete.
1) If the bottom of a pier is belled so as to increase its load bearing

capacity, such bell shall be at least 30 cm. thick at its edge.
2) The sides shall slope at an angle of not less than 60 degree with
the horizontal.
3) The least permissible lateral dimensions shall be 60 cm, whether

the pier is square, rectangular or circular.
4) Tolerance in verticality is one percent of height.
5) Wherever the centre line of a foundation pier deviates from the

resultant of its load more than one sixteenth of its height (i.e.,
eccentricity of load is more than 1/16 of height) or more than
one tenth of its least lateral dimension, it shall be suitably
reinforced.
6) For a plain cement concrete pier, height shall not exceed twelve
time the least lateral dimension.
7) Reinforced concrete piers shall be constructed as a R.C.C. short

column, as per relevant Code of Practice.
( Refer to sketch sheets 26 & 27 ).
72
C. Pile Foundation
(a). General classification on method of construction is in three types:
(i) Driven piles,
(ii) Bored piles,
(iii) Screw piles.
(i) Driven piles: preformed piles that are hammered into soil by
blows of drop hammers, or mechanical hammers.
(a) Timber,
(b) Steel H-section,

(c) Pre-cast reinforced concrete,
(d) Pre-cast prestressed concrete
(e) Cast in situ reinforced concrete.
(ii) Bored or drilled piles: Piles are constructed by boring or drilling

a hole in the soil, and filled with cement concrete with or
without reinforcement.
(iii) Screw Piles: Steel or concrete piles are screwed into the soil.
C.(b) On the functional behaviours , piles can be grouped as
1. Friction Piles.
2. Bearing Piles.
3. Compaction Piles.
1. Friction Piles : Where the piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum,

but one placed at some distance into a penetrable soil, their carrying
capacity is derived partly from end bearing on soil and partly from the skin
friction between the embedded surface of pile and the surrounding soil in
contact; the piles which obtain the greater part of their load carrying
capacity by skin friction or adhesion to the penetrated soil are called friction
piles.
2. Bearing Piles: Where the piles rest on a hard and relatively impenetrable
bearing stratum, such as rock or a very dense sand and gravel, the piles derive
most of their load carrying capacity from the resistance of the stratum
73
at the toe of the piles; in these conditions they are known as end bearing or
point bearing or simply bearing piles.
3. Compaction piles : Piles which are driven into soil to improve bearing
capacity of soil. (See Page of Note).
C.(c) Driven piles and screwed piles are also known as displacement
piles.
C.(a). (i). Driven piles
Timber piles are light in weight and give a buoyant effect to the foundation.
These can be square or circular section. The bottom ends are pointed and
protected by cast iron or steel pile shoe to prevent damage (by brooming
out). The top, which comes into contact with hammer is also protected by a
steel hoop or cast iron cap.
If timber piles are kept permanently wet or permanently dry, i.e. driven
wholly below or wholly above water level, they can have a very long life. The
portion which is subject to fluctuating water contact, should preferably be
embedded in concrete of pile caps; or should be chemically protected against
decay.
(Example of durability of timber piles: The campanile of St. Marks in Venice

which was constructed in year 900, fell in the year 1902. The timber piles in
foundation, which had been in service for 1002 years, were found to be in
such good condition., that they were allowed to support the reconstructed
tower.)
Since timbers are vulnerable to wood boring insects, the piles are to be
chemically treated. The cross sectional sizes of timber piles depends on sizes
of tree trunks from which the piles are formed. Timber piles are tapering,
the narrow end can be as small as 100 mm square and the top end or broad
end as large as 450mm. The lengths of piles range between 6 m to 12m, in
single length; but much longer piles can be driven by splicing (jointing) piles.
Sal and teak, as available in India are most suitable to be used as piles. The
load carrying capacity range form 10 to 18 tonnes.
Steel piles
(i) Rolled steel sections in the shape of H, which are also known as wide
flange or broad flange I-sections, are used as piles for supporting loads.
These can have high load bearing capacity if driven on to a hard stratum.
The driving is easy due to small soil displacement. They can be easily
extended in length by welding. Total length of 60 m have been driven in
pieces. However, they are to be protected against corrosion. Wide flange or
H-sections have been used in sizes 200 mm x 205mm x 45 kg per meter (low
range) to 362 mm x 378 mm x 174 kg per meter (in high range). Load
carrying capacity ranges from 40 to 70 tonne.
74
(ii) Steel Box piles and
(iii) Steel Tube piles.
These are hollow sections, bottom with a conical shoe and closed end, is
driven into soil to required stratum and then the box or tube is filled with
cement concrete. Piles of 500 mm dia, with 12.5 mm wall thickness, and
resting on rock have been able to carry 120 tonne load each.
Steel piles are usually not used for building foundations. They are used in
bridges and marine structures.
Pre-cast R.C.C. Piles: Pre-cast concrete piles are widely used for structures
such as wharves or jetties where the pile is required to be carried above soil
level as a structural column. They are also used in building foundations or
other foundations where soil condition is unfavourable to cast-in-situ piles.
Pre-cast R.C.C. Piles are normally of square section for short and moderate
lengths, but hexagonal, octagonal or circular piles are usually preferred for
long lengths.
Square piles of size 250 mm can be of maximum length 12 meter and for a
450 mm square size the same shall be 24 meter.
The structural design of this pile is made as a long column taking into
account the driving force, the load carrying capacity and the forces that will
have to be withstood during handling of the piles, prior to driving.
The brief material specifications are:
(i) the concrete shall not be less strong than M20 and minimum
300 kg cement in one cu.m. concrete;
(ii) longitudinal or main reinforcement shall not exceed 2 percent of

cross sectional area;
(iii) the lateral steel or hoop steel shall be of minimum 6 mm

diameter and 20 cm. to 30 cm. apart
(iv) near the two ends the spacing of hoops shall be gradually
reduced to 4cm.
(v) the minimum cover on reinforcement shall be 40 mm. Pre-cast

piles have been used for lengths upto 30 meters and can carry
loads upto 50 tonne.
75
After driving the pile to the desired level, it is usual to strip the pile
head to expose the reinforcement which is then bonded into the pile
cap.
Prestressed pre-cast R.C.C. Piles: Prestressed concrete piles have been

used to achieve savings in reinforcement and lighter weights for handling
(given by a smaller section). The saving in reinforcements are given by the
use of high tensile steel wires. As in the case of ordinary pre-cast R.C.C.
piles, the main longitudinal reinforcement is calculated for resisting stresses
in lifting and handling, and no additional reinforcement, other than the
transverse rings (link steel) is required to resist driving forces. Pretressing of
the piles requires high quality concrete, which in turn gives good resistance
to driving stresses, good durability in corrosive soils or marine structures.
Pretressed concrete piles are usually made by pre-tensioning process.
Both ordinary pre-cast R.C.C. piles and pre-stressed pre-cast R.C.C. piles
can be driven into soft soil with a tapering blunt end. A sharper point is
required or penetrating into harder soil. Frequently a cast iron or steel pile
shoe, like that for a timber pile, but with special design to penetrate through
hard soil, is fixed.
Water jetting may be used to aid penetration of a pile into a sand or sandy
gravel stratum. Jetting is ineffective in firm to stiff clays, or any soil
containing much coarse gravel, cobbles or boulders. If the piling scheme is
planned on the assumption that jetting will have to be used, then it is
preferable to embed a central jet pipe, which is a 50 mm or 75 mm diameter
steel pipe terminating into a tapering nozzle out of pile shoe. Jetting should
be stopped at least 1 meter above the predicted founding level, and pile
driven down by hammer only, until the required resistance is achieved.
Castinsitu R.C.C. Piles
1. Withdrawable steel drive tube, end closed by detachable point
In this pile a steel tube with a detachable conical cast-iron shoe is

driven to the required depth. The tube is extracted out, while concrete is
filled and rammed in a reinforcement cage.
This is commonly known as Simplex Piles introduced by Simplex

Concrete Piles Pvt. Ltd. The steps in installation are:
(i) a double rimmed cast iron conical shoe of diameter slightly

more than that of the driving tube is placed on ground;
(ii) a hollow steel tube of 20 mm wall thickness is held in a

vertical position an lowered to rest in the recess of the double
rimmed pile shoe, the joint between the lower end of tube and
the shoe can be made water tight by using some packing;
76
(iii) the tube with shoe is driven into soil/ground by drop hammer
of 2.5 tonne or 3.5 tonne until the required penetration is
obtained;
(iv) steel reinforcing cage is lowered into the tube in central

position;
(v) freshly mixed concrete not leaner than M15 grade is poured
into the tube filled to its full length;
(vi) the steel tube is then withdrawn, the plastic concrete under
own weight fills up the hole including voids created by
displaced boulders during tube drawing; alternatively, the
tube is extracted gradually, while concrete is rammed by a
falling hammer working inside the reinforcing cage.
The range of load carrying capacity is 45 tonne for a 343 mm

diameter pile to 110 tonne for a 534 mm diameter size.
2. Withdrawable steel drive tube, end closed by concrete plug

The name of this pile is Franki Piles as introduced by The Franki Pile
Co. and these are widely used.
The stages in construction are :-

(i) the pile tube is first pitched in a shallow excavation.
(ii) a plug of gravel or lean concrete is then placed in the bottom

of the tube and compacted with a heavy steel rammer;
(iii) as the plug is rammed it is forced down into the soil and the
tube is allowed to follow down with the plug;
(iv) driving continues until the bearing stratum is reached when

the tube is prevented from sinking further and the concrete is
hammered out to form a bulb;
(v) a reinforcing cage is then lowered down the tube and the pile
shaft concreted;
(vi) the tube is withdrawn in stages, as the concrete is placed and

rammed.
The range of load carrying capacity is from 35 tonne for diameter
sizes 330 mm to 355 mm, to 140 tonne for diameter sizes 584 mm to
635mm.
C (a) (ii). Bored piles or drilled piles: Bored piles can be
(i) with liner,

