Prelim Yearly Kiss Notes

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Baulkham Hills High School SL#802445

keep it simple science
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1
THE CHEMICAL EARTH

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. The Composition of Matter... MIXTURES
2. The ELEMENTS
3. COMPOUNDS... Ionic & Covalent
4. Physical & Chemical Changes
5. Bonding, Structures & Properties
...all in the context of the Earths chemical nature & our use of resources
but first, an introduction...

What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, and the ways that it can be changed or transformed.
To successfully study this subject it is essential that you grasp 3 vital concepts, as early as possible.
Types of Matter
Atoms
All matter, whether Element, Compound or Mixture, is
made of atoms.
Mixtures
Structure
Pure Substances All substances can be of an -
classified into just a few ATOM
electron (-)
different types...
Elements Compounds Nucleus contains

PROTONS (+) and
It is essential for you to understand the differences! NEUTRONS (0)
Although there are millions of different substances, they are

all composed of relatively few types of atoms.
The big difference is often the way the atoms are arranged.
Physical Changes v Chemical Changes

Physical changes do NOT produce any Chemical changes make new substances This topic
new substances. during chemical reactions.
Things may change their state (e.g. melt)
or might dissolve in a liquid, but its
In a chemical reaction the atoms do not
change, but they are re-arranged in new
covers these
still the same stuff. combinations, forming new products,
different to the reactants you started with. things and
more...
Copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science 1 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Mixtures on Earth Positions in the Occurrence

Lithosphere Periodic Table of Elements
Hydrosphere in Nature
Atmosphere
Metals, States
Methods for
Non-MMetals & Properties
Separating
Elements, Mixtures & Semi-M
Metals
Compounds &
Mixtures... Usage Depends
a Comparison on Properties
Gravimetric
Analysis THE ELEMENTS Atomic Number
&
Mass Number
The Composition of Matter...

MIXTURES Electron
Configuration
Atomic Structure
THE COMPOUNDS Formation of Ions

Ionic & Covalent &
CHEMICAL Bonding Ionic Bonds
EARTH
Covalent Bonding
in
BONDING Elements & Compounds
DETERMINES PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES &
CHEMICAL Names & Formulas
CHANGES for
Ionic Compounds
Physical
&
Chemical Names & Formulas
Properties Energy Particle for
& Theory Covalent Compounds
Change
Bonding in
Ionic Lattices
Covalent Lattices
Metals & Case Study:
Boiling Lewis Formulas
Covalent Molecules v
Decomposition &
Electrolysis
Reactions of Water Writing Equations
Bonding Determines
Properties & Uses
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 2 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science
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1. THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER... MIXTURES
Elements, Compounds & Mixtures Compounds

You should already be aware that all substances are made of are substances which contain 2 (or more) types of atoms
atoms, and that there are (about 100) different kinds of which are chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.
atoms. If you could see the particles in substances you
would see that the main categories of matter are Some compounds are made up of molecules:
determined by
how many different kinds of atoms are present
and how the atoms are bonded together Different
atoms
Elements bonded
are pure substances composed entirely of one type of atom.
The atoms might be all separate, like this...

Example:
Water
An ELEMENT
(H2O)
of single atoms
Note that although there

are 2 different types of atom,
Example: the substance is pure 1 particle or molecule
Helium because it is entirely made
(He) of identical particles... in this case the molecules shown.
Other compounds may contain different atom types

chemically bonded in a 3-D array... a crystal lattice:
or, the atoms may be bonded in pairs (or other size groups)
Example: Salt Sodium (NaCl)

Chloride
Identical atoms
joined in pairs Example:
Oxygen (O2)
Although there are 2 types of atoms present, they cannot be

separated from each other by any physical means like filtering
or, they might be bonded in 3-dimentional arrays of or evaporating it. To separate them, you need to carry out
billions of atoms forming a crystal lattice... chemical reactions. For this reason, it is a pure substance.
This is a 2-D diagram of a 3-D lattice

Pure substances
ELEMENTS Only one type of atom
Cannot be separated into parts

by physical, nor by chemical means
Example: Carbon (C) COMPOUNDS 2 or more types of atom
chemically bonded in
a fixed ratio
Pure substances
which cannot be Can be chemically separated
In every case, there is only ONE KIND OF ATOM. physically separated into the elements present
These are all ELEMENTS.

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Mixtures Separating Mixtures
are not pure substances. A mixture may contain a variety of Since the different particles within a mixture are not all
different elements and/or compounds combined in any chemically bonded together, and since each has different
ratio. The various atoms and molecules that may be present properties, they can be separated fairly easily by simple
are NOT all chemically bonded together. physical processes.
Different particles within the mixture It is important that you can identify the Difference in
Properties (D.I.P.) which allows each process to separate
the fractions of the mixture.
Solids of Different Grain Size

Imagine a mixture of dry sand and pebbles you have
scooped up from a beach. How could the sand be separated
from the pebbles? D.I.P = grain sizes
Using a sieve.
Fine material
(sand) falls
through the
mesh.
Since the parts (fractions) of a mixture are not in any Coarser

fixed ratio, it means that mixtures can have variable pebbles are
composition. caught
For example, imagine mixing sugar into your coffee to

sweeten it. In your cup of coffee you can add a few grains Solids and Liquids
of sugar only, or a teaspoonful, or 5 teaspoons. In every (when NOT a solution)
case it is a mixture of the same substances, but its If a solid is suspended in a liquid (such as sand mixed with
composition (and taste) varies tremendously! water) it will often separate by itself if allowed to stand.
When a solid settles-out of a suspension like this, it is called
We are Surrounded by Mixtures sedimentation.
The Earth is often thought of as being made up of several
spheres. All are mixtures of compounds and elements. In the laboratory or in industry, the separation can often be
achieved faster and more efficiently by filtration.
Lithosphere: is the solid, rocky part of the Earth.
Rocks are mixtures of minerals which are, in turn,
crystalline compounds. Each type of rock is a different Suspended solids
mixure, with different minerals, in varying proportions. caught by filter
paper.
(Residue)
Hydrosphere: is the liquid part of the Earth, mainly the
oceans, but also rivers and lakes. Most of it is a mixture of
water with suspended solids (e.g. dirt), dissolved
compounds (especially salt) and dissolved elements such as Mixture being
oxygen and nitrogen. filtered
Atmosphere: is the gaseous part of the Earth... the air. Air

is a mixture of elements (e.g. nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2)
and Argon (Ar)) and compounds such as carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water vapour (H2O).
Biosphere: technically refers to those parts of the Earth Clear

where living things are found, and so includes parts of the Filtrate
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere.
Living things themselves are complex mixtures of (mainly)
water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and so on. These life D.I.P = particle size.
chemicals include the most complex compounds known, A filter paper is like a sieve of paper fibres, with many
such as DNA, which may have millions of atoms bonded small holes. Water molecules can pass through the holes,
together in each molecule. but the larger particles of the suspended solid are caught.

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Dissolved Solids in Liquids Separating Liquid Mixtures
When a solid is dissolved in a liquid, such as when salt If 2 liquids can mix together and dissolve in each other (like
dissolves in water, the mixture is called a solution and alcohol in water, or oil in petrol) they are said to be
filtration will not work to separate the parts. miscible. If 2 liquids will not mix with each other (like oil
and water) they are immiscible.
Later in this course you will learn in detail what happens
when solids dissolve. At this point just be aware that in a Separating immiscible liquids can be easily done with a
solution the particles of the dissolved solid (solute) are separating funnel.
similar in size to the molecules of the liquid (solvent). If
the water molecules can get through the filter paper, the D.I.P. = immiscible and different density
dissolved solute particles will too. Separating Funnel
The commonest ways to separate a solution are:

Layers of
Evaporation... to collect the solid solute, and immiscible
Distillation... to collect the liquid solvent. liquids
Tap allows each

liquid to be
drained off
separately
If 2 or more liquids are miscible, separation is more

difficult.
Simple
evaporation If boiling points are quite different, distillation will work.
procedure
D.I.P.= different boiling points.
In both cases the D.I.P.= different boiling points. (b.p.) However, if the b.p.s are similar, it might be difficult to get
total separation into really pure fractions. For example,
For example, with a salt-water solution, the water boils (and when distilling alcohol-water mixtures it is impossible to
o
vaporizes) at 100 C. The salt however, wouldnt even melt collect pure alcohol, and in the industrial distillation of
o
until 770 C and so it stays in the basin or flask. (say) wine to make brandy, the distillate is about 40%
Water-cooled Condenser turns
alcohol, 60% water.
vapour back to liquid
Separating Gas Mixtures
It depends on exactly which gases are in the mixture!
If you had (say) a mixture of oxygen (O2(g)) and hydrogen

sulfide (H2S(g)) gases, they could be separated by simply
bubbling the mixture through water. Oxygen is barely
soluble, so most of it would pass through the water.
Hydrogen sulfide is quite soluble, and most of it would
dissolve. D.I.P.= different solubilities.
What about separating air into its parts?
The technique used is called Fractional Distillation.

