into mathematical symbols and relations.
Empirical data and
Thematic
Section
Why Teach Mathematical Modelling?
Abstract
Research on the teaching and learning of
mathematical modelling has attracted an increas-
ing interest during the last 20 years. One con-
cept of special significance in this field of re-
search is the modelling competence, related to and
intertwined with other mathematical sub compe-
tencies. In this paper some results from the re-
search on the teaching and learning of mathemati-
cal modelling are presented and discussed, and an
example of an introductory course in mathemati-
cal modelling for engineers is presented.
Introduction
The overall goal of mathematics in primary, secondary and
tertiary education is that the students become able to use
mathematics in a variety of situations. Everybody needs to
understand mathematical applications as a citizen as well as
in the private life. For many, the use of mathematics is essen-
tial also in the working life. Phil Davis [7] reflected in 1991
on the use and limitations of mathematical descriptions at the
ICTMA 4 (Fourth International Conference on the Teaching
of Mathematical Modelling and Applications):
Each age has preferred modes of prediction.
Each mode opens up characteristic possibilities
and creates realities. Mathematical modelling is
todays high prestige way of predicting. It is the
expression of our age, and it is likely to be around
for a long while. However, we must watch it. We
must watch it because mathematical descriptions
tend to drive out all others. (p 1)
Today technology makes it easier to use advanced mathemat-
ics and therefore it is even more necessary to be able to exert
a critical view on the results. Such a critical view may devel-
op through an understanding of the entire process of applying
mathematics to an extra-mathematical situation.
Modelling and the modelling competence
In each application of mathematics a mathematical model is
involved. There are many definitions of a mathematical mod-
el in the literature. Here we follow Blomhj and Jensen [2].
In short a mathematical model consists of the following: an
extra-mathematical (real-world) domain, the perceived reali-
ty, a mathematical system describing some aspects of the per-
ceived reality, and mathematical model results that may be
applied to the real situation. See figure one. During the mod-
elling process the real system is delimited to a domain of in-
quiry, then reduced to a well defined system and translated
1
mathematical theory give structure and content to the math-
ematical model. The results appear as solutions to the equa-
tions and relations in the mathematical system and are inter-
preted as insight into the reality or actions possible to carry
out.
Figure 1: The modelling process according to Blomhj et al
[2]
Mathematical ability is described in terms of competencies
by Niss [12]. The ability to carry out the modelling pro-
cess is viewed as one specific mathematical competence
among eight sub competencies that together form what is
called mathematical competence. The mathematical mod-
elling competence is the ability to perform the processes that
are involved in the construction and investigation of mathe-
matical models [1]. According to Niss it includes among oth-
er things the following:
Identify relevant questions, variables, relations and as-
sumptions in a given real world situation
Simplify the real system and leave out factors of sup-
posedly minor influence
Translate into mathematics
Work within the mathematical domain
Interpret and validate the solution of the model
Analyse and compare mathematical models
Check properties and scope of a given model.
The role and place of mathematical modelling
in mathematics education
Researchers in mathematics education have discussed rea-
sons for modelling and applications in the mathematical cur-
riculum at secondary and tertiary level and a number of aims
have been put forward [5], [10]. According to Blum [3] there
are four types of arguments for including mathematical mod-
elling in education. The pragmatic argument refers to the use-
fulness in extra-mathematical situations. A formative argu-
ment is that modelling develops general qualifications, such
as translation between real-world and a description of reali-
ty. The cultural argument refers to knowledge of the role of
mathematics in society. Finally the psychological argument
is that modelling may be helpful for learning mathematics.
However it is still open to discussion and research to which
extent each of these arguments is valid in specific contexts.
Traditionally mathematical modelling is not included or
made explicit in the mathematics school curriculum. Applica-
tions in other school subjects are polished and neat (physics,
chemistry) and give no information of the modelling cycle.
However, transfer of learning and knowledge to a new con-
text is problematic and a classical educational issue both in
practice and in research [9]. In general, transfer is only pos-
sible when the new context is quite similar to the old one.
An important result from research in mathematics education
seems to be that teaching and learning must address each spe-
cific mathematical competence that students should develop.
If we wish students to reach some competence in mathemati-
cal modelling, then we have to teach mathematical modelling
and make it explicit.
Different levels of understanding of the modelling process are
required at various levels and for various groups of students.
Students at higher levels ought to develop perspectives on
mathematical modelling according to their future specialisa-
tion. Engineers use models constructed by others, modify ex-
isting mathematical models, and in some cases develop new