77
(ii) without liner in both cases a bore hole of designed diameter has
to be made by boring or drilling and to designed depth. The bore
holes can have a steel liner or can be unlined, or can be with a
steel liner upto a part of depth only.
The liner is a steel cylindrical shell of thickness 5 mm to 8 mm, depending

the depth and diameter of pile. Where the soil is not cohesive or there are
soil strata, which are likely to flow, liners are used. Where there is some
depth of standing water, over ground, the liner is provided for full depth of
water and to further into firm soil for some distance below ground level.
Reinforcement cage is lowered into the bore hole and concrete is filled.
As per Code of Practice of Bureau of Indian Standards, the grade of concrete

for smaller diameter piles and length upto 10m, should be M15 (or 1:2:4
nominal mix) with minimum cement content 350 kg. per cu.m. of concrete
that for higher sizes of piles, should be M20 (or 1:1-1/2 :3 nominal mix) with
minimum cement content 400 kg. per cu.m. The minimum area of
longitudinal reinforcing steel within pile shaft should be 0.4 per cent of the
sectional area calculated on the basis of outside area of the casing (liner) or
the shaft. The minimum diameter of links or spirals (transverse steel) should
be 6 mm and the spacing of links or spirals shall not be less than 150 mm.
The diameter of bored piles can be of various sizes, circular in shape (plan)
from 300 mm diameter to 1200 mm diameter. The depth can be upto 30
meter normally. Load carrying capacity varies over long range, 40 tonnes to
130 tonnes or even larger.
Bored under reamed Piles
Bearing capacity of bored piles can be increased by forming a bell of large

diameter, much larger than the pile, by reaming the soil at bottom of pile
and filling with concrete. Piles can have more than one bell, formed by
special cutting tool.
Under reaming is not possible in cohesionless soil and where soil contains
boulders. Under reaming can be done on a comparatively large diameter pile
of depth not exceeding 10 meter. These are very efficient as anchor piles to
resist pull out forces. The minimum size of under reamed pile need be 760
mm to form the bells. Although the base of an under reamed pile can be
cleaned mechanically by specially designed tools, it is generally preferable to
clean manually. The diameter of bell can be as much 7300 mm, but
normally the maximum size is limited to 3700 mm,.
The load carrying capacity of a pile is determined from :-
(1) emperical dynamic formulea which are functions of the weight

of hammer, the distance through which the hammer falls,
78
weight of the piles,distance through which pile penetrates with

each blow of hammer, etc.(in case of driven piles and after
installation);
(2) established methods of soil mechanics based on analysed soil

data from laboratory tests ( prior to installation);
(3) actual load tests on selected test piles after installation).
In a large and important construction work actual load testing to find

bearing capacity of pile is mandatory.
The function of piles in general is to support direct vertical downward

load. But in addition they have to resist, horizontal forces also, arising
due to wind, earthquake, or water waves, ship berthing forces etc. (in
case of marine structures). The designer for structural construction of
piles has to take this also in consideration.
Raking Piles or Batter Piles
Where the horizontal forces are predominant over vertical loads, the piles
are constructed inclined. These are invariably driven piles of timber, steel or
pre-cast R.C.C.
In some structures the piles or some of the piles may be subjected to

upward force, tending to pull out the piles out of soil. Piles supporting the
legs of a pylon or tower, piles supporting an under ground water reservoir,
can be subject to pull out force, under action of wind, earthquake in case of
pylons/towers or due to buoyancy forces on empty underground reservoirs.
The pull out strength of a pile can be estimated by established methods of
soil mechanics. But in case of large and important works, actual pull out
test has to be performed, on selected test piles. The reinforcement rods in
piles have to be adequate to withstand the pull out forces. Piles required to resist
pull out forces are called anchor piles.
Pile Cap
Frequently more than one pile are required to be constructed below a

column. All the piles in the pile group can not be expected to be driven or
bored truly vertical (or exactly to the designed inclination in raking piles).
The pile caps are designed and constructed to transfer the column load to
the pile group, equally distributed, and to accommodate all the piles, which
may be a few centimeters out of the intended position in any direction. The
thickness of cap is governed by the load distribution criterion, and the plan
area size, by the accommodation criterion.
(Refer to sketch sheets 28 & 29).
79
Chapter XI
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

(PLUMBING WORKS) IN BUILDING
1. Source of Water
1.1. Where there is no municipal water supply to the building / premises,

there has to be a private captive source:
1.1.1. Surface water: A sream, pond, tank for rain water collection, with
pumping, purification and storage facility, under the ownership of the
building premises or property.
1.1.2 Ground water: Tube wells, open wells, with pumping, with or without
purification and storage facility.
1.2. Municipal supply to buildings, premises, properties available:
1.2.1 Surface water : Water drawn from rivers, canals, lakes, impounding
reservoirs, are purified in water treatment plants, and supplied under
pressure, through distribution system consisting, booster pumping
stations, elevated reservoirs and a network of pipe lines of different
sizes, the supply to individual building, premises being made through
smaller sizes.
Water is pumped from river/lake/impounding reservoir, which may be

located at considerable distance from the locality to be served, by
pumps, conveyed through pipe line and led into tanks for settlement
and exclusion of suspended solids in water. The pumps are called raw
water pumps and the tanks sedimentation or settling tanks. Instead of
tanks, clari-flocculators are used, which is a mechanical device for silt
exclusion. Generally alum is added as a coagulant for enhancing
sedimentation. Clari-flocculators require less space than natural
sedimentation tanks.
The clear water is led into sand filter beds, where bacteria are removed
during filtration.
The filtered water is stored in a reservoir, where disinfecting of water

is done by chlorine. The water is then pumped under high pressure by
a set of clear water pumps, to transmit the water to service area
through pipelines. Long pipelines, passing through different
administrative zones, but not serving them, are called trunk mains.
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The service district has a network of pipes, below all streets on which
consumers are located. Connections to consumers are provided from
service mains, which branch out from primary mains (primary grid) or
from secondary mains (secondary grid), such secondary mains
branching from primary mains, in keeping with street layout.
Materials used for public water supply pipes are steel, cast iron (CI),
ductile iron (DI), reinforced plastic (GRP or FRP), high density
polyethylene (HDPE), pre-stressed concrete (PSC) and asbestos cement
(AC).
1.2.2 Ground water: Where municipalities do not have surface water source,
Ground water for municipal supply is drawn from underground water
bearing soil strata by tube wells and pumped into distribution pipe
system, which is otherwise similar as in case of surface water supply.
Drawn water can either be pumped directly into the distribution
system or can be stored in a number of elevated reservoirs,
constructed in specific locations, and the supply effected from such
reservoirs. A number of tube wells located in the municipal area,
inject into a common distribution pipe network.
Tube wells are constructed in a various sizes, for varied flow

quantities needed. The material is essentially steel tubes, galvanized
in case smaller sizes. A tube well consists an assembly of
(a) housing pipe at top, followed by

(b) well pipe,
(c) strainer pipe and
(d) blank pipe with plugged end at bottom.
For large size wells the housing pipes are of size 450 mm, 400 mm,
350 mm or 300 mm diameter, the well pipes, strainer and blank pipes
are of generally 200 mm or 150 mm diameter. The pipes are ERW
(Electric Resistance Welded) steel pipes and the assembly is made by
welding pipe lengths, end to end. The strainers are of slotted tubes
with gravel shrouding.
In smaller ranges, the housing pipes are generally of 150 mm, 100
mm or 80 mm diameter, and the well pipes, strainers, etc. of 80 mm,
65mm or 40 mm diameter. The pipes are of galvanized steel tubes,
and socket screwed jointed. The strainers are slotted tubes, covered
by fine brass wire mesh, with a slotted brass sheet protective cover.
Beside steel tubes, tube wells are also being constructed using HDPE
(high density polyethylene), PVC (polyvinyl chloride) FRP (fibre
reinforced plastic), etc. Even strainers are also available in such
materials.
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Ground water of potable quality (in Calcutta Metropolitan Region) is

available at depths (from Ground level) from 60m to 300m. While the
smaller range of tube wells are sunk to depth between 50m to 120m,
the larger ones are placed above 120m. A typical small diameter well
of 80m total depth, usually shall have housing pipe 15m, well pipe
55m, strainer 8m and blank pipe 2m. In case of some small tube
wells, the housing pipe can be omitted, using same diameter
throughout. Those for a large well, of 150m total depth, the lengths
are 25m, 92m, 30m and 3m respectively for housing pipe, well pipe,
strainer and blank pipe. The length of strainer is fixed to cover the
selected water bearing strata thickness, and has no relation with total
depth. The strainer can therefore be fixed staggered instead of in one
length.
The function of the housing pipe is to accommodate pump machine,

column (delivery) pipe, etc. The well pipe is carrier of ground water to
housing pipe. The strainer prevents entry of sand into well pipe,
drawn from water bearing strata; the bottom blank pipe has its end
sealed, and serves as a receptacle for deposition of sand particles, that
may have entered the well pipe.
The reasonable rated yield from tube wells are 1200 litres per hour to
4500 litres per hour for smaller size range and upto 115,000 litres per
hour for the large sizes.
The mechanical devices for lifting or drawing water from the wells are:
(i) hand operated reciprocating pumps for small tube wells;
(ii) prime mover driven (etc. electric motor, diesel/steam engines)

reciprocating or centrifugal pumps. Bore hole turbine pumps, jet
pumps, submersible pumps, are all vanities of centrifugal
pumps. Submersible pumps are electric driven and the pump -
motor is a combined unit, placed in housing pipe below water
level.
1.2.3. Individual service connections are made by drilling holes on the

service (pipes) main, fixing a ferrule threaded, to the hole and
providing a short pipe length, a stop cock (stop valve) fitted. The
ferrule is a fitting, of gun metal or brass, having a valve, which allows
flow of water from service pipe to the consumer premises, but prevents
flow back into the main from consumers side. After the stopcock, water
meter is fixed inside premises boundary at a suitable location
protected from rain, flooding etc., where the supply is metered.
2. System of supply to building premises and pipe arrangement, can be

of various types.
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2.1. The incoming water, flowing out of the water meter, can be connected
directly to the distribution system of the building at ground level, where
the:
(i) supply water pressure is high,
(ii) the supply is continuous for 24 hours and
(iii) the piping designed as upward distribution system. This is a

direct supply system, without storage reservoir.
This system is uncommon, as in CMA the supply pressure is as low as