D.I.P.= different boiling points.
Solution boiled Pure water Basically, air can be turned to liquid, by cooling and
in flask collects compressing it. Then, if allowed to gradually warm up, each
different gas fraction boils off at its particular b.p., and
As the water evaporates away the salt solution becomes can be collected separately... pure oxygen, pure argon, etc.
more and more concentrated, until solid salt crystals begin
to separate from the remaining solution. In a distillation, it Fractional Distillation is also used to separate crude
is time to stop heating before the flask over-heats and oil (petroleum) into petrol, kerosene, deisel fuel, etc.
breaks!

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Practical Work... Separating a Mixture
You may have done a practical exercise in the lab. to Mixture
separate a simple mixture into its fractions. Sand, Salt & Water
A common task is to begin with a mixture of sand, salt

and water and collect clean, dry sand, pure solid salt and
pure water.
Residue FILTER Filtrate
A flow-chart of a suitable procedure is shown. in filter paper passes through
divide in 2
You need to be able to interpret, and to construct, similar
flow charts of procedures. DRY
A Point of Good Technique

It is important to add small quantities of extra, pure water EVAPORATE DISTILL
to the residue to wash all the dissolved salt through with
the filtrate. Clean, Dry
Sand
Try the Practice Questions at the end of section Solid Pure

Salt Water
Repairing the Landscape after Gold Mining

Case Study of an Industrial Separation: Photo by Kris Nouwen
Gold Mining
In alluvial gold deposits, small nuggets and flakes of gold
are mixed with gravel and silt deposited over the ages by
rivers. Typically, there might be just a few grams of gold in
each tonne of dirt and stones.
D.I.P. = density difference
To separate the gold, the deposits are scooped up by

mechanical excavators and processed through a sluice, in
which large amounts of water (from a river) are washed
over the mixture while it is vibrated, or rotated, down a
series of steps or traps. Gold is very dense, and tends to
settle and collect in the traps, while the lower density
stones, sand and silt are washed away.
Useful Product of Separation

Obviously the purpose of this process is to collect gold,
which is used for jewellery, in electronics, and is still used as
a medium of storing and exchanging wealth.
Issues Associated with Waste Products

This process produces huge quantities of loose silt and
gravel which was traditionally discharged back into the
rivers with the water. This caused enormous ecological
damage due to dirty water, silting up of channels, burying
of fish breeding pools and wetlands, and so on.
Modern operations discharge waste into settling ponds,

where silt collects, allowing only clean water to return to the
rivers. Eventually the collected waste is used to refill the
excavation sites, and the original environment is helped to
regenerate.
Old Gold Mine. Photo by Erik Marr
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Gravimetric Analysis Practical Work...
To separate the parts of a mixture is one thing, but very A Simple Gravimetric Analysis
often in industry or science it is important to measure the You may have carried out a practical exercise similar to the
quantities or percentages of each fraction. following:
If you were given a solid mixture of sand and salt, how
Examples of where this might be important: could you determine the percentage of each in the mixture?
Measuring the amount of a mineral within an ore deposit
to determine if it is economically worth mining it. Outline of Procedure Sample Results
Measuring quantities of pollutant chemicals in effluent, 1. Weigh a sample of Mass of
or in water or air. the mixture. Sample = 3.45 g
To check that manufacturers claims are correct regarding
the chemical composition (e.g. fat or salt content) of food.
Gravimetric Analysis involves separating the parts of a 2. Add pure water & stir
mixture and accurately measuring the masses along the way, well. (Salt dissolves,
so that you can calculate the composition of the mixture. sand doesnt)
Points of Good Technique

Dry the filter paper in the oven 3. FILTER to collect
and weigh it accurately first! the sand.
Residue Filtrate
Dont forget to wash the residue
with small amounts of extra pure 4. DRY the residue and
water, to wash all salt through. weigh accurately. Mass of
(Subtract the mass of Sand = 1.27 g
the filter paper)
For maximum accuracy, you should
weight it, dry it more and re-weigh.
Repeat, until the mass does not change;
then you know its fully dried.
5. EVAPORATE the
water from the filtrate
until completely dry.
Dry the evaporating basin in
the oven and weigh it
accurately first!
6. Weigh the dried salt Mass of

Heat gently near the end. A major (subtract mass of basin) Salt = 2.08 g
source of error is when rapid heating
causes spattering of salt, so you end Analysis of Results
up losing some.
% Sand in sample = mass of sand x 100
mass of sample
= (1.27 / 3.45) x 100
= 36.8%
For maximum accuracy, you should
weight it, dry it more and re-weigh.
% Salt in sample = mass of salt x 100
mass of sample
Repeat, until the mass does not change; = (2.08 / 3.45) x 100
then you know its fully dried. = 60.3%
Notes:
1. These percentages add to only 97.1%, so there must have
been some other substance(s) present, OR this represents
the experimental error. (Possibly there was moisture in the
mixture which doesnt get accounted for. Need to dry the
mixture sample thoroughly, before starting.)
2. It is appropriate to round-off the final answers to 3

significant figures as shown, since that matches the
precision of the experimental measurements.

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2. THE ELEMENTS
Elements in Nature? Classifying the Elements

In the billions of years since the Earth formed, most atoms There are about 100 different elements, although many are
on Earth have chemically reacted with each other to form quite rare. Over 99% of the Earth is made up of only
various compounds. Thats why most of the Earth is a about a dozen of the most common elements.
mixture of (predominately) compounds, and not elements.
Each element has its own type of atom, and its own unique
However, there are a few notable exceptions. Some set of properties. However, most elements fall into just 2
elements have such low chemical reactivity (i.e. they tend general categories...
not to react with other atoms) that they are found as
uncombined elements. METALS NON-METALS
Examples: Shiny <appearance> Dull (most)
Gold... is a very low activity metal, found in very small Most hard <state at 25oC> Some solids, many
amounts in the Lithosphere. solids gases
The Inert Gases are a group of elements which do High <conductivity> Low (except carbon)
not chemically react at all, and so do not form compounds (of electricity)
and are always found as single, uncombined atoms. Being Malleable <can be rolled into sheets> Brittle... shatter
gases, they are found mainly in the atmosphere. The most Ductile <can be pulled into wires> Brittle... snap
common is Argon which makes up about 0.9% of the air.
Nitrogen (N2) gas is an element which makes up about The Semi-Metals (or Metalloids)
78% of air. Nitrogen atoms are highly reactive, but when 2 There is also a small group of elements which have
of them join to form diatomic (2-atom) molecules of N2, properties that are in-between and do not fit clearly into
the molecules are very unreactive. the metal or non-metal classification. This group includes
Silicon and Germanium which have properties as follows:
Then, theres an exception to these exceptions!
Oxygen (O2) gas is an element which makes up about Shiny appearance, but glass-like rather than metallic.
21% of the air. O2 is actually quite chemically active, and Hard solids at 25oC (i.e. high melting point)
should all be combined into compounds. So why isnt it? Semi-conductors of electricity (in-between)
Simple... living things (such as plants) constantly separate Brittle (non-malleable, non-ductile)
elemental oxygen from water during photosynthesis, and
replenish the air with it. If there was no life on Earth, there Because their properties are a mixture of those of the
would not be any elemental oxygen... it would all be metals and non-metals (or in-between), the Semi-Metals
combined into compounds. are usually considered as a small, separate group.
H Seriously Position of
Weird element. Metals, Non-Metals & Semi-Metals
See note below on the
Periodic Table
B
Si Non-Metals
Ge As
Metals Sb Te
Hydrogen does not easily

fit this scheme. These metals actually belong in the table where shown, but are usually detached so the table fits onto a page easily
Physically, it has properties
like a non-metal, but
Chemically it often acts like
a metal. It is usually shown
detached from the table, as
above.