mathematical models in cooperation with other specialists.
Therefore I claim engineering students ought to develop
a mathematical modelling competence. The same argument
is relevant for students specialising in applied mathematics.
The students need to experience that application of mathe-
matics requires understanding and knowledge of the pertinent
subject area, the relevant mathematics and the modelling pro-
cess.
Sense-making and classroom norms
One aspect of the modelling competence relevant already in
primary education is the evaluation of a result in view of a
real situation. A couple of examples of problems for which
this competence is needed are the following:
Carl has 5 friends and George has 6 friends. Carl and
George decide to give a party together. They invite all
their friends. All friends are present. How many friends
are there at the party?
Alice and Bruce go to the same school. Alice lives at a
distance of 17 km from the school and Bruce at 8 km.
How far do Alice and Bruce live from each other?
Johns best time to run 100 meters is 17 s. How long
will it take for him to run 1 km?
These problems have been used in several research studies,
replicating an original study in the Netherlands and Noth-
ern Ireland. In the original investigation 90-95% of the pupils
tested (upper elementary and lower secondary level) gave the
answers 11 friends, 9 or 25 km and 170 s [8]. So why do stu-
dents seem to avoid making sense in the mathematics class-
room even if it would be possible for them to judge their re-
sult in view of a well-known reality?
The norms and values of a mathematics classroom influence
the students actions. According to Brousseau [6], a didac-
tical contract shapes a students beliefs and strategies in a
2
teaching and learning situation. The teacher is responsible for
making the learning meaningful for the student, and the stu-
dent creates meaning for her- or himself by giving the right
answers, following the instructions and so on. The implicit
rules for mathematical problem solving implies that problems
are not authentic, that any problem presented is solvable with
one exact answer and that violations of your knowledge about
everyday world may be ignored. An attitude is created that
(school) mathematics forms a universe of its own mathe-
matics does not exist in a context where it is allowed or help-
ful to use common sense. Students bring this attitude with
them to tertiary level. These attitudes and beliefs are prob-
ably most efficiently influenced and changed when students
experience the full modelling cycle in an meaningful context.
Introductory course in mathematical modelling
Traditionally the mathematical modelling process is not
present in engineering programmes or enters at a late stage
of the education, e.g. in a final examination project. However
at some universities a different strategy is applied. Students
get an early introduction into mathematical modelling, build-
ing on those mathematical tools at hand.
Courses in mathematical modelling may be designed in vari-
ous ways. Two alternatives are to put more emphasis on math-
ematics through modelling or on modelling through mathe-
matics. It is easier to be explicit about the modelling process
if the students work with well-known mathematics, as in the
second alternative. However, also in the latter case, working
with mathematical models has a potential to deepen the un-
derstanding of mathematical concepts already known to the
students.
At two Swedish universities introductory courses in mathe-
matical modelling for engineering students have been given
according to the ideas presented above. At Lule Universi-
ty of Technology a course has been given as part of the ba-
sic mathematics course of the engineering master programme
since the 1980s. At Lund University a similar course is in-
cluded in the first year of the engineering mathematics master
programme since its start in 2002.
The purpose of the course in Lund is that the students change
their attitudes towards the usefulness of mathematics and
learn about the modelling process. More specifically the goals
are to let the students
become aware of the meaning of mathematical mod-
elling
increase their self reliance when it comes to use mathe-
matics in various contexts
acquire modelling competence at an introductory level
learn to handle computer support (Matlab, LATEX)
acquire communication competence specifically about
mathematics and modelling. [11]
The course is given during seven weeks and corresponds to
4.5 ECTS-points. Students work with independent project
work in co-operative groups of 3-4 persons. The projects
are given by the teachers as open-ended problems in non-
mathematical language and students have full responsibility
for their model. All projects admit several valid models in
reach of the students capacity. Three projects are given with
increasing complexity and several colleagues participate as
supervisors. The students report on the projects in written re-
ports and oral presentations. A peer review system is used to
let the students learn from the experience of other students.
However, the peer reviews are examined and supplemented
by the supervisor. Only a few lectures are given. The stu-
dents evaluation is overwhelmingly positive. Generally the
quality of the model improves through the sequence and the
great majority of students raise the level of the presentation.
[6] G. Brousseau Theory of didactical situations in math-
ematics (Kluwer 1997)
[7] P. Davis. In M. Niss, W. Blum and I. Huntley, Teach-
ing of Mathematical Modelling and applications, 19
(Ellis Horwood, 1991)
[8] B. Greer, J Math. Beh. 12, 239250 (1993)
[9] R.E. Haskell. Transfer of Learning: Cognition, In-
struction, and Reasoning (Academic Press 2001)