0.3 kg. per sq.cm. or 3m water head, and even lower sometimes instead
of minimum of 1.2 kg. per sq.cm. needed for supply to a building 12 m
high.
2.2 When the supply pressure is low and/or the supply periods are
intermittent, upward distribution system can be adopted by
construction of a ground level reservoir to collect incoming water and a
pump to inject water into the system at adequate pressure and for 24
hrs.
This is an indirect system, but has the disadvantage that the pump has
to be run for 24 hrs, to have a continuous supply. Otherwise it
becomes necessary to have storage in every storey.
2.3 In cases where the supply pressure is high, but for intermittent period
a down ward distribution system can be adopted, without any ground
level reservoir, but with a roof top storage reservoir. From the reservoir
water is fed downwards to lower floors. The lower floors get water for 24
hrs. from the reservoir.
2.4. Most municipal supplies are intermittent and the supply pressure is
also low. In these cases, a ground level reservoir, pump, a roof top
reservoir and a downward distribution system is adopted. Here the
floors get water for 24 hrs. though the municipal supply is intermittent.
3. Requirement of Water:
3.1. For domestic consumption in residential buildings the minimum per

capita per day requirement is 135 litres (Natural Building Code 1983
CPHEEO). The approximate breakup of uses for this quantity are:
(i) drinking 2 litres,

(ii) cooking 3 litres
(iii) bathing 30 litres
(iv) ablution 20 litres
(v) washing utensils 25 litres.
(vi) privy flushing 30 litres and
(viii) laundry 25 litres.
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3.2.1. Requirement of water for some other types of buildings are as per
table below :
(i). Factories with bath rooms 45 lpcd.
(ii) Factories without bath rooms 35 lpcd
(iii) Hospitals (including laundry):
(iv) No. of beds not exceeding 100 340 l per day per bed.
(v) No. of beds exceeding 100 450 l per day per bed.
(vi) Nurses home and medical quarters 135 lpcd.
(vii) Hostels 135 lpcd.
(vi) Hotels 180 lpcd
(vii) Restaurants 70 l per day per seat
(viii) Offices 45 lpcd
(ix) Cinemas, Concert Halls, Theatres 15 l per day per seat
(x) Day Schools 45 lpcd.
3. Fire fighting requirement: For buildings not more than 15m in height,
no separate provision is made for fire fighting, except that an
underground tank of capacity 50000 litres is provided. For large
buildings, hydrant protection may be decided as per National Building
Code recommendation and also as per local Municipal and Fire
Service Rules.
4. Capacity of storage reservoirs: Capacities of ground level reservoirs are

based on hours and pattern of inflow and on the hours and pattern of
pumping into roof top storage tank. Recommended storage capacity in
roof top reservoir is minimum half days supply and maximum one days
supply. Capacity of ground level reservoir should be minimum
50% of the roof top tank.
5. Distribution (plumbing) system is designed on accepted hydraulic

principles. . In a downward distribution system, a single pipe delivers
water from the overhead (roof top) tank to floors below, pipes
branching off from the main delivery to each floor. From branch pipes,
connections are given to different fixtures, like wash basin/sink,
shower, plain tap, water closet cistern, bath tub etc.
The main delivery pipe is generally of size varying from 50 mm to 25

mm in diameter.
The branches, sub-branches are of size 25mm, 20 mm and 15 mm in

diameter.
Connections to all fixtures are made by providing a stopcock.

Connections to wash basin/sink and water closet cistern are made
through a flexible connector pipe. Stopcock is provided on every
branch, inside the floor or apartment it serves, so that repair to
fixtures can be done, without shutting of supply to entire building. A
single stopcock or valve is fixed, at the head of main delivery pipe, so
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that repair can be done, if needed, on the main delivery pipe, without
emptying the overhead tank.
5.1. Materials used: The common material is galvanized iron, threaded

loose socket jointed pipe. But presently good quality rigid PVC, HDPE,
and plastic pipes are also in market. The flexible connector pipes are
invariably of PVC, which previously used to be of lead. On account of
high cost, G.I. pipes and lead connectors are being substituted by
PVC, HDPE etc.
5.2. Apart from straight pipe lengths, specials like plain socket, reducing
socket, bends, elbows, tees, reducing bends, union sockets are used
for installation of pipes in any desired alignment. The specials are
generally of galvanized iron, but PVC, HDPE etc. are also being used,
where the pipe line is of same material.
5.3. For regulating or shutting off supply, stop cocks or valves are used of
various qualities, and designs. These are generally of gun metal or
bass, but PVC/HDPE/plastic stop cocks are also in use, because they
are much cheaper, though less durable. Bibcocks or taps are used at
terminal outlet points.
5.4. Water pipes are fitted on wall surfaces by clamps, in exposed

plumbing. For concealed work, G.I. pipes are to be given a protective
coating of anticorrosive paint, before embedding into walls. Special
stop cocks or valves are available in market for use in concealed pipe
lines.
5.5. For piped hot water supply, the boiler or heater is located at ground
level, cold water supply being made from the overhead tank, or from
ground level reservoir through a pump (4). Steam generated from boiler
(1) is led into a heater vessel (2) by steam pipe (5). Cold water enters
heater vessel (2) by pipe with a non return valve (10). Make up water
enters boiler (1) through pipe (8).
Cold water gets heated in vessel (2) by steam coils (12) and is supplied
to the fixtures (3) by a hot water pipe (7). Condensate in steam coil is
returned to the boiler by pipe (6). Instead of boiler, the heating can be
done by electrical heater coil (12) in the heater vessel (2).
Solar heaters are also used in modern buildings, for conservation of

conventional energy, in areas where sufficient sunray is available. The
temperature of water at fixture outlet should remain between 60 to
70 centigrade. Fixtures contain arrangement for mixing with cold
water to reduce the temperature, as needed by individual user. The
hot water pipes should have heat insulation cover.
( Refer tosketch sheet 32 ).
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6. Disposal of sewage, waste water and storm water:

(a) Sewerage means, waste water containing domestic faecal (excreta)
or industrial effluent mixed with water. The effluent from the water
closets is sewage, in case of residential / office or other buildings.
(b) Waste water means effluent other than those which can be termed
as sewage. Foul water, flowing out of toilets, bathrooms, kitchens,
but do not contain fecal matters, is identified as waste water.
Some times this is called sullage water also.
(c) Rain water, that falls on all exposed surfaces of roofs, open
balconies, courtyards, and open grounds, flow towards lower levels,
after absorption in soil and evaporation to atmosphere, is termed
storm water.
(d) The sewage and waste water jointly is known as dry weather flow.
(e) Conduits laid below ground level to carry sewage and waste water
only (dry weather flow), is known as a sanitary sewer.
(f) Conduits carrying storm water are termed storm sewer or storm
drains.
(g) Open channels at ground level carrying sewage, waste water or

storm water is known as surface drains.
6.1. Sources of sewage and waste water are the various sanitary appliances
(fixtures) discharging foul water together with faeces and other waste
materials, after clean water has been consumed and used for drinking,
bathing, washing etc. Hence the volume of sewage and waste water,
i.e. the dry weather flow from a premises is equal to the total volume of
water supplied to the premises, less volume of water absorbed in
human bodies, absorbed into ground and evaporated to atmosphere.
For purpose of reasonable assessment, 80 percent of total water
supply can be taken as dry weather flow, in a normal residential
urban/semi-urban settlement.
The volume of storm water depends on intensity and duration of

rainfall, area and nature of surfaces receiving the fall. Paved and built-
up surfaces shall produce more volume or more run off; unpaved
ground shall absorb water, and run off shall be less. Volumes are
calculated by established standard methods.
7. Collection of sewage; waste water, rain water:
7.1. Sanitary appliances are so designed, that they can be conveniently

used and can be cleaned easily, shall facilitate collection of sewage and
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waste water. Water closets, bidets are appliances that collect faecal
waste. European type water closets have an in-built siphon or trap
outlet, to prevent entry of foul gases from discharge pipes, into the
building through water closets. Indian type squatting water closets
(pan) are connected to discharge pipes, through siphons/traps
available separately. The traps can be of two types P trap or S trap. Where
the outlet pipe is taken horizontally, a P trap is fixed, and for vertical
downward outlets, S traps are fitted. The siphons/traps provide a water
seal against passage of foul gases. The sanitary fittings handling water
closet wastes are known as soil fittings.
Wash basins, kitchen/laboratory sinks, drinking fountains, bath tubs,

shower trays are appliances for collection of waste water, that is much
less offensive, and may be connected directly to discharge conduits
without any trap, if such conduits do not carry offensive sewage. The
waste water from urinals is connected to discharge conduit carrying
sewage through a floor trap. These fittings are called waste water
fittings or simply waste fittings.
Water closets are cleaned by flushing cisterns. European type water

closets generally have a low down cistern, either directly fixed to closet
as one set, or connected by a small bent connector pipe, fixed at some
higher level. Indian type pans have high level cisterns, fixed above man
height, operated by pull and let go chain and connected by a galvanized
iron pipe.
The capacities of cisterns in earlier days used to be 22.5 litres (5
gallons). But in recent days, to reduce water wastage, with improved
flushing design, the cisterns are now being manufactured for 13 litres
(3 gallon).
Urinals can also be fitted with flushing system, which can be

automatic type with cistern, or by hand operated stop cock.
Sanitary appliances are manufactured as ceramic products from

china clay or from fiberglass. Kitchen sinks, drain boards in stainless steel,
are very popular. Cast iron is used for manufacturing of traps,
siphons and high level cisterns for Indian type water closets.
No special appliance is needed for collection of rain water in a

building. Run-off from roofs is collected by rain water spouts and
down pipes. At ground level, run off from open spaces are collected by
surface drains and yard gullys.
7.1. Sewage and waste water collected by the sanitary appliances in each
floor of a building is taken down to ground level, for disposal outside
the premises. The type of disposal facility provided to the premises by
the municipality/local administration largely affects the system of
piping work to be adopted. Vertical down pipes fixed to building walls,
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in majority cases to external walls are known as stacks. Also stacks

conveying night soil (i.e. WC waste) or both WC waste and other waste,
are referred to as soil stack. Similarly the terms of waste stack and
rain water stack are also in use when they carry other waste water or
rain water. The waste from sanitary appliances from floors at various
levels in a building is taken out of walls and connected to the stack by
lateral pipes, fixed on the wall surfaces, in a slope, 1 in 10 to 1 in 50.
7.2.1.In a premises which does not have facility for discharge of sewage into
a municipal/community sewer, but has access to municipal/
community surface drain only, collection and discharge of sewage and
waste water have to be segregated in the plumbing layout, so that the
discharge from water closets and urinals are taken down from different
floors by one pipe (a soil stack) leading to a private disposal system
within the premises, to be constructed by the property owner. The
other waste water from bath, kitchen etc. are carried down by a
separate pipe (a waste stack), to the open surface drains. Rain water is
taken down by rain water pipe and discharged into surface drain.
7.2.2 Where the premises have the community/municipal service of a

separate system of disposal, that is an underground sanitary sewer
and surface or underground storm water drain, a single stack can be
used for both sewage and waste water, discharging into underground
sewer. The rain water run off from roof discharged ion the usual away
through separate down pipes to the underground or surface drain.
7.2.3. A premises in a developed urban area may have the facility of drainage
in the form of a combined sewer. The system is similar to that, as in
case of a separate system, but in this case, the rain water run off is
also discharged into the combined sewer.
7.3. In a two stack system, the waste water from kitchen, bath etc. i.e.,
ablution water is kept separate from discharges from water closets,
urinals. In one stack system all the sanitary appliances are connected
to a single combined soil and waste water pipe.
It is usually, though not always, cheaper to install two stack system in

a two or three storeyed building, where sanitary fittings (appliances)
are not grouped together. For taller buildings, such as offices, hotels
where the sanitary fittings are grouped together, one pipe system is
more economical.
7.4. In one stack system, the connection of waste water from bath, kitchen
etc. should be made through a floor trap. Where the floor trap cannot
be accommodated in the floor, a separate trap should be fixed outside,
in the lateral branch connected to the stack. In a two stack system,
where the waste stack discharges in a surface drain open to
atmosphere, no trap is required, for two or three storeyed buildings.
88
But in case of several floor connections, specially where urinal waste

is connected, the waste from kitchen/bath etc. should be connected
through traps.
The top ends of the stacks should be kept open to atmosphere covered
with a cowl for ventilation. The trap is a device to prevent the passage
of air, gas, odour and vermins through it from sewers escaping
through a plumbing fixture into the building. A trap should be
efficient water seal, be self cleansing, and should not retard flow of
waste water unduly.
In stacks serving many storeys in tall buildings, the falling water

column through the stack, may create a vacuum temporarily in a
lateral connected to the stack, and water seal of a trap fixed to an
appliance served by the lateral, may be sucked out into the stack.
For preventing the breaking of water seal air is to be supplied to the

trap. A separate ventilation pipe or anti-siphonage pipe is fixed parallel
to soil/waste water stacks, connected to top of trap by lateral pipe.
The ventilation pipes or vent stacks, as they are called, are also open
to atmosphere at top, protected by a cowl. A vent stack is used with
one stack system, or two vent stacks can be used with the two stack
system. Stack ventilated systems are costly and complicated for
construction.
The modern trend is not to use anti-siphon pipe, but to increase the
water seal in traps to 50 mm minimum, so that even after loss of 3
mm to 5 mm of water under suction force, the remaining water shall
be sufficient to act as a seal.
7.5. Materials for construction of pipe stacks :
Soil stacks are constructed by pipes and specials of heavy cast iron,
Rigid PVC or HDPE, fibre reinforced plastic. Waste water pipes and
specials are of cast iron, Rigid PVC, HDPE, FRP or Asbestos cement.
The special pieces like bends, junctions, traps are fitted with door
openings to facilitate cleaning in case of chokage.
Rain water down pipes are of light cast iron, Rigid PVC, HDPE,FRP or
Asbestos cement. The vent pipes or anti-siphon pipes are also of same
materials.
The pipes are socket spigot ended and are jointed by lead caulking,
vallamoid or similar sealants. Cement mortar joints, though frequently
adopted, are rather inefficient, since they are prone to leakage. Spun
yarn dipped in tar or bitumen, is first wound round the spigot or plain
end of the pipe, inserted into the socket of the next pipe to be jointed
with, caulked with special caulking tool, followed by filling the gap
between the socket and spigot with molten lead or sealant, and
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caulked finally. The pipe stacks are fixed to wall by clamps and/or
nails driven through holes in lugs integral with the socket ends. A
clearance of 20 mm/25 mm is kept between wall and pipe, for
facilitating painting of pipe and wall, by incorporating bobbins
between lugs and wall. It is customary to orient the socket ends such,
that the receive the water flow.
7.6. Size of pipes :
The diameter sizes stacks depend on the number of appliances

connected to the stacks. Usually soil stacks are not made smaller than
100mm, and for waste water separately, they can be 75 mm in
lower limit. Stacks of sizes 150 mm to 75 mm for sewage and 75 mm
to 50 mm for vent pipes, generally serve most buildings. For rain
water the sizes are 150 mm and 100 mm.
8. Disposal of premises sewage/waste water/rainwater:
Foul water and rain water collected from all floors by stacks, is to be
discharged into municipal sewer/drain, situated out side the
boundary of the premises. This municipal sewer/drain called the out
fall sewer or out fall drain or simply out-fall for the premises.
Depending on the area of open space in the premises around the
building and on the distance of the out fall sewer/drain from the
building a system of surface drains or underground pipe drains have
to be installed, for conveyance of the foul water from bottom ends of
stacks to the out fall. Proper slope or gradient has to be provided for
flow of foul water through such pipe/surface drains.
8.1. In cases where, the premises have the facility of surface drain only,
the discharge from soil stack is led into, a septic tank and a soak pit
or sock-well, constructed within the premises boundary, through
underground pipes. The rain water can be discharged into a surface
drain, generally constructed around the building and connected to out
fall surface drain. The rain-run off water from paved yards, driveways
etc. are also collected in the peripheral surface drain. The discharge
from bath-rooms, kitchens etc. through waste stacks, can also be
connected to the rain water surface drains.
8.2. A property premises served by a separate system, do not require a

septic tank and soak well. The combined discharge from soil / waste
stacks are connected to underground sanitary sewer out fall through a
master trap. The rain water can be led by surface drain to out fall
drain through a manhole, or by underground drains. For collection of
court yard/drive way run-off, gully pits and yard gullys are provided
on suitable locations.
8.3. A premises having a municipal combined sewer out fall, shall have the
soil/waste and rain water disposal system underground; the rain
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water can be disposed of by surface drain, but finally connected to

master trap, from which out fall connection is made by underground
sewer pipe.
8.4. Materials for ground level/underground drainage:
8.4.1. Surface drains at ground level are constructed by brick masonry or

pre-cast units. The side walls are constructed in cement brick work
6:1 a 75 mm to 150 mm thick P.C.C. base on BF single soling. The
wall adjacent to building wall or compound wall, can be made 125
mm, but other wise both side walls should be 250 mm thick. The side
walls are to be made strong enough against collapse under lateral
pressure from wheel load of vehicles, as in case of a driveway or
parking place. Either the walls are to be made thicker, or a richer
mortar used, which ever may serve the purpose.
The bottom (invert) surface should be covered with IPS, 25mm or 20

mm thick using 12 mm to 6 mm down stone chips in 1:2:4 cement
concrete, the inner side walls are to be given a 15 mm thick 1:4
plaster cover, finished with neat cement punning. In case of open
surface drains, the plaster/neat cement should be continued to cover
the top of wall and about 75 mm downwards on outer walls. The
bottom corners should be rounded to prevent deposition of sludge.
Surface drains are to be laid on a gradient (i.e. slope) for flow of water
under gravity, of 1 in 100 to 1 in 1000 depending on the volume of
water to be discharged. So the depth of surface drain from top of side
wall to invert, gradually increases from starting point to termination
point. The width of drain also has to be increased with depth increase
for easy cleaning, but in the narrowest part the width should not be
less than that of a spade or shovel.
Surface drains should preferably be not covered, but if covered, the

same should be done with removable pre-cast R.C.C. slabs for periodic
cleaning.
8.4.2.
(i) For underground services, glazed earthen - ware ( some times called
stone ware SW) pipes are used for sewage or a combined sewage and
waste water. Since sewage and waste water contains corrosive
chemicals, pipe materials should be durable against corrosion. For
this glazed earthen ware pipes are best suited. However Rigid PVC,
FRP and HDPE pipes can also be used. For carriage of rain water
separately, non-pressure type R.C.C. pipes (Hume Pipes) can be
used.
The sizes of pipes range from 100 mm diameter to 300 mm diameter;

like surface drains for flow of water under gravity slope of 1 in 10 to
1 in 100 is provided.
91
The pipes are spigot- socket jointed with joint sealing materials,
similar to that for pipe stacks. Glazed earthenware pipes are
manufactured in lengths of 600 mm and they are laid on a
continuous plain cement concreted bed and also covered with
concrete upto half diameter. Pipe of other materials are available in
longer lengths (2 m to 3 m.) and they have to be supported on chairs
constructed on two sides of socket spigot. The joints in glazed
earthen ware pipes are however made with cement mortar. R.C.C.
pipes are collars jointed.
(ii) Change in direction and junctions of underground drainage pipe line

is done by incorporating masonry chambers or inspection pits. The
inner size is not less than 600 mm X 600 mm for small diameter
pipes, and can be larger suited for accommodating larger pipes.
The walls can be of 125 mm thick brick work in 1:4 cement mortar
inside surface of walls plastered with 15 mm thick 1:4 cement sand
mortar, finished with neat cement, for depths up to 600 mm. The
bottom should be worked to guide flow of water into the changed
direction and to prevent sludge deposition in dead corners, by
providing benching. The depth of pits depends on the gradient,
increasing as the pipe goes deeper. For depths more than 600 mm,
the thickness of brick work can be increased to 250 mm in 1:6
mortar in the bottom portion.
The top of the inspection pits are covered with removable R.C.C.
slabs or standard cast iron or R.C.C. manhole covers, set in cast in
situ R.C.C. slab.
(iii) Inspection pits on separate rain water pipe drains can have a grating
cover, so that it can collect; rain water or surface water from yard or
uncovered ground. These pits are called yard gullys.
(iv) When the rain water pipes are connected to a combined sewer, it is
done through a yard gully having a trap incorporated, to prevent
entry of foul gas from sewer lines into the rain water pipe system.
These are known as gully pits.
(v) Connection of premises drains to municipal separate sewer or

combined sewer is done through a pit containing a trap-being termed
as master pit or master trap. The master trap is set in a bricks
chamber constructed similar manner of inspection pit, but with 250
mm brick walls in 1:6 cement mortar, and space around the trap
filled with lean concrete.
It is not mandatory that the pits shall always be square in plan.

Restriction in ground space availability, may require construction in
other shapes. The traps in gully pits and master pits are made do of
heavy cast iron or glazed earthen -ware.
92
From master pit, the discharge pipe line is laid below municipal road
and connected to the nearest pit available on the municipal sewer
line. The master trap prevents entry of foul gas from municipal sewer
into the premises drainage system hence it is also known as an
intercepting trap.
Inspection pits, gully pits, master pits are sometimes given a

ventilation pipe for entry of fresh air and escape of gases. But if
larger conveying pipes are used, and have openings to atmosphere
through gratings of yard gully etc., vent pipes can be avoided in
many cases.
9. Septic tank with soak well has to be constructed in premises not

served by municipal sewerage system. Septic tanks are horizontal
continuous flow sedimentation tank, through which sewage flows slowly
to permit suspended matters to settle at the bottom, where it is
retained, until anaerobic decomposition or digestion is established, with
help of anaerobic bacteria, resulting in the clanging of some of the
organic matters into liquid and gaseous substances, and a consequent
reduction in quantity of sludge to be disposed off.
Septic tanks need periodic cleaning, during which, the tank has to be
kept in operative. Septic tanks are made of brick masonry or reinforced
concrete, and may be of a single, compartment, or can have two
compartments.
In a single chamber tank, sedimentation of settleable solids including

grits, and sludge digestion take palace in one chamber. The scum
formed on liquid surface due to greasy and oily substances in night soil,
prevent the sewage to come into contact with oxygen and maintains
anaerobic condition. The sewage enters through inlet in a crude
condition and after flowing through the effective space between the
accumulated sludge and the top scum layer, passes out in a clarified
form. The deposition at bottom and formation of scum at top take place
continuously, there by reducing the space for sewage flow. Hence
periodic cleaning is needed, depending on number of users and size of
tank constructed.
Septic tanks should be long, about 2 to 3 times preferably 6 to 8 times

the width.
The minimum width can be 600 mm, but as per BIS that should be 750
mm. The inlet and outlet should be through a Tee pipe special of H.C.I. or
S.W. to prevent breaking or flowing out of scum.
Some times a two compartment septic tank is constructed, in longer tanks

for say 20 user or more, by incorporating a grit chamber at the inlet side
by construction of a petition wall with openings 150 mm 3 150
93
mm, at some height from bottom of the tank. This partition is

constructed at a distance 1/3 L from inlet end, where L is the total
length. BIS recommends a two comportment tank, by constructing the
partition at a distance 1/3 L from the outlet end, where total tank
capacity exceeds 2000 L, and the openings in partition wall being made
at 300 mm from liquid top level.
On a thumb rule, the total capacity of a septic tank including all the
compartments should be calculated at 85 litre per user, plus 10% extra
for sludge accumulation, assuming one year interval for cleaning.
Adequate sludge space should be provided. On this basis the size of a
septic tank for 30 users shall be in the order of L= 2.70m, B = 0.75m
and liquid depth H = 1.40m. The free board is kept about 300 mm. The
question of providing a vent pipe is disputed. One aspect is that
providing ventilation pipe in the tank free air shall come in contact with
anaerobic bacteria and shall prevent bacterial action. Other aspect of
not providing the same, shall result in generation of gas pressure,
which may force out through sanitary appliances or may cause
chokage. As a compromise a vent pipe is provided in the main pipe inlet
to the septic tank.
The effluent from septic tank is disposed off in the following methods:-
(i) Discharge of the effluent through open jointed pipes laid on

sand beds, or jhama chips beds, cause the effluent to be soaked in
soil. This method requires large open land space.
(ii) The most common practice, where land is not available, is to

construct a well with honey combed brick work, and fill the well
with some filtering medium like brick bats, jhama, chips etc. up
to calculated depth and discharge septic tank effluent over the
filtering material. The final disposal is by soaking into soil. For
rough estimation, the volume \of filling to be provided can be
taken as 0.065 cum. per 100 litre effluent flow per day.
Neither of above two methods is effective where percolation

capacity of soil is low or the ground water table is very close to
land surface.
(iii) The effluent can also be discharged into municipal surface

drain, if allowed by such authority, after some purification or
disinfection of the same, as may be required.
Municipal authorities undertake the cleaning of septic tanks,

on payment of prescribed fees by the premises
owner. (Refer to sketch sheets 32,33 & 34 ).
94
Chapter XII
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
1. Setting foundation layout: The centre lines of columns and walls are
layed down on ground with reference to some fixed objects existing on
site. The centre lines are indicated by tying strings along the centre lines.
The strings are tied to pegs, posts or pillars at two ends, and the pegs or
pillars are erected sufficiently away from excavation trenches for wall
foundations or from excavation pits for column foundations, so that these
pegs or pillars are not disturbed during excavation work. Once the
position of walls and/or columns are fixed, the excavation work is
commenced.
The depth of excavation is fixed by a leveling instrument, with respect to

a fixed level of some permanent object on the site of construction.
2. Earthwork : The activities of excavation of earth, rocks etc. and filling of

trenches, voids, raising low levels, carrying of excavated or filling materials,
are all collectively termed earthwork
2(A). Tools, machinery for excavation:
(i) Hand tools for manual excavation: Spade, shovel, pick-axe,
crowbar, chisel, hammer.
(ii) Mechanical excavating equipments: Pneumatic pavement

breaker/chisel, grab, drag-line, power shovel, hoe or back-
hoe, trenching machine etc. Bulk excavation on large projects
need mechanical excavators.
(Refer to sketch sheet 35 ).
(iii) Blasting is required for excavation in rocks or very hard soil.

Rock is shattered by using explosives, commercially available
in market. Special licence from competent authority is
required for handling blasting materials. For shattering rock
mass, holes are drilled in requisite number and properly
spaced in rock, using a rock drill or jack hammer. Blasting
material or the explosive, available in the shape of a short
stick is inserted in hole fitted with electrical fuse or prima
cord fuse. The hole is packed with rock dust. Firing is done by
electrical spark or by igniting the fuse. Fragmented rocks are
removed manually or by mechanical tools, from excavation
pit/area.
2(B). Tools and machinery for back filling :
95
(i) Hand tools for manual filling are similar to those required for
manual excavation. Hand rammers are used for earth
consolidation.
(ii) Mechanical back filling equipments used commonly are bull-

dozers, draglines, power-shovels, grabs etc. For transport of
materials on road, tipper trucks or dumper trucks are used.
For consolidation or compaction, different types of power
rollers are used.
3. Protection to excavation trench or pit : During the process of

excavation, and after excavation, and during construction period, the
excavation trench or pit has got be protected from (A) inundation due to
rain water or due to any other source including ground water seepage; (B)
collapse or sliding of vertical earth face, where excavation cannot be done
with gentle side slopes.
3(A)
(i) Excavated trenches or pits can be kept free from standing water by
pumping out water (dewatering) using hand operated pumps,
power pumps driven by diesel engines or electric motors. In this
commonly used method, small pockets or sumps are excavated in
the bottom of the main trench or pit, from where the water is
sucked out.
(ii) When the ground water level is very high, causing too much seepage
into the excavated pit/trench, it becomes necessary to lower down
the water level locally for a temporary period covering the duration
of construction work. This is done by installing a number of open
wells or tube wells around the site of excavation, and all the wells
are simultaneously pumped, which causes a lowering of ground
water level in the soil. This is known as well point dewatering.
3(B). Collapse of the side walls of excavated pit/trench occurs in soft soil
and when excavated almost vertical. Apart from the inconvenience of
removal of debris, the collapse may seriously endanger adjoining structures.
It is necessary to protect the sides by timbering or shoring , to keep the
excavated area confined to required size and shape.
(i) In reasonably hard soil, vertical timber planks (300 mm to 200 mm

wide and 50 mm to 40 mm thick) known as polling boards, placed
at certain intervals, are held firmly by struts of timber (100 mm x
100 mm) between opposite sides of trench.
(ii) In loose and soft soils, the polling boards are placed at closer
spacings, one or two horizontal timber (100 mm x 100 mm or 150
mm x 75 mm) known as wallings are placed continuous over the
polling boards, over the length of the trench, and held by struts
between trench faces.
96
(iii) In very loose or soft soil, the polling boards are placed side by side
without any gap, so that the entire soil surface is covered and
supported, leaving no scope for the soil to escape. The polling
boards are supported by wales (wallings), not less than two
numbers on each face, and held by cross struts (that is by struts
between opposite faces of trench).
( Refer to sketch sheet 36 ).
(iv) For deep excavations, the trench or pit is excavated in stepped form,
so that the dimensions at the bottom are just sufficient to allow the
construction work. The trench width or pit size is increased towards
the top, in steps, where space is available. The arrangement to
support the cut vertical faces are as described in 3(B)(i) to (iii).
(v) For excavations not in the form of a trench, but in the form of a pit,
where the area is large and cross strutting between opposite vertical
faces is not practicable, the struts are placed in inclined positions
between the vertical faces and the horizontal beds of excavations.
The lower ends of the struts are to be firmly anchored in the bed,
against a driven peg, or by other suitable methods and upper end
also properly connected to wallings, so that no slip occurs.
(vi) In some excavations, specially in the deep ones, of trenches or pits,

the cross struts or the inclined struts present considerable
obstruction to the construction work. In such cases a self
supporting system has to be adopted. In very deep excavations, in
soft soils, and very near existing important structures, it becomes
necessary to use a very strong earth retaining support. In such
cases, steel sheet piles are used to retain earth face vertical, either
as a self supporting wall, or additionally strengthened by wales and
struts, depending on importance of the structure to be constructed
and/or the structure to be protected and the risk elements involved.
Steel sheet piles can be of plain flat or Z shape in cross section,

generally 10 mm thick, and have interlocking clutches at the ends.
Steel sheet piles are driven into the ground by a drop hammer or
monkey by manual labour, in small works, and by mechanical
hammer operated by steam or compressed air, in all important
works. Excavation work follows the sheet pile driving. On
completion of construction work, the sheet piles are extracted out
and reused.
3 (C )
(i) Structures sometimes have to be constructed on locations having
standing water. Open cut excavation can be made, first by
enclosing the foundation area by driving interlocking steel sheet
pies in the form of a reasonably water tight compartment,
97
and pumping out water from the compartment. Such a

protective sheet pile wall is called a cofferdam.
(ii) Cofferdam can also be constructed with earth, sand bags or
timber planks, in small works. But these are much less water
tight than steel sheet pile walls.
(iii) Interlocking pre-cast or cast in situ R.C.C. protective walls can

be used as cofferdams or as diaphragm walls, for protection of
excavation pit; but they are used when they form a permanent
component member of the finished building structure.
4. Machinery and tools used for piling :
(a) For manual operation : (i) tripod derrick, (ii) auger, (iii) piling
derrick erected by salbullah, bamboo etc. and (iv) pull & let go drop
hammer or monkey.
(b) For mechanical operation : (i) pile frame, boom or jib crane, (ii)
boring machines (iii) monkey/drop hammer (iv) steam/pneumatic
hammer (v) boiler, (vi) air compressor and (vii) special implements
for special works.
5. Scaffolding: These are temporary structures erected for construction

works at higher elevations which cannot be reached by a workman
standing on ground surface or on a lower elevation. Scaffoldings also
provide facility for temporary stacking of building materials like bricks,
mortars etc. needed for construction at such higher elevations.
Scaffolding for ordinary buildings are erected with timber (using
salbullah, bamboo etc.), joints tied with ropes. For superior works, or for
tall buildings, steel scaffoldings, using steel tubes 40 mm to 60 mm, are
used. The joints are made by special couplings, clamps etc. The workmen
stand on working platforms, of timber planks, fixed on the scaffoldings.
When scaffolding is to be provided on the side of a busy street where

construction of the same shall obstruct traffic on the road, or for very tall
structures, needle scaffolding is used. A needle is a timber beam which
cantilevers out from a upper floor and is prevented from overturning, by
struts held between successive floor slabs. The scaffolding is erected on
the projected portion. Such cantilevered or needle scaffolding can be of
steel sections also.
All scaffoldings are removed after completion of construction work, and

can be re-used. Naturally, steel scaffolding materials can be used many
times more than those of timber.
Scaffoldings should be adequately strong, rigid and easily accessible for

safety of the workmen.
( Refer to sketch sheet 36 ).
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6. Staging and shuttering : ( Form work ) :
6.1. Staging and shuttering works are temporary structures to function as

moulds for concrete, plain or reinforced, to be poured in, to set, to
mature and to form designed structural members. Staging works are
sometimes termed as centering works. These are removed after
completion of construction works.
6.2
(a) Staging works are supporting structures for shutterings or moulds.
The vertical supports are known as props, the diagonals as struts
or bracings. The staging work should be adequately strong to carry
weight of green concrete, the disturbances and impact of pouring
concrete and vibrators, load of workmen.
Like scaffolding, the stagings can be constructed with (i) timber (sal
props, beams/battens) or (ii) using steel pipes of section 40 mm to
60 mm diameter, in superior constructions. The joints in timber
stagings are made using bolts-nuts, nails. In steel pipe stagings the
connections are made by couplings, clamps etc. specially
manufactured for the purpose and are available in market as such.
(b) The shutterings or moulds are of (i) timber planks 25 mm to 40

mm thick, jointed together, (ii) plywood panels 6 mm to 12 mm
thick fixed to timber frames of section 50mm x 50mm to 100mm x
100mm, (iii) steel sheets 3 mm thick welded to steel frames of angle
section 50mm x 50mm, fabricated to form suitable panel units.
Moulds are formed by bolted joints in case of steel and
plywood shutterings; and in case of ordinary timber plank
shutterings, these are formed by nailing.
6.3. Steel shutterings are costly but most durable, and can be used many
times. Plywood shutterings are less costly, but with reduced reuse
value. Ordinary plank shutterings are the cheapest, but with very
limited reuse capacity. At the time of striking or taking out shuttering,
bolted connections cause very little or no damage to the boards, while
nail joints cause considerable damage.
6.3. Requirements of a good shuttering work:
(i) Shutterings should be strong to withstand the loads from poured

concrete, compaction, vibration and workmen on it.
(ii) Shuttering (mould) should be water-tight, so that cement slurry

from concrete cannot escape. Common practice is to provide a
thin plastic sheet cover on the timber surface. For plywood and
steel shuttering, the joints are packed with some gasketting
materials like hessian etc.
99
(iii) The surface in contact with concrete should be smooth and

should not absorb moisture from green concrete. The use of
plastic sheets ensure this. Steel shutterings offer a smooth and
non-absorbent surface.
(iv) The surface should be such that it should not adhere to

concrete. Plastic sheet cover, application of oil or grease on the
surface, ensures easy removal of shutterings.
(v) Shuttering cost should be small in comparison to other

construction items. Selection of the type of shuttering should be
judiciously done, depending on the type of structure to be
constructed. Steel shuttering may work out as cheapest option,
where many reuses are involved.
6.5. Shutterings can be removed after a specified period, depending on the

type of cement used, the type of structure and the type of curing done.
For ordinary portland cement and normal curing, the shutterings can
be removed as per schedule below :
Vertical faces of beams, columns 2 days after casting;
Slab Bottom for span less than 4.5 m 7 days after casting;
for span larger than 4.5 m 14 days after casting;
Beam Bottom for span less than 6.0 m 14 days after casting;
for span larger than 6.0 m 21 days after casting.
6.6. Steel and timber shuttering and staging materials, after each use
should be repaired, cleaned and properly stored for next use. Careful use
of shuttering materials results in multiple uses and hence in overall
economy.
6.7. Permanent shuttering : Sometimes precast concrete hollow blocks,

trough shape floor panel units are used for slab casting, which act as
shutterings for concrete and forms a part of structural slab. Staging or
centering works are needed only for temporary support to the precast
units.
7. Concrete batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting,

finishing and curing:
7.1.1. Concrete batching: In order to ensure correct and uniform quality of

concrete, it is necessary that the ingredients i.e., coarse aggregate (stone
chips), fine aggregates (sand), cement, water and admixture, if any, that
shall go into the concrete mix, are correctly measured, within permissible
deviations. Batching is done by weight measurement of the ingredients or
by volume measurement. Batching is done manually or by mechanical
implements. Type of batching is selected on the basis of importance of the
structure to be concreted, quantity of concrete to be produced and time
limit within which the quantity is to be produced. For convenience, it is
100
customary to measure all other ingredients in relation to one bag of cement

weighing 50 kg.
7.1.2. Volume batching is done manually using wooden boxes (300 x 300mm
approximately) for gauging aggregates and a measured container for water.
Number of boxes and containers to be mixed with one bag of cement is
determined and used in multiples of numbers of cement bags.
7.1.3. Batching by weight is done in a weigh-batching machine for all

important works, and works requiring controlled conditions of production.
Depending upon the size of work, the batching equipment can vary from a
small wheel-barrow scale, feeding a portable mixer machine, to an
elaborate automatic or semi-automatic batching plant.
7.1.4. Concrete mixing: The process of mixing needs due care for production
of a homogoneous uniform mix. Mixing are done manually or by machines.
7.1.5. Hand mixing or manual mixing is done when the volume of the job is
small, or where the machine cannot be used due to some reason, and when
the construction is not for an important structure. Hand mixing is done on
a clean, hard and impermeable surface. Cement and sand are mixed first,
until the mixture attains a uniform colour. Coarse aggregate is then added
to this mixture, which is turned over repeatedly until the stone chips are
uniformly spread throughout the mixed mass. After this the computed
quantity of water is poured on to the heap, and the mass is turned over
several times, until a workable mixture is obtained.
The tools used are shovels and spades.
It is customary to use 10 percent more cement in case of hand mixing,

than that specified in the standard mix. This is done to take care of inferior
results of hand mixing to that achieved by machine mixing.
7.1.6. Machine mixing - is done in mixer machines. Mixer machines are

rotating steel drums having blades or baffles inside. The machines are
driven by electric motors or diesel engines. In its simplest form, the mixer
is mounted on wheels, has a tilting and rotating drum, with or without a
hopper to feed the ingredients into the drum. The drum rotates in one
direction, tilted to the hopper side or feeding side during mixing, and tilted
to the other side downwards to discharge the mixed concrete.
The nominal capacities of these mixers are in the range 100 l, 140 l and
200l.
In other types of larger machines, the drum is in fixed position, where
loading of ingredients and discharge of mixed concrete is done by the same
open end, by reversing the drum rotation. Capacities of these larger
machines are in the order of 140 l, 200 l, 280 l, 400 l and 800 l.
In all the types where feeding and emptying the drum is by the same
opening, the mixed concrete is produced in batches.
101
In double drum mixers, filling is done at one end and discharge is effected
from other end after mixing. Such mixers produce a continuous concrete
mix.
7.1.7. Combined batching and mixing plants (CBMP) are used in all
important and large construction projects. These can be a stationary plant
at a fixed location in a project site. Or the same can be mounted on wheels
(trailer mounted) having facility of shifting to different locations. All such
combined batching-mixing plants involve weigh-batching and generally
have non- tilting type rotating drums.
7.2. Concrete has to be transported from the place of batching- mixing to the
place of final deposit or the mould (shuttering) for casting, in shortest
possible time before initial setting of cement starts. Transport involves
movement horizontal on surface or vertically above or below ground level.
Different contraptions used for transport are:
(i) by steel pans on head load manually;
(ii) by hand carts/wheel barrows;
(iii) by tipper/ dumper trucks for surface travel. For vertical transfer,
(iv) steel pans on head load manually,
(v) hoists/skips,
(vi) cable cars/conveyors,
(vii) cranes and
(viii) pumping through pipes are employed.
A combined system of mixing and transport is adopted using truck mixers,

where mixing is done during travel time, so that casting can be done well
before initial set of cement, and where the central batching-mixing plant is
distant from the casting point, or where there is no space for mixing near
the casting point.
For transport of concrete by cableway or by crane, a skip or bucket is

attached to the cable car or to the crane hook. The bucket has a hopper
bottom with control gate. The bucket is carefully positioned on the casting
point and concrete is discharged by opening the gate.
102
In congested sites, concrete can be transmitted through pipes under

pressure by special pumps from central mixing plant, over horizontal and
vertical distances of maximum 400 m and 80 m about, respectively.
Efficient transport of concrete is achieved by minimum handling of the

same. Several loading and unloading of mixed concrete, before casting
should be avoided. Pumping of concrete is considered a very fast and
satisfactory method of transportation.
7.3. Concrete should be poured in the mould immediately after mixing,

before the initial setting of cement starts, which is 30 minutes for ordinary
Portland cement.
While placing the concrete in the mould (shuttering), it should not be thrown
from a height. Concrete should be layed in layers of 15 cm to 30 cm, and
each layer is to be compacted before the next layer is poured. Concrete
thrown from a height, results in segregation of coarse aggregates (stone
chips) from the mix. For placing concrete at deep trench or pit/hole, and
under water, a long chute (tremie) is used.
7.4. Compaction of concrete is required for expelling all air bubbles that
get entrapped in the concrete mass during mixing and during pouring. The
removal of entrapped air bubbles produces uniform and dense concrete,
which results in desired strength and durability of the concrete structure.
Compaction should be done thoroughly to work around reinforcement bars,

embedded fixtures and into corners of the mould or formwork. Compaction
can be done by hand or by mechanical implements.
7.5.1. Hand compaction is done by rodding or tamping, for small works and
in thin vertical members.
7.5.2. For all important and large works, mechanical compaction is done by
vibrators.
The vibrators communicate rapid vibrations of low amplitude to the concrete

mass, which becomes plastic and mobile, and the aggregates occupy
uniform positions under gravity, all air bubbles are expelled, and dense
concrete is produced.
Vibrators are available in several types, like needle (immersion) vibrator,

surface vibrator and external or form vibrator. Essentially a vibrator has an
eccentric-rotating core, driven by electric motor, diesel/petrol/kerosene
engine or compressed air.
Over- vibration of concrete should be avoided, as that leads to segregation of

coarse aggregates.
7.5. Finishing of exposed concrete surface should be done when the

concrete is still in plastic state. All free bleed surface water, in case of a floor
103
or roof slab, should be removed (blotted up) before trowelling the surface
smooth. In no case fresh water should be added for getting a plastic surface,
or dry cement mortar sprinkled to dry up the free bleed water, for the
purpose of smooth finishing. No attempt should be made to embed stone
chips into freshly compacted concrete by tamping with trowel etc.
Vertical surfaces of columns and walls, may contain small air bubble voids,
which can be sealed with cement sand mortar of same composition as the
concrete, by rubbing the surface with the mortar.
7.6. Curing of concrete is done to assure adequate time, temperature and

supply of water for the cement to continue to hydrate. Curing replenishes
the loss of moisture from the concrete due to evaporation, absorption and
heat of reactions. It is a process of keeping the set concrete continuously
damp for some days. The period of curing depends upon atmospheric
conditions, such as temperature and humidity. Hot and humid climate may
need 7 to 10 days curing, whereas dry and cold weather demands 14 days.
Curing methods are :

(i) covering the exposed surfaces with moist sand, earth, gunny bags
etc. and sprinkling water at regular intervals to keep the same wet;
(ii) keeping impounded water on horizontal surfaces like floor or roof

slabs in small earthen barriers. Increase in temperature during the
process of curing, increases the rate of strength increase in
concrete. Steam curing is a very effective method, but is generally
restricted for curing precast concrete products.
8. Reinforcement works involve cutting, bending and fitting steel rods in

the framework (mould) as per design/drawing. In all RCC works it is
necessary to prepare a bar bending schedule on the basis of drawing, before
bars are cut. Bar bending schedule is a descriptive list containing details of
the exact shape, dimension and diameter of each bar(rod), together with the
number of bars of each shape.
Cutting of bars are done by gas, hacksaw or by shear, depending on the

diameter size. Bending is done manually on a bending table using a dog or
by a bar bending machine.
The reinforcement is placed correctly in position in the mould and held by

tying the bars at crossings of two bars with binding wire or by spot welding.
To ensure proper cover to the reinforcement, small precast cover blocks
made from cement mortar, are placed between the rods and the shuttering,
and tied to the rods. The strength of the blocks should not be less than that
of the concrete to be poured and the thickness in parity with the cover
needed. Care has to be taken during concreting to prevent displacement and
distortion of the reinforcing rods.
104
9. Brickwork : The essential requirement for brickwork is adequate bonding

between individual bricks by mortar. Vertical joints should be broken, and
to achieve this there are several methods of bonding, like English Bond,
Flemish Bond, Stretching Bond, Heading Bond etc.
Bricks with frogs are layed with the frogs upwards, so that the bed mortar
completely fills the frogs. Type of bonding has to be selected depending on
the thickness of the brickwork. Bricks are to be thoroughly soaked in water,
prior to laying, to ensure that they do not absorb water out of the cement
mortar used in jointing. It is also necessary to cure a cement brickwork after
the cement mortar has set, in similar methods for concrete works. Tools
used for brick masonry are:
(i) hammer-axe,
(ii) spirit level,
(iii) plumb bob,
(iv) line and pins,
(v) masons square,
(vi) trowel and

(vii) steel tape/folding scale.
10. Plastering work : Plaster work is a protective layer of sand cement

mortar on brickwork or concrete surface. The thickness of plaster may be
6mm, 10mm, 12mm, 15mm or 20mm at the maximum. It should have a
good bond with brick and concrete surface. Brick joints need be raked or
concrete surface roughened, and the surface should be moist prior to plaster
cover. Curing of plaster is also a necessity for good work. The tools used are
very simple ones, like trowels, floats, wooden straight edges (pata), plumb
line and bob.
11. Flooring works : Flooring is a protective and decorative cover on floor,

as discussed earlier. It is primarily depositing a thin concrete layer of
thickness 25mm to 40mm. The ingredients used are stone chips, small
marble chips of various colours, sand stone dust, cement- coloured or
ordinary. Precast cement tiles, marble slabs etc. are layed on cement or lime
mortar. The tools used are similar to that for brickwork or plaster work.
Generally hand mixing is done, but for large works mixing machine to be
used. Manual use of polishing stones have now been replaced by electricity
operated grinding/polishing machines.
12. Fabrication of structural steelwork :
105
C. Detailed drawings, showing sizes of the structural members like joists,

channels, angles, plates etc., positions and sizes of holes for bolting and
riveting, sizes and lengths of welds and all other informations required for
fabrication (assembling) of the structural components as roof trusses,
plate girders, compound girders, stanchions (columns) etc., are prepared
in the design/drawing office and supplied to the workshop for fabrication.
D. From the drawings, the sizes of the structural members are determined
and marked on one typical member, cut to size, and the positions of
holes etc., are also marked on it, drilled to size, and this member is used
as a template (template) for identical repetitions. In case of trusses, a full
scale layout drawing is made on the shop floor, from a base and a centre
line. Long lengths are measured with steel tape and are struck with a
chaulked cord. The actual lengths of every bar (member), shape and size
of gusset plates are obtained from the layout drawing. Templates are
made from timber strips, which represent the working surfaces of bars
(members). When the members are of angle sections, one strip may
represent one or both legs, since the strip functions as a transfer. The
wooden strips are of pine wood, 15mm to 20mm thick and 150mm wide.
Thin gauge steel sheets are very suitable for templates for accurate and
repetitive works.
C. Marking is done on a structural member directly after the surface is given

a thin coating of lime, clay etc., on which well visible lines can be marked
by a marking awl (or marking tool). For marking the hole centers, either
the centre is located by intersection point of horizontal and vertical axes
of the hole, or the template is clamped to the surface of the member and
indentations are made with a centre punch, at the centers of the
rivet/bolt holes.
D. Machine tools used in fabrication :
(i) The raw materials, i.e., the steel plates, angles, channels, joists etc.
delivered from rolling mills have slight bends and must be cold
straightened before fabrication. Cold straightening can be done by
hand hammering, by jim crows or by rollers.
(ii) Cutting of members to sizes are done by mechanical saws, shearing

machines or guillotine and flame cutting using oxygen with
acetylene, coal gas or hydrogen. The cutting nozzle may be hand
controlled or mechanically guided along a path at uniform speed, by
a template or track.
(iii) Planing machines are used for edge planing. In edge planing, the
cutting tool travels, while the member is fixed. For surface planing,
106
the tool remains fixed, as in case of a lathe machine, where the

member moves or rotates.
(iv) The punching machine has an action almost similar to hand punch
used for holing papers for filing purpose. Punched holes are not
recommended for thickness of 16mm or 20mm and above, which
should be drilled. Punch destroys the tenacity of the annular ring of
metal just surrounding the hole. The weak metal can be removed by
reamering.
(v) In drilling holes, the material is removed by a high speed twist drill,
in a electric motor driven drilling machine, which leaves the metal
surrounding the hole un-damaged. By assembling the angles and
plates which form the flange of a plate girder, the drilling of each
rivet hole from the solid and through the several added thickness,
can be carried out in one operation. Where gusset plates are
identical, these can be bundled and the holes drilled through the
set at one operation.
(vi) Gas cutting of structural steel members of any section are done by
melting the metal locally and pushing out the molten metal under
pressure, in a thin line. The heat is produced by combustion of
acetylene gas/coal gas/hydrogen gas in association with oxygen
gas, to form a pointed flame having high pressure. The equipments
needed are:
(vii) gas cylinders containing the consumable gases under high
pressure;
(viii) regulators with gauges fitted to the gas cylinders;
(ix) rubber tubes to convey gas from cylinders to the cutting torch;
(x) cutting torch having a nozzle with small jet holes and
(xi) and goggles and leather gloves for protection of the cutter.
(xii) Fastening or jointing the members are done by
(xiii) bolting,
(xiv) riveting and
(xv) welding.
(a) Bolting is a method of temporary fastening in steelwork using

bolts, nuts, washers, although they are often used for permanent
connections. Bolts, nuts and washers are manufactured from
mild steel for ordinary works and from special high strength steel
where needed. Bolts generally have hexagonal heads, and a fully
107
or partly threaded stem, known as shank. The nuts are also

hexagonal and inside threaded to match the bolt threads. The
length of the bolt shank should be adequate to cover the
combined thickness of members being fastened, plus that of the
nut, wahers and an extra 3mm to 5mm to stick out of the
tightened nut. The diameter of the shank is 1.5mm less than
that of the hole. These bolts do not fill the holes completely.
These are known as black bolts. Machine turned bolts of mild
steel or superior steel, having a clearance of 0.1mm maximum,
almost filling the hole completely, are known as turned and fitted
bolts or bright bolts.
(b) Rivets are manufactured from steel of special quality, wrought

iron being used earlier days. These like bolts have a head, which
is generally half round, shank of adequate length to cover total
thickness to be fastened, to cover material to form head on the
other side and material required to fill the gap between the
shank and the hole. The shank diameter is 1.5mm less than the
whole diameter. The rivet covers the hole fully after being driven.
Rivet connections are permanent connections but can be taken
apart by cutting out rivet heads.
Rivets are heated in a furnace until white hot, inserted in the

hole, the original head is firmly held by a support having a recess
to fit the head, known as dolly, and the protruding end of the
shank is hammered with a die to form another head. The
hammering can be done manually using a pneumatic hammer.
In fabrication workshops, machines are used for riveting using
hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. In these machines, riveting is
done in one stroke for each rivet, and without any hammering
noise.
(c) Welding is a method of permanent connection. Welded structures

cannot be dismantled without damaging the component
members. The jointing is done by fusion of metals and by
depositing extra metal at the joints in the form of a bead. Fusion
heat is produced by an electric arc and the extra metal is
supplied by consumable electrodes, the arc being formed
between the electrode and the components to be welded. The
electrodes are steel sticks of same grade as the structural
components to be welded, of diameter 1.6mm to 6.3mm (10
gauge to 4 gauge) and about 450mm (18 inch) long, coated with a
flux cover. The flux melts with electrode in the heat of the arc,
and forms a protective crust on the deposited bead, to prevent
oxidation of molten metal.
The electricity required is 20 volts to 50volts and 50amperes to

500 amperes. Direct Current (DC) or Alternating Current (AC),
suitably converted or stepped down from 230volts or 440volts
and 10amperes to 100amperes domestic or commercial supply,
108
is needed for welding. The job or the components to be welded

are connected to the negative terminal of the DC source, or the
earth terminal of an AC source, and the electrode is connected to
the positive terminal of the DC source or to the phase terminal of
an AC source. For good quality work a DC source is desirable.
Equipments needed for electric arc welding are:
(i) DC Generator or transformer electricity source for providing

required voltage and current (amperes);
(ii) connection leads;
(iii) electrode holder;
(iv) shield with dark glass to protect eyes of the welder;
(v) chipping hammer to remove flux cover over weld bead;
(vi) wire brush to clean the bead and
(vii) leather gloves for the welder. The welders are generally gas
cutters as well.
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END
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Building Construction Management

PRACTISING VALUERS ASSOCIATION INDIA

1. CHAPTER I CONCEPT OF PLAN, ELEVATION, SIDE ELEVATION

2. CHAPTER II BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE AND MANAGEMENT

3. CHAPTER III ROOF AND ROOF COVERINGS

7. CHAPTER VII COLUMNS

8. CHAPTER VIII STAIRS

9. CHAPTER IX LINTELS AND ARCHES

10. CHAPTER X FOUNDATIONS

11. CHAPTER XI WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

12. CHAPTER XII CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

13. CHAPTER XIII SKETCHES

All objects in space can be located specifically by stating its perpendicular

If an imaginary plane, parallel to the base at a height of H from the base,

respectively. In limits, when H is equal to zero, the cut surface coincides

Different components and functions of individual components of

(i) Single and Multistoried Building of load bearing wall

Type of building on functional requirements

(b) Dormitories: Which provide mainly sleeping accommodation for more

(d) Apartment Houses or Flat Buildings: Single block or a number of

(i) Schools and Colleges: Buildings that contain facilities for

(i) Hospitals, Nursing Homes: Buildings used for treatment of patients

(ii) Sanatoriums/ Asylums for mentally retarded: Similar to hospitals

(iii) Clinics: Contain one or more Doctors Consultancy

(iv) Clinical and Pathological Laboratories: These units of buildings used

arrangement for games, swimming these have restaurants, dance

(iii) Sports Stadium: These are structures that accommodate persons in

(i) Temples, Churches, Cathedrals, Mosques etc.: These are

residential accommodations for monks, devotees etc. similar to

(a) Market (Shops and Stores)

(ii) Cold Storages are structures where perishable goods, specially

(iii) Godowns are storage structures for merchandise generally located

(i) Factories: Factories are buildings where manufacture of

people, disposal of waste water and supply of piped gas for

(b) Railway Stations

(c) Air Terminals

(d) Port buildings

Characteristics of these are almost same in common features of use by

1. Sub-structure: Portion of a building below ground level to transfer load of

(i) Shallow foundation. (ii) Deep foundation.

(i) Shallow Foundation

Functions of the foundation are

(1) Load distribution: To distribute the load of building to subsoil in

(2) Anchorage: To provide anchorage of the building firmly to soil to

(3) Protection against soil movement: Change in physical behavior of soil

(4) Protection from undermining: The foundation provides safety of the

(5) Provision of suitable surface: Foundation provides a sound and level

This is a portion of a building partly or fully below ground level providing an

Columns rest directly on foundations and actually transfer total weight of

(vi) Stairs: These are for negotiating different floors.

Other components of a masonry building commonly required for

1. Coping: It is a covering on exposed top of a wall to prevent seepage of

3. Cornice: It is a brick masonry/stone or reinforced concrete projection

4. Corbel: This is a projection on wall, constructed of a stone block,

5. String course: This is a projection on wall a continuous and

6. Roof terracing: Protective lime concrete work on tiled roof or RCC

7. Lintel: It is a horizontal member of stone brick, wood, steel or

8. Sunshed or Chajja: These are projected reinforce concrete slab over

9. Arch: It is a structural construction of masonry formed by mechanical

10. Door/window jamb: Vertical sides of door/window openings, where

11. Sill: The bottom surface of a door or window opening. In old

12. Bed block or template: It is block of stone, or cement concrete or a

16. Buttress: It is sloping or stepped masonry projection from a wall to