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States of the Elements INERT GASES
at 25oC and normal atmospheric pressure. (SLC)
H Weirdo! Unshaded = Solid He
Black Shading = Liquid

N O F Ne
This block Grey Shading = Gas

of metals Cl Ar
Se
are all soft,
m
with low
i-
Br Kr
This block of metals includes all the familiar, typical
M
melting
et
metals such as copper, nickel, iron, gold and silver.
al
points, and
s
Xe
are highly
chemically
reactive Hg Rn
Mercury (metal) and Bromine (non-metal)

the only elements which are liquids at
Standard Laboratory Conditions.
These metals are very rare, and some exist only when made artificially by
nuclear reactions.
What Determines the State? A Note about the Gases

You need to understand that whether a substance is solid, On the Periodic Table, the extreme right-hand column
liquid or gas is determined by its melting point (m.p.) and contains the Inert Gas group of
boiling point (b.p.). elements. The main chemical
characteristic of this group is that they
For example, consider these: do not react chemically and they exist
as single atoms. Therefore, you can just use their chemical
Element m.p.(oC) b.p.(oC) State at 25oC symbols as shown. e.g. Helium (He), Argon (Ar), etc.
Iron (Fe) 1535 3000 solid
Mercury (Hg) -39 357 liquid ALL OTHER GASEOUS ELEMENTS always bond
Oxygen (O2) -219 -183 gas together in pairs, forming diatomic
molecules. Therefore, when dealing
Changing the pressure changes the mp. and b.p., so thats with these in their pure element form,
why we specify normal atmospheric pressure as well as you must use formulas as follows:
25oC as being normal conditions. In fact, 25oC and Element Atomic Formula for
normal (average) atmospheric pressure is known as Symbol Pure Element
Standard Laboratory Conditions (SLC) and is the set Hydrogen H H2(g)
of conditions under which chemical measurements are Nitrogen N N2(g) Learn
usually made and formally declared. Oxygen O O2(g) These !
Fluorine F F2(g)
Chlorine Cl Cl2(g)
The Properties of Elements Determine Their Uses

You need to realize that we make use of very few elements in their pure (or near pure) form. Most of the materials we
use are compounds, or mixtures. When we do use an element, its usage is, of course, related to its properties.
Metal Examples: Metal usefulness is mainly based on Non-Metal Examples: Usefulness is based mainly
physical properties. on chemical properties.
Copper is used for electrical wiring, because of its good Argon is used to fill light bulbs, and in welding, because
electrical conductivity, and because it is very ductile (can it will not react chemically, and so shields metals from
easily be drawn out into wire). corroding while red hot.
Iron (esp. in the form of steel) is used to construct tools, Chlorine is used in industy as a bleach (paper making)
buildings, bridges, vehicles, etc, because of its strength. Its and as a disinfectant (swimming pools) because it is
malleability and ductility allow forming into many shapes. chemically very active.
Aluminium has the same advantages of steel (strong, Oxygen is used in medicine because its chemistry is
malleable & ductile) with the added advantage of light vital for respiration. In an oxy-acetylene torch, oxygens
weight and corrosion resistance. chemical involvement in combustion produces a hot flame.
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3. COMPOUNDS... Ionic & Covalent
Atomic Structure The Mass of an Atom

All atoms have basically the same general structure: In chemical calculations it is vital to deal with the mass of
the substances involved. The atoms of different elements
In the Nucleus are You need to recall that
have different masses according to how many protons and
Protons & Electrons carry
neutrons are in the nucleus.
Neutrons negative electricity
Protons carry
positive electricity Note that the electrons have such small mass compared to
(Neutrons have a proton or neutron that, for practical purposes, the
no charge) electrons can be ignored.
Using the atoms on the left as examples:

In orbit around
the nucleus are Atom No.of No.of Mass
the Electrons Protons Neutrons Number
The atoms of each element are all the same as each other, Hydrogen 1 0 1
but different to the atoms of other elements. Lithium 3 4 7
Zinc 30 35 65
How are they different? Lead 82 125 207
The atoms of each element have different numbers of These Mass Numbers are the relative masses of these
Protons, Neutrons and Electrons. atoms... obviously one atom has a very small value when
Examples: measured in grams (1 hydrogen atom 1.7 x 10-27 kg).
Mass numbers are always whole numbers, since there must

be whole numbers of protons and neutrons in each atom.
Hydrogen
On the Periodic Table each element is detailed something
1 proton
1 electron like this:
0 neutrons Lithium Atomic Number
3 protons
3 electrons 18 Equal to the number of electrons
and the number of protons in
4 neutrons each atom
Ar
Zinc
30 protons Chemical Symbol
30 electrons
35 neutrons Argon Element Name
(full detail not shown
in diagram) 39.95 Atomic Weight
NOT the Mass Number
The Atomic Weight is not the same as the Mass Number.

(For one thing it is usually NOT a whole number.
Lead
82 protons This will be explained fully in a later topic.)
82 electrons However, for simplicity (K.I.S.S. Principle) you may round-
125 neutrons off this number to the nearest integer, and take this as the
Mass Number for atoms of this element.
Notice that no matter how many In this example, Argon atoms have:
particles there are; Atomic Number = 18 18 protons and 18 electrons
No. of Protons = No. of Electrons Mass Number 40 = sum (protons + neutrons)

THIS IS TRUE FOR ALL ATOMS must have 22 neutrons.
This number is the ATOMIC NUMBER Try the WORKSHEET at end of section

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Electron Energy Levels Formation of Ions
Although the mass of an atom is all about protons and Every atom can achieve its best possible energy state if its
neutrons in the nucleus, chemical reactions and the outer shell of electrons contains 8 electrons.
forming of compounds is all about electrons. (or 2 electrons for the 1st shell)
The electrons are not just whizzing around the nucleus in Most atoms do not have the correct number of electrons
any old orbits... they are precisely organized into tightly for this to occur automatically. However, atoms will readily
defined energy levels, or shells. lose or gain electrons in order to achieve this. An atom
which has gained or lost electron(s) is called an ION.
The 1st energy level,
or inner shell, 2 Example 1: Formation of a Fluoride Ion
can only hold 2 electrons.
An atom of Fluorine has
9 protons (+)
10 neutrons
9 electrons (-)
Electron
The 2nd energy level can hold 2 7 Configuration = 2.7
a maximum of 8 electrons. Gains
2 8 symbol
1 extra
F electron
The atom becomes a

Beyond here, things get more complicated, but the thing to Fluoride Ion (F- )
know is that, beyond the first energy level, the magic (note change in name) 2 8
number is 8... if an atom has exactly 8 electrons in its Electron
Configuration = 2.8 symbol
F-
outermost energy level it achieves the best possible energy
state that an atom can have.
It still has 9 protons (+ ve charge)
but now has 10 electrons (- ve).
ALL ATOMS WILL TRY TO ACHIEVE Overall, it now has a negative charge.
THE BEST POSSIBLE ENERGY STATE, OUTER SHELL IS FULL = BEST ENERGY STATE
BY HAVING 8 ELECTRONS
IN THE OUTER SHELL.
Example 2: Formation of a Sodium Ion
Electron Configuration An atom of Sodium has
is simply a description of how the electrons are arranged 1 11 protons (+)
within the energy levels of an atom. 12 neutrons
8 11 electrons (-)
3 Electron
For example, atoms of
Aluminium have a total 2 Configuration = 2.8.1
8
of 13 electrons.
2 Loses
They would be arranged symbol outer
as shown: Na electron,
& loses whole shell.
Firstly, the 1st shell fills
with 2 electrons.
The atom becomes a
Sodium Ion (Na+ )
Then the 2nd shell fills with 8.
(note NO change in name)
Electron 2 8
There are 3 left, which must go into the 3rd shell. Configuration = 2.8
symbol
2.8.3 +
The Electron Configuration is: It still has 11 protons (+ ve charge) Na
but now has 10 electrons (- ve).
Overall, it now has a positive charge.
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section OUTER SHELL IS FULL = BEST ENERGY STATE
(It has lost the 3rd shell entirely, so the full

2nd shell is now its outermost orbit)
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Ionic Compounds Another example...
If a sodium atom came near to a fluorine atom, it should What if it was magnesium atoms that reacted with fluorine?
be obvious what will happen...
Magnesium atoms have 2
Electron transferred 12 electrons, so they are
1 arranged 2.8.2 8
8 2
To achieve a full
2 outer shell it must
2 7 lose 2 electrons...
Magnesium atom
Sodium atom Fluorine atom Mg
Na F
Both atoms become ions...
2 7 2 7
8
2 Fluorine atoms
2 2 8 Each one accepts an electron from the
magnesium atom
Fluoride Ion
-
The magnesium loses 2 electrons, so it will now have 2
Sodium Ion F more (+) protons than electrons. The magnesium ion has a
2+
double +ve charge... Mg
Na+
Opposite electrical charges attract, so these ions
Two fluoride ions are formed, each one with an extra
must now stick together... this is the -
electron... F
COMPOUND Sodium Fluoride (NaF)
Ionic Lattices The formula for magnesium fluoride is MgF2
In fact, of course, you dont just get 1 sodium atom reacting because the ratio between the ions is 1: 2
with 1 fluorine atom. In real situations there are billions of
atoms. After all the ions have formed, each positive sodium
ion is attracted to every nearby fluoride ion, and vice versa. Ionic Compounds
form when atoms gain, or lose, electrons
The result is that you dont just get pairs of opposite ions, creating ions
but huge, 3-dimensional lattices of +ve and -ve ions.
Na+ F- Na+ F- Na
+
NON-METALS
These lines represent
METALS always gain electrons

always lose electrons forming NEGATIVE ions
forming POSITIVE ions
F- Na+ F- +
F-
ionic bonds
Na Name of the atom changes

to end -IDE, for the ion
Na+ F- Na+ F- Na+

Each bond is really the attraction between
opposite electric charges
Positive & Negative Ions
The chemical formula for any ionic compound is an are attracted electrically, forming
empirical formula... it shows only the ratio between the ionic crystal lattices
ions, not the actual numbers that are present. In ionic
compounds there are no discrete molecules. In the solid
state an ionic compound forms a crystal, which is a huge
array of billions of ions in a lattice. The chemical formula
shows the ratio between ions
not the actual numbers involved
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
(empirical formula)

TM
Non-M Metals
group
Ions and the Periodic Table gain electrons to fill the
outer shell to 8 electrons.
1 Ions are negative group
8
+1 group Main Group Numbers group grp
2 grp grp grp 0
correspond to the number of 3 4 5 6 7
electrons in the outer shell -4
+1 +2 ions 0
rare -3 -2 -1
Transition Metal Block

+1 +2 These atoms are filling an incomplete inner sub-orbit +3 -3 -2 -1 0
+1 +2 +3 -2 -1 0
It is not easy to predict the charge on ions of these metals.
Sn
+1 You should memorize the common ones.
+2 +3 +4 -1 0
Many of these can shuffle electrons from one shell to
another, and can have more than one possible ion. Pb v. rare
+1 +2 +3 +4 +5 ignore -1 0
+1 +2
Group 3 Metals
all have 3 electrons in Group 8
outer shell, and lose them. Semi-M
Metals all have FULL outer shell.
Group 2 Metals do not normally form ions Do NOT form ions.
all have 2 electrons in Do NOT react chemically.
outer shell, and lose them. INERT GASES
Chemistry contains many details to learn,
but there are nearly always patterns involved.
Group 1 Metals Learn the few, simple patterns,
all have 1 electron in outer
shell, and lose it rather than memorizing masses of detail.
Valency Multi-Valency Metals

The valency of a chemical species refers to its As suggested in the information above, many of the metals
combining ratio with other species. belonging to the Transition Metal Block of the Periodic
Table can form ions in more than one way.
For the simple ions, the charge on the ion (including sign)
is the same as valency. For example, atoms of Iron (Fe) most commonly have 3
electrons in the outermost electron shell. To form ions, the
3+
If you know (or can figure out by the patterns) the valency atoms lose these 3 electrons and thereby form Fe ions.
of species, you can predict the chemical formula of the
compound. Study these examples: However, sometimes the iron atom can shuffle its
electrons between its outer shell (the 4th energy level) and
Potassium ion the incomplete 3rd shell in such a way that it has only 2
(group 1 metal)
Valency = +1 K+ Formula for electrons in the outer shell. In this situation the atoms will
2+
Compound lose only 2 electrons to form an ion... Fe ions form.
Combined with K2S ion Note the use of Roman
Iron numerals in the name
Sulfur ion Valency = +3 Fe+3 (but NOT in formula)
(group 6 Potassium sulfide
non- metal) S-22 Combined with FeCl3
Valency = -2
2 ion
Must have same amount of Chlorine Iron(III) chloride
(+) and ( - ) electric charge, Valency = -1
1 Cl-
in every case. 2 different versions
ion ion of Iron Chloride
Aluminium +3 Iron
Valency = +3 Al Aluminium chloride
Valency = +2 Fe+2 Iron(II) chloride
Combined with AlCl3 Combined with FeCl2

ion ion
Chlorine Formula for Chlorine
Valency = -1
1 Cl- Compound Valency = -1
1 Cl-
TM
Polyatomic Ions Most of the common polyatomic ions have ( -ve) charge
As well as the simple ions which form when individual and valency. Only one common example has a (+ve)
+
atoms gain or lose electrons, there are a number of more valency like a metal. This is the ammonium ion (NH4 ).
complicated ionic species you must know about because
+
they are very common, and cannot be avoided.
(Even using the K.I.S.S. Principle we cannot ignore these!)
H This group consists of a
nitrogen atom and 4 hydrogens.
Compared to the total protons,
These are the polyatomic ions (poly=many) which are H N N this group has one less electron
composed of a group of atoms which have an ionic charge so it acts as an ion with a
on the whole group, due to the gain or loss of electron(s).
The entire group acts chemically just like a single, simple
H valency of +1.
ion, and can join with other ions forming compounds and
ionic crystal lattices. Working out a chemical formula is done exactly as before,
-2 except names do NOT change
One common example is the sulfate ion, SO4 and brackets are needed when 2 or more
polyatomic groups are involved.
Somewhere within this -2
2
group of 5 atoms there O Example:
are 2 extra electrons, in ion
excess of the total O S O Iron Note the use of
protons these atoms Valency = +3 Fe+3 the brackets
contain. The ion has a
valency of -2. O Combined with Fe(NO3)3
ion
Nitrate ion
Other examples are: Valency = -11 NO3- Iron(III) nitrate
-
Nitrate (NO3 ) ion (valency -1)
-
Hydroxide (OH ) ion (valency -1) Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
-2
Carbonate (CO3 ) ion (valency -2), and many more.
A Table Summarizing Symbols &
Valencies is at the end of these notes
Formulas & Names for Ionic Compounds Naming Compounds of Simple Ions
Summary Name the (+ve) ion (metal) first.
Its name is always identical to the element name.
Add the name of the (-ve) ion (non-metal).
Its name is the element name, but altered to
Formulas end in -IDE.
Determine the (+ve) and (-ve) ion involved. e.g. lithium + oxygen = lithium oxide
Work out the minimum number(s) of each ion sodium + phosphorus = sodium phosphide
which will give equal amounts of (+ve) and (-ve)
charge. Example: you need 3x(-1) to match (+3) Naming Compounds of
Write the symbol for the (+ve) ion first, always. Metals with Multiple Valencies
Use sub-script numbers to show the ratio of ions. As above, but (in brackets) write the Roman numeral
Number 1 is not written. e.g. FeBr2 corresponding to the valency number of the metal ion.
If a polyatomic ion is involved; e.g. FeBr2 is iron(II) bromide (Fe+2 ion)
- brackets MUST be used e.g. Mg(NO3)2 [speak iron-2-bromide]
if more than one polyatomic ion. e.g. FeBr3 is iron(III) bromide (Fe+3 ion)
- bracket must NOT be e.g. NaNO3 [speak iron-3-bromide]
used if only one polyatomic ion.
Naming Compounds Including Polyatomic Ions
Note: The symbols for an ion must contain electric Name the (+ve) ion first.
charge, written as a super-script. e.g. Fe+3 Add the name of the (-ve) ion.
The formula for a compound The name of a polyatomic ion does NOT change.
must NOT contain electric charges. e.g. Fe(NO3)2 is iron(II) nitrate
( NH4)2SO4 is ammonium sulfate

TM
Lewis Formulas... Electron-Dot Diagrams Lewis Formulas for Ions
Before going any further you need to learn another way to When a non-metal gains 1 or more electrons to form a
represent atoms, ions and molecules and their electrons. negative ion, the extras are shown in a different style, for
example:
A Lewis Formula for a chemical species uses dots to
represent the outer shell electrons of each atom. The rest Fluorine Lewis Formulas
of the atom is represented by the chemical symbol for that atom, F 7
element. 2 F
Examples: Lewis Formulas

Lithium Only the outer shell Extra electron Charge
electron shown gained shown
atom, Li 1 Fluoride
2 Ion F-
Li
2 8
-
F
Beryllium
atom, Be 2 extra electron
Be shown in different style
2
Add extra electrons in a An oxygen atom gains 2 electrons

box pattern around
Boron to form the oxide ion:
the atom
atom, B 3 Oxygen oxide ion
2 B atom, O 6 -2
+ 2 e-
2 O
Carbon
atom, C 4
2 C A Lewis Formula is not very useful for showing simple
positive ions, but for the record...
Nitrogen
atom, N 1 Lewis Formula
5
N Sodium atom
2 Na 8
After 4 electrons, begin
Na
making pairs.
(electrons do pair up in their
2
Oxygen orbits)
atom, O Only outer electron
6 O shown
2
Fluorine Sodium ion Charge shown

atom, F 7
F Na+
2
Na
+
2 8
Neon
atom, Ne 8
Ne
2 Outer electron lost
Outer shell is complete with 8 electrons in 4 pairs.

The next element (sodium) would have a Lewis Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
Formula similar to lithiums.

TM
Equations for Ion Formation Here is another example, but more complicated.
As well representing atoms and ions by various diagrams
and formulas, you must learn that any change that occurs It demonstrates the importance of balancing chemical
can be represented by an equation. Examples follow: equations:
Formation of an Oxide Ion (from an atom)
Formation of a Fluoride Ion (from an atom):
- - O + 2 e- O-2
F + e F
Oxygen atom + 2 extra electrons Oxide ion
Fluorine atom + extra electron Fluoride ion
However, just like fluorine, oxygen always exists in nature
In fact, Fluorine exists in nature as F2 molecules, not single as O2 molecules, so the usual reaction would be:
atoms. If a molecule of F2 formed ions, the equation is: Formation of Oxide Ions (from an O2 molecule)
- -
F2 + 2e 2F O2 + 4 e- 2 O-2
Fluorine + 2 extra 2 Fluoride ions
Oxygen molecule + 4 extra electrons 2 Oxide ions
molecule electrons
Where might the extra electrons have come from?

In a chemical reaction, they would normally come from a
Formation of a Magnesium Ion: metal atom which needs to lose electron(s) to achieve its
best energy state.
Mg Mg+2 + 2e- Lets assume the metal is Lithium:
Magnesium atom Magnesium ion + 2 electrons Formation of a Lithium Ion
(Since Mg atoms have 2 electrons in their outer shell, they must
lose them to form the normal ion with (+2) charge Li Li+ + e-
Lithium atom Lithium ion + electron
(Since Li atoms have 1 electron in their outer shell, they must lose
Note that in ALL cases the total amount of electric it to form the normal ion with (+1) charge
charge on each side of the equation is equal.
However, in a real situation where lithium is reacting with
oxygen, each O2 molecule needs 4 electrons. Therefore, it
Formation of Magnesium Fluoride from its Elements: will take 4 lithium atoms to supply them...
The last 2 equations can be simply added together to Previous Equation Multiplied by 4
describe the formation of the ionic compound Magnesium
fluoride (formula MgF2) from its elements. 4 Li 4 Li+ + 4 e-
F2 + 2e- 2 F- 4 Lithium atoms 4 Lithium ions + 4 electrons
add these together
Mg Mg+2 + 2e-
Now add together the equations for lithium and oxygen:
- +2 - -
Mg + F2 + 2e Mg +2e + 2F
notice how 2 electrons occur on both sides, so they cancel out. O2 + 4e- 4 O-2
add these together
Mg + F2 MgF2 4Li 4Li+ + 4e-
These equations show how for each magnesium ion there
needs to be 2 fluoride ions, so that everything balances. 4Li + O2 + 4e- 4Li+ +4e- + 2O-2
There are 4 electrons on both sides, so they cancel out.
The correct formula for lithium oxide is Li2O, so this

combination of ions is enough to make 2 lots of ions.
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section 4 Li + O2 2 Li2O

This equation is balanced... it shows the same
number of each atom on both sides of the equation.

TM
Covalent Bonding Hydrogen... the Weirdo
The gaining and losing of electrons to form ions is not the Hydrogen is the smallest atom of all, with only 1 electron.
only way for atoms to achieve a full outer shell, and the best
possible energy state that goes with that.
Sometimes hydrogen loses this
If atoms have 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer orbit, they + electron, forming a hydrogen ion H+.
1p
When this happens it is behaving
can also achieve a full outer shell by sharing electrons. This
chemically like a metal in Group 1.
is called covalent bonding.
Not only do many compounds form this way, but many However, hydrogen atoms can also share electrons
elements exist as 2 or more atoms covalently bonded covalently. Elemental hydrogen is always H2 molecules:
together. Dont forget that the 1st
orbit holds a maximum of 2
Example: the element Fluorine, F2 electrons, so both atoms
1p+ 1p+ achieve a full outer shell by
7 7 sharing.
2 2
Hydrogen, and all the non-metals and semi-metals, not only
bond with atoms of the same type in the the element state,
but will share electrons with different atoms to form
covalent compounds.
Two atoms of fluorine will always bond
together by sharing a pair of electrons
(As always, leave Group 8 out of this...
Each atom can count the the Inert Gases have full outer shells already)
shared electron pair as A covalent bond
part of its outer shell, is always the sharing of A Note About Molecules
making a total of 8. a pair of electrons You need to be aware of the precise definition of the
word molecule.
Definition: A molecule is the smallest particle of a
substance that can have a separate existence, and
can move around independently of other particles.
6 2 2 Examples:
2 6
Inert gases have molecules
of just one atom.
One molecule of fluorine, F2 Hydrogen has diatomic

molecules (di=2)
These atoms must remain tightly attached to each other in Lattice structures (ionic or covalent) are not molecules.
order to share the electrons... they are bonded together very
strongly, forming a molecule of F2. A Covalent Lattice Element; Silicon
Atoms of all the non-metals and the semi-metals, (except Si Si Si Si
Group 8 the Inert Gases) bond together covalently when Each

in the pure elemental state: chemical
bond is
formed by
Elements Molecules atoms
Si Si Si Si
Group 7 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 sharing 2
electrons
with each
Nitrogen, Oxygen N2 O2 neighbour
Sulfur S8 Si Si Si Si
Phosphorus P4 The shape of the lattice is not square as like this 2-

dimentional diagram. In 3-dimensions, the atoms surround
Carbon, Silicon covalent lattices each other in a pyramid pattern, called a tetrahedron.
and others
Pure silicon forms hard crystals made of billions of atoms
covalently bonded in a lattice.
TM
Lewis Formulas with Covalent Bonding Covalent Compounds
You were introduced to the Lewis Formula (electron-dot Many common and important substances are formed by
diagram) previously. Lewis Formulas are actually more covalent bonding between atoms of 2 or more different
useful for covalent situations than they are for ions. elements.
A covalent bond is always a pair of electrons being shared Everyone knows that water is H2O. You now need to
between 2 atoms. In a Lewis Formula the shared pair are understand exactly how this compound forms.
usually emphasized by drawing a little oval around them.
1 Oxygen atom 1 molecule of H2O
H
Example: Fluorine molecule 2 Hydrogen atoms
F2 O H O
H
Lewis formula H
6 2 2 2 6 Structural formula
H O Model
H
Look carefully at the Lewis formula above to see how all
the atoms involved have achieved full outer shells of
electrons by sharing pairs in covalent bonds.
Lewis Formula F F
Another well known covalent molecular compound is
carbon dioxide CO2
Carbon atom
Shared pair of electrons CO2 molecule
O
C
O C O
O
The F2 Fluorine molecule could also be represented by a
2 Oxygen atoms
simple structural formula, showing that it contains 2 atoms
of fluorine which are connected by a single covalent bond.
The CO2 molecule contains double covalent bonds.
Molecular Lewis Structural These involve atoms sharing 2 pairs of electrons. The
Formula Formula Formula structural formula for this would be: O=C=O
F2 F F F F
Its also possible to have a triple covalent bond; 3 pairs=6
electrons being shared between 2 atoms. This occurs in the
This represents a single covalent bond nitrogen (N2) molecule N N
(Remember this involves sharing 2 electrons) as well as some compounds.
Predicting Formulas
Model of the molecule for Covalent Compounds
The formulas of the examples above are quite predictable
You need to be able to interpret, and construct, all of these if you know how many electrons are in each atoms outer
different ways to represent atoms and molecules. shell, and understand how sharing electrons can achieve a
full outer shell.
However, not all covalent compounds are so predictable,

because the the rule about achieving a full shell of 8
Model of a electrons is not always followed with covalent bonding.
molecule of (It is always followed with ionic bonding.)
Fluorine
For example, if oxygen & sulfur O S
combine covalently, the compound
formed is sulfur dioxide (SO2). O
Study this Lewis Formula and youll see that the rule of 8
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section electrons has NOT been followed for the sulfur atom!

TM
Naming Covalent Compounds More on Writing Equations
The first problem you face here is that (for historical You previously studied examples of equations describing
reasons) many covalent compounds have common the formation of ions and ionic compounds. The same
names that follow no rule or system, and must be learnt by principles of equation writing apply to the formation of
heart. covalent compounds.
Common Names
To keep this as simple as possible (K.I.S.S. Principle!) start If the elements oxygen and hydrogen react with each other,
with just these three common, important compounds: they form the compound water:
Word Equation Product
Water H2O H O Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
Reactants Arrow indicates that a change occurred
H (Starting chemicals)
Ammonia NH3 H N H To re-write this in chemical symbols, you must recall that
both oxygen and hydrogen occur as diatomic molecules.
(Not to be confused H
with the Symbol Equation
+ H2 + O2 H2O
ammonium polyatomic ion (NH4 )
These elements always The formula for water is
Methane CH4 H occur as molecules of 2 one you need to memorize
atoms
(This is the simplest H C H
of a huge range of The equation now shows all the correct formulas, but is
covalent compounds of NOT balanced... to be fully correct a chemical equation
H must show the same number of atoms of every element,
carbon... more in later topics)
on both sides of the arrow. Each atom you start with must
More Than One Compound be accounted for in the products.
The second problem is that, quite often, there is more than
one possible compound formed from the same elements in A common error is to change a formula to make it balance:
a covalent compound. Some examples:
H2 + O2 H2O2 Wrong!
Elements Different Compounds Possible H2O2 is NOT water!
Sulfur & oxygen SO2 and SO3
NEVER BALANCE EQUATIONS BY CHANGING A
FORMULA
Carbon & oxygen CO and CO2
To cope with this, a naming system has developed which The key is to realize that, since you start with 2 oxygen
uses prefixes to state how many atoms of each element are atoms, you must end up with 2 molecules of water. To do
in one molecule. this you must begin with 4 atoms of hydrogen.
The Prefixes ( i.e. 2 molecules of H2)
1= mono 2= di 3= tri
4= tetra 5=penta 6= hexa Balanced Equation
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
How to Name a Simple Covalent Compound
From its Molecular Formula This can be visualized by atom models...
Name the elements in the same order as in the formula

Alter the name of the 2nd element to end -IDE
Attach a prefix to the front of both names, indicating
how many atoms are present in each molecule. 1 Molecule
2 Molecules 2 Molecules
(Important exception: If there is only one atom of the of H2 + of O2 of H2O
first-named element, do not attach a prefix to it.)
Examples: P2O5 = diphosphorus pentoxide

SO3 = sulfur trioxide
N2S3 = dinitrogen trisulfide
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section

TM
4. PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL CHANGES
The Moving Particle Model of Matter Liquid Water

We have good reason to believe that all substances are
composed of tiny particles which are always either
vibrating or moving around.
The particles are, of course, atoms and molecules.

Exactly which particles are present is determined by
whether a substance is an element, a compound or a
mixture. Regardless of this, however, it is known that the
particles are constantly in motion.
As an example, consider the familiar compound water.

The particles in water are molecules of H2O.
The molecules are still very close together;
Model Structural Lewis thats why it is very difficult to compress a liquid.
Formula Formula The inter-molecular forces are still there, but are
unable to hold the molecules in one place;
H O H O thats why liquids have no shape, but take the shape of
the container theyre in.
H H As temperature increases, the molecules move faster and
faster. They collide harder and push each other apart.
In solid water (ice) the H2O molecules are packed closely Thats why substances expand when heated.
together and held in place by forces of attraction between
the molecules. In fact, ice is a molecular lattice. Some molecules always have more energy than the average,
and these will move fast enough to escape totally from the
Solid Water liquid surface; we say that some of the liquid has
evaporated.
At a certain temperature (called the boiling point) many

molecules begin evaporating, not just at the surface, but
within the liquid. This forms bubbles of gas...
...we say the liquid is boiling to form a gas
Gaseous Water (Water vapour)
Each molecule is held in place; Forces of attraction

between molecules...
thats why solids have a
inter-molecular force
definite shape.
Each molecule vibrates due to its heat energy.
Temperature is our measurement of the vibration of the

particles. As the temperature increases, the molecules have
more energy and vibrate more and more.
At a certain temperature, (we call it the melting point) the The molecules are now very far apart;
vibration of the molecules becomes strong enough to thats why gases are easy to compress.
overcome the inter-molecular forces, and the molecules They fly rapidly in all directions;
begin moving around, colliding with each other and so gases always totally fill the container.
bouncing off again. The high speed collisions occurring cause gas pressure,
which increases as temperature rises, because they get
...we say the solid has melted to become a liquid. faster and faster.

TM
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
A physical change occurs when (for example) A chemical change occurs when (for example)
a substance changes state. a substance burns (combustion)

(e.g. melts, freezes, condenses, etc) (e.g. magnesium burns in air)
objects change their shape or size. Two elements combine to form a compound
(e.g. a rock is broken into smaller pieces) (e.g. sodium + chlorine sodium chloride)
one substance dissolves in another. A new substance forms
(e.g. salt dissolves in water) (e.g. when 2 solutions are mixed and a precipitate forms)
the parts of a mixture are separated. When a substance disappears
(e.g. during filtration, or distillation, etc) (e.g. when zinc metal is eaten away by acid)
In all of these physical changes, no new substances are ... and many other examples.
created. In terms of the particles present, nothing has really
changed. In all these chemical changes new substances and new
particles are formed. The atoms present are still the same,
For example, if you melt some ice and then boil the water but they have been rearranged into new molecules and/or
to vapour, the particles within it are still the same H2O ion combinations.
molecules... theres nothing new been formed.
For example, consider what happens if an active metal such
Imagine the particles within a mixture: as sodium, is dropped into water.
Atoms of Sodium
Molecules
of Water H2O
+
Now you might filter Violent reaction occurs

the mixture so that
it is separated into
2 fractions: -
+ -
+
-
- +
molecules of H2 gas
but notice that these are + are given off
still exactly the same
particles. Ions of sodium (Na+)
and hydroxide (OH-)
dissolve in the water
The 2 different kinds were
mixed together, and now
are separated, but they are Sodium + Water Hydrogen + Sodium
still exactly the same hydroxide
particles. 2 Na + 2 H2O H2 + 2 NaOH
Chemical Changes
Physical Changes do NOT Create New Substances,
Create any New Substances, by
or Rearranging the Same Atoms
any New Particles into New Combinations
of Molecules and/or Ions

TM
Boiling Water Compared with Electrolysis of Water
The syllabus specifies that you study and compare these two processes.
You will have done simple practical work in the laboratory, as follows:
Oxygen
Similarities &
Hydrogen
Both these processes gases
collecting
Start with the same
substance... water
Electrodes
add energy to the
water...
heat in one case, Power
electricity in the supply
other
In both cases,
bubbles of gas are
formed in the liquid
Differences
Boiling Water Electrolysis of Water

results in a Physical Change only. results in a Chemical Change.
The bubbles are water vapour forming within the liquid. You may have collected the gases produced at each
electrode and carried out simple flame tests on each. This
The result is a change of state. would clearly establish that the gases are hydrogen (H2) and
oxygen (O2).
H2O(l) H2O(g)
liquid water gaseous water 2 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
liquid water hydrogen oxygen
No new substances have been produced. gas gas
The particles (molecules of H2O) remain unchanged. No new atoms have been formed, but the molecules of
water have been broken up to form molecules of the
elements hydrogen and oxygen.
You may have built models to visualize what happened during electrolysis
1 Molecule 2 Molecules
2 Molecules
of
of
Oxygen
+ of
Hydrogen
Water
TM
Energy & Chemical Reactions Decomposition Reactions - Practical Work
When chemical reactions occur there is often a large energy You will have carried out some practical work to investigate
change, either released or absorbed For example: the decomposition of carbonate compounds.
when substances burn, there is a lot of light and heat Delivery tube
energy (flames!) produced.
in a battery, electricity is produced by chemical reactions. Limewater
to extract the metal from a mineral ore, large amounts of
heat or electricity must be applied.
To cook food (a chemical change) you apply heat.
Notice that the types of energy most commonly involved

with chemical change are heat (& light) and electricity.
Endothermic Reactions (Endo = to go in)

are the reactions that absorb energy... those where you
must supply energy to make it happen.
Products have
MORE energy
Energy Content
Energy
absorbed by
chemicals
during
reaction
Reactants Energy Carbonate compound Bunsen

Level
During this reaction you might have observed:

Exothermic Reactions (Exo= to go out)
are the reactions that produce and release energy. a colour change in the solid in the test tube.
Reactants Energy
that a gas was produced. This is seen as bubbling and
Level fluffing-up of the dry powder solid, and bubbles of
Energy gas coming out of the delivery tube.
released by
Energy Content
chemicals that the limewater became cloudy (milky) when the gas
during bubbled through it.
reaction
The limewater test shows that the gas released is CO2.

Products have
LESS energy
copper(II) copper(II) + carbon
carbonate oxide dioxide
Synthesis Reactions (Synthesis = to make)
CuCO3 CuO + CO2
are reactions where simple chemical substances combine to
make a more complex substance. For example, when 2 It is the (polyatomic) carbonate ion that has broken
elements react to form a compound: down into CO2 gas and left an oxide ion bonded to the
copper ion.
sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl Other carbonate compounds follow the same pattern.
Synthesis reactions are often exothermic... release energy.
Decomposition Reactions (Decompose= break down)

are those reactions where a compound breaks apart into
simpler compounds or elements.
Examples are given on this page. Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
Decomposition reactions are usually endothermic... energy

must be supplied to make the change happen.

TM
Decomposition by Light Energy Energy Required Relates to
Some compounds will decompose if exposed to sunlight. Bonding Strength
If you carried out a variety of decomposition experiments,
You may have carried out simple experiments with you will have noticed that some compounds decomposed
compounds of silver, such as silver chloride or silver easily (e.g. silver compounds needing only a little light)
nitrate. A common experiment involves placing a few while others required strong heating with a bunsen. There
drops of silver nitrate solution on 2 filter papers. One is are many compounds that, if you had tried, would not
placed in a dark cupboard, the other exposed to sunlight. decompose in a bunsen flame because it is just not hot
enough.
Why are some easily decomposed, and others more

difficult?
It all depends on the strength of the chemical bonds

holding the atoms or ions together in the compound.
Atoms or ions in a compound
Ionic or covalent bond holds ions or atoms together

The dark colours which develop on the paper exposed to
sunlight are due to a decomposition reaction:
The stronger that bond, the more energy is required to
silver silver + nitrogen + oxygen break up the compound.
nitrate dioxide (gas) (gas)
AgNO3 Ag + NO2(g) + O2(g) Therefore, it follows that the bonding within the
compound silver nitrate must be quite weak. In copper(II)
The dark colour is due to microscopic crystals of metallic nitrate it must be stronger, while in (say) sodium sulfate
silver, too small to be seen as shiny and silvery. (which cannot be decomposed by bunsen heat) the bonding
is very strong.
Decomposition of Siver Compounds
is the basis of Film Photography.
The Photo Image is Developed

by chemical processing after the
light falling on the film has caused
changes in the film,
by DECOMPOSITION.

TM
5. BONDING, STRUCTURES & PROPERTIES
Physical and Chemical Properties Properties of a Compound

How do you recognise things and tell them apart? Compared to Its Elements
You may have done practical work to investigate whether
How, for example, do you tell an orange from a banana? or not the properties of a compound are related to the
You look at its colour and shape and (if blind-folded) youll properties of the elements it contains.
go by smell and taste. You are using the properties of
different things to identify them. A simple example is to examine a piece of magnesium
(element) and note some simple physical properties. Then
In Chemistry its exactly the same... we identify substances, consider the observable properties of the element oxygen,
and classify different chemicals according to their in the air around us.
properties. What are the properties we use?
Then burn the magnesium in air. The product of the
Physical Properties reaction is the compound magnesium oxide, which can be
Melting & Boiling Points (which determine state at SLC) collected and its properties noted.
Electrical Conductivity
Hardness and flexibility Magnesium: metallic solid... shiny, flexible, conductor.
(including malleability and ductility) Oxygen: colourless, odourless, non-conducting gas.
There are many other properties, such as density and Magnesium oxide: brittle, powdery, white, non-
colour, but the three above are by far the most useful when conducting solid.
surveying and classifying matter in a general way (and using
the K.I.S.S Principle!). Consider the compound sucrose (table sugar) and the
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen it is made from.
Chemical Properties include things like
how reactive the substance is. Carbon: black, brittle solid.
whether it is acidic, basic or neutral. Hydrogen: colourless, explosive gas.
which types of reactions it will undergo. Oxygen: colourless, odourless gas
(e.g. whether it will burn or corrode)
Sucrose: clear, crystalline solid, with a sweet taste.
Chemical properties are not so important when surveying
and classifying matter in a general way, but will become You may have examined and considered many other
important in later topics. examples. The general conclusion is:
Properties of Elements, Compounds Generally,

& Mixtures the properties of a Compound
Elements and Compounds are all pure substances. Each are totally different to
element, and each compound has its own unique properties the properties of its Elements
which are characteristic and do NOT vary.
For example, pure water has a fixed melting point, boiling

point, density, acidity, conductivity, etc. It is these unique,
fixed properties which allow us to recognise and identify
water, and every other pure substance. Oxygen -
colourless gas
Mixtures are not pure. The properties of mixtures are Magnesium
usually a blend of the properties of its parts, and vary Magnesium - Oxide -
according to its exact composition. For example, salt water shiny metal white powder
has properties of both water and salt, and its density,
boiling point, conductivity (and taste) vary according to
the proportions of the mixture.
Elements & Compounds are Pure Substances
with Unique, Fixed Properties. Despite mentioning taste several times on this page.
Mixtures are Impure tasting is NOT safe or appropriate in the laboratory.
and have blended, Variable Properties Dont taste the chemicals!!
TM
Bonding Within Substances

To survey and understand the general categories of matter, it is important to know the different
forces that operate to hold substances together. It is this bonding within substances that often
determines the general physical properties by which we classify matter into types.
Ionic Compounds
are a lattice of (+ve) and (-ve) ions. Covalent Lattice Substances
Some elements (e.g. Carbon and Silicon) and some covalent
compounds (e.g. silicon dioxide, SiO2) form a lattice of atoms
covalently bonded, in a 3-dimensional crystal structure.
Silicon dioxide forms the mineral

silica, the most common on Earth.
A grain of sand
is a crystal of silica.
The Ionic Bonds are actually electrical
attractions between opposite charges, and The Covalent Bonds are formed when a pair of electrons is being
are very strong. shared, and are very strong.
Since these bonds are strong, it requires a Since these bonds are strong, it requires a lot of energy to break them
lot of energy to break them so that the so that the particles can begin moving around.
particles can begin moving around.
Therefore, the melting and boiling point is usually very high.
Therefore, the melting and boiling
point is usually quite high.
Covalent Molecular Substances
Some elements (e.g. oxygen, chlorine, etc) and many compounds
(e.g. water, carbon dioxide, etc) are composed of covalent molecules.
To understand these substances you must know about

intra-molecular and inter-molecular forces.
Bonding Within Metals
Why are most metals hard, with quite high melting points?
There must be some strong bond holding the atoms together, yet allowing
them to change shape (malleable & ductile) when hammered or stretched.
Metal atoms do not intra = inside

+ + + + + + +
e-
e - -
e hold onto their outer
e- e- inter = between
e- e- - e- e- (valence) electrons.
+ + e +
+ + + + Each atom is actually
e- e- e- - a (+ve) ion.
e- e- e- e e- e-
+
e-
+ + + + Loose electrons
+ +
- e- e- - wander between the The Covalent Bonds
e- e e- e
e- ions, in a shifting
e- e- - inside the molecules are
e -
+ + + + + + e + sea of electrons very strong and require
a lot of energy to break.
The Metallic Bond is the electrical attraction between the (+ve) ions and
the surrounding sea of negative charges. This bond can be very strong in It may take a lot of energy to
some metals, so the metal is strong, with a high melting point. (e.g. iron melts decompose the compound.
around 1500oC) In other metals the bond is weaker, so some metals are
softer and melt at lower temperatures. (e.g. lead melts around 320oC) The forces between the molecules will be
explained in a later topic. For now, be aware
However, while the metallic bond can be very strong, it is not rigid. The sea that they exist and are (generally) very weak.
of electrons shifts and flows, so the ions can be pushed or pulled to different They hold the molecules in place in the solid
places without breaking the substance. This is why metals are malleable and state (see Solid Water p25) but are easily
ductile, unlike the hard, but brittle ionic or covalent lattices. broken by heat energy causing the molecules
to move around... the solid melts easily.
Since the inter-molecular forces are weak, covalent molecular

substances generally have low melting and boiling points, and many are
liquids or gases at normal temperature and pressure (SLC).

TM
A Note About the Inert Gases Molecular and Empirical Formulas
On the previous page the bonding in Ionic, Covalent When we say that the formula for water is H2O, we mean
Molecular, Covalent Lattice and Metallic substances was that each molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen
discussed. How do the elements of Group 8, the Inert and 1 atom of oxygen. H2O is a molecular formula
Gases, fit into this scheme? which describes the molecules.
These elements have full outer shells of electrons, so they Salt is an ionic compound. Each crystal contains billions of
do not normally form ions, nor share electrons covalently. sodium and chloride ions, but they are in the ratio of 1:1.
Therefore, they always exist as single-atom molecules. The formula is NaCl, which is an empirical formula. It does
(Remember the exact definition of a molecule, p19) not describe molecules (there arent any!) but gives the
simplest ratio of the elements present.
Similarly, silicon dioxide has the formula SiO2, but there are
no molecules. This compound is a covalent lattice of
billions of atoms bonded together. The atoms are in the
ratio of 1 silicon atom to every 2 oxygen atoms. SiO2 is an
empirical formula.
Comparing the Properties

of Different Substances
You may have done some practical work to study the
properties of a variety of substances in the laboratory. The
properties studied would have been;
Technically, therefore, they are molecular substances. When mp & bp (from Chemical Data book or table)
we write He for helium this is both the atomic symbol electrical conductivity, in solid & liquid states,
and the molecular formula. and in solution if possible, by experiment.
hardness and flexibility of the solid, by expt.
In this case there are no covalent bond within molecules.
There are, however, some extremely weak inter-molecular
forces which can hold the atoms in a solid lattice at
extremely low temperatures. Even very tiny amounts of
heat can overpower these forces, so helium melts and boils
to a gas at a temperature around -270oC.
The forces get stronger as the atoms get bigger, but even
so, all the elements of Group 8 are gases at room
temperature because of very low m.p.s and b.p.s. Conductivity testing
Typical General Conclusions
Category Meltingo Boiling Electrical Conductivity Hardness/Flexibility

Point ( C) Point (oC) Solid Liquid Solution of solid
Metals
(e.g. Iron, Lead) Medium High Good Good N/A Most hard, malleable &
to High ductile
Ionic Compounds
(e.g. Salt NaCl Medium High Poor Good Good Hard & brittle
Sodium hydroxide) to High
Covalent Lattices
(e.g. Silicon dioxide Very High Very High Poor * Poor N/A Hard* & brittle
diamond (carbon) (Si, Ge are semi-conductors)
Covalent Molecules
(e.g. water Low Low Poor Poor Poor Solids often soft & waxy
carbon dioxide) to medium If hard, then brittle.
(e.g. water ice)
Exceptions & Anomalies:
* Carbon, in the form of graphite, is a good conductor, and is soft and slippery.
TM
Explaining Electrical Conductivity Properties Determine Usefulness
The melting and boiling points, and the hardness and It is the properties of a substance that make it useful for a
flexibility properties of the different categories was particular purpose.
explained previously in Bonding Within Substances. (p32)
Copper is used for electrical wiring, because it is
How can the electrical conductivity be explained? a good conductor of electricity, and is
ductile, so can be made into wire easily.
Any substance will conduct electricity if it contains
electrically charged particles which can Diamond (a form of carbon, a covalent lattice element)
move independently of each other. is used for drill bits and high-speed saw blade tips
because it
Metals is extremely hard and has an
contain metal ions and a mobile sea of free electrons. extremely high melting point
When a voltage is applied, electrical current is carried
readily by the electrons flowing among the metal ions. Plastics (covalent molecular compounds)
are used for electrical insulation, packaging, etc
Metals are good conductors in both solid and liquid states. because they are
non-conductors of electricity
Covalent Lattices and Covalent Molecules soft and flexible
do NOT contain any charged particles that can separate not soluble in water (and waterproof)
from each other and move independently..
Copper sulfate (an ionic compound)
These substances are generally poor conductors whether is used in the purification of copper metal
solid, liquid or in water solution. because, when dissolved in water
(Exceptions: Graphite is a good conductor. The semi- it conducts electricity to allow the electrical
metal elements (notably Si & Ge) are semi-conductors) process to occur.
Ionic Compounds Limitations of Our Models of Substances

are the trickiest to understand! Right through this topic you have used models of atoms,
In the solid state the ions are fixed in the lattice and cannot ions, molecules and lattices to help you visualize and
move freely. understand the structure of matter. These notes have used
diagram models, and you may have used physical ball-and-
+ - + - + Solid ionic lattices stick models in class.
will NOT
conduct because
- + - - ions cannot move
+
freely.
+ - + - +
However, if an ionic compound is melted, the (+ve) and

(-ve) ions can move freely and independently. If a voltage
is applied, a current will be carried by the ions migrating in
opposite directions. What are the limitations of these models?
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. When they Ionic and covalent bonds are not stick-like structures, but
dissolve, the lattice disintegrates and the ions can move are invisible forces of attraction.
freely.. (This will be explained fully in a later topic) Real atoms and ions are not solid balls.
The proportional sizes of our models are often all wrong.
+ - - We often use colours to distinguish parts of the models,
+ + but this is quite unrealistic.
Ionic compounds
- -
become good
+ - OK, so our models are not very realistic and far from
conductors in the perfect. Despite these limitations, they remain valuable as
liquid state, and in
+ - + ways to help us visualize and understand the particles of
solution. + + matter which are beyond our direct vision and often
- - beyond the common sense of the everyday world.

TM
VALENCY TABLE
of common ions
Name Symbol Electrons in Charge Name Symbol Electrons in Charge

outer shell on Ion outer shell on Ion
Simple Metal Ions Simple Non-Metal Ions (name changes to -IDE)

Hydrogen H 1 +1 Fluorine F 7 -1
Lithium Li 1 +1 Chlorine Cl 7 -1
Sodium Na 1 +1 Bromine Br 7 -1
Potassium K 1 +1 Iodine I 7 -1
Silver Ag 1 +1
Oxygen O 6 -2
Sulfur S 6 -2
Magnesium Mg 2 +2
Calcium Ca 2 +2 Nitrogen N 5 -3
Barium Ba 2 +2 Phosphorus P 5 -3
Zinc Zn 2 +2
Carbon C 4 -4
Aluminium Al 3 +3 Polyatomic Ions
Metals with More Than One Ion Hydroxide OH- -1

Nitrate NO3
-
-1
Copper Cu 1 or 2 +1 or +2
Iron Fe 2 or 3 +2 or +3
Sulfate SO4
-2
-2
Tin Sn 2 or 4 +2 or +4
Carbonate CO3
-2
-2
Lead Pb 2 or 4 +2 or +4
Polyatomic Ion
Ammonium NH4
+
+1
Species marked need to be memorized.

All others can be easily read from the Periodic Table.
As you encounter new ions (especially polyatomic), add to this table

TM
ENERGY
1. HIGH ENERGY COMPOUNDS & FUELS
2. CARBON & CARBON COMPOUNDS
3. THE CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION
4. RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
...all in the context of societys use of fuels.

Energy To understand the Chemistry of Combustion
you need to learn about the element
includes heat, light, sound, the kinetic energy of a
moving object, and Potential Energy which is stored in
various ways. Carbon
This topic is all about Chemical Potential Energy
which is stored in the chemical bonds within many
compounds and released during chemical reactions,
especially
Combustion
Photo by Alex M
and its many and varied compounds.
You will learn more about
Exothermic &
From the humble match to a
rocket launch, Combustion is Endothermic
the chemical reaction that chemical changes,
releases the energy of the
and then extend your chemical
Photo www.broken-arts.com
Fuels knowledge to include
upon which our entire

Rate
civilization is dependent for
Photo: Russian Soyez lift-off,
of
transport, industry, heating &
cooking.
courtesy Ali Cimen, senior
reporter, Zaman Daily,
Istanbul.
Reaction
TM
The Variety
Origin of
of Allotropes Possible Carbon
Fossil Fuels of Compounds
Carbon
Natural Gas
Alkanes & Alkenes
Significance
of Names
Photosynthesis Formulas
Structures
Carbon Properties
High Energy Compounds of
& & Alkanes & Alkenes
Fuels Carbon Compounds
Safety Issues
Refining
of Petroleum
ENERGY The
Combustion
Reaction
Chemistry
of Bond Breaking,
Rate of Bond Making
Combustion
Chemical
Reactions
Activation
Slow, Fast Energy
&
Explosive
Factors Combustions.
that Effect
Safety Issues
Reaction Rate
Exothermic
Pollution from &
Temperature Fuel Combustion Endothermic
Concentration Temperature
Size of solid &
particles Kinetic Energy
Catalysts of Particles
Incomplete
Combustion
Models of
Catalysts Catalyst
& Action
Activation Energy

2 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
TM
1. HIGH ENERGY COMPOUNDS & FUELS
Chemical Potential Energy The Origin of the Fossil Fuels

is the energy stored within chemical compounds. It is Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas are the main fuels which
stored in the bonds between the atoms, and every chemical power our industries, our homes and vehicles, and generate
reaction results in the release, or absorption, of energy as our electricity.
bonds are broken and formed.
They are all mixtures of high-energy compounds because
Some bonds store more energy than others. Many of the they are the fossil remnants of life-forms which lived
complex compounds of carbon are especially important as millions of years ago. They have been chemically altered by
high-energy compounds. the fossilization process, but are basically derived from
carbohydrates originally made by photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
is the process by which plants make food. Photosynthesis Therefore, whenever coal, petroleum or natural gas are
is the most important Biological process on Earth, because burned as fuels, the energy released is energy which came
it makes all the FOOD and OXYGEN for all living things. originally from the Sun and was captured by
photosynthesis in some ancient plant cell.
green pigment
Composition of Natural Gas
in chloroplasts As an example of just which high-energy compounds are
of plant cells
ligh
t en
present in a fossil fuel, the following table summarizes the
ergy composition of Natural Gas which is chemically the
simplest of the fossil fuels. (K.I.S.S. Principle!)
chlorophyll
WATER + CARBON GLUCOSE + OXYGEN
DIOXIDE Compound Formula Typical % in
Name Natural Gas
to
high-energy air
from from sugar (food) Methane CH4 90%
soil air Ethane C2H6 5%
Propane C3H8 2%
Butane C4H10 1%
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 Other gases CO2, SO2, H2 2%
Location of Australian Deposits of Natural Gas

This essential process captures the energy of the Sun, and Natural Gas, or Petroleum Gas is usually associated with
stores it in the chemical bonds in the glucose molecule, Oil Fields where petroleum (crude oil) is found. The
C6H12O6. major Australian deposits are marked on this map:
Glucose is just one of many compounds known as

carbohydrates... the sugars and starches. All are high
energy compounds made from or derived from glucose,
which in turn is made from the low energy compounds
North West
carbon dioxide and water. Shelf
Oil-ffield Mereenie, NT
Plants make their own carbohydrates; animals get theirs by
Moonie, QLD
eating their food via the food chains.
Moomba, SA
Glucose
molecule
C6H12O6
Bass Strait
Oil-ffield

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2. CARBON & CARBON COMPOUNDS
The Element Carbon Diamond is also a covalent lattice of carbon atoms, but
Carbon is element number 6 in the Periodic Table. the atoms are arranged in a tetrahedral pattern, forming a
huge 3-D crystal lattice.
6 Therefore, each atom has 6

electrons. Diamond has
extremely high m.p.
Electron & b.p., and is the
C
Carbon
Configuration = 2.4 hardest natural
substance known.
The beauty of its

12.01 sparkling crystals
has made diamond
treasured (literally)
for jewellery
throughout history.
In modern times, its extreme hardness has resulted in the

widespread use of industrial diamonds for drill bits
(e.g. for oil-drilling equipment to bore through solid rock)
and high-speed saw blades.
Allotropes Bucky Balls

Carbon can exist in several different physical forms called Discovered much more recently is a third allotrope of
allotropes. Each allotrope is the same element, carbon... the Buckminster-Fullerenes. Named after the
containing exactly the same atoms, but the atoms are architect who invented the geodesic dome structure,
arranged differently, giving each form quite different Bucky Balls and Bucky Tubes come in a variety of shapes
physical properties. and sizes.
Some other elements that have allotropes include sulfur, The best known has the formula C60, in which the carbon
phosphorus, oxygen and tin. atoms