[10] G. Kaiser and B. Sriraman, ZDM 38, 302310 (2006)

Issues in research about mathematical mod-
elling [11] Mathematical Modelling. Syllabus academic year
Three phases may be discerned in the development of re- 2008/2009. Retrived Oct 13, 2008 from www.ka.lth.se/
kursplaner/08_09%20eng/FMA045.html
search about applications and modelling in mathematics ed-
ucation since the 1960s [13]. During the first phase (roughly [12] M. Niss. In A. Gagatsis and S. Papastavidris, 3rd
1965-1975) the main focus was on developing the arguments Mediterranean Conference on Mathematical Educa-
for including modelling in school curricula and educational tion, 115124 (Hellenic Mathematical Society, 2003)
programmes at universities. During the second phase (rough-
ly 1975-1990) the development of courses in mathematical [13] M. Niss, W. Blum and P. Galbraith. In W. Blum,
modelling and course materials were brought into the focus. P.L. Galbraith, H.-W. Henn and M.Niss Modelling
Much activity was reported from e.g. UK, US, Denmark and and Applications in Mathematics Education. The 14th
the Netherlands. During the last decades these strands have ICMI Study, 332 (Springer 2007)
been further developed and complemented by empirical stud-
ies that give insight into the results of the teaching and learn-
ing of mathematical modelling. For those interested in the on- Gerd Brandell
going research in this area there are a number of international Centre for Mathematical Sciences
conferences and publications. See a bibliography in [4]. Lund University
SE 221 00 Lund
Conclusion Sweden
gerd.brandell@math.lth.se
In this article I have shown that mathematical modelling and
applications has been a theme within research in mathemat-
ics education for decades, addressing among other issues the
modelling competence and the various aims of modelling.
However, it is still rare to include courses in mathematical
modelling in programs for engineering students. In the arti-
cle such courses are described that successfully meet the goal
of teaching modelling as a specific competence and influence
the students beliefs about the usefulness of mathematics in
applications.

References
[1] M. Blomhj and T.H. Jensen, Teaching Mathematics
and its Applications 22, 123139 (2003)

[2] M. Blomhj and T.H. Jensen. In W. Blum, P.L. Gal-

braith, H.-W. Henn and M.Niss Modelling and Ap-
plications in Mathematics Education. The 14th ICMI
Study, 4556 (Springer 2007)

[3] W. Blum. In M. Niss, W. Blum and I. Huntley, Teach-

ing of Mathematical Modelling and applications, 10
19 (Ellis Horwood, 1991)

[4] W. Blum, P.L. Galbraith, H.-W. Henn and M.Niss

Modelling and Applications in Mathematics Educa-
tion. The 14th ICMI Study (Springer 2007)

[5] W. Blum and M. Niss, ESM 22, 3768 (1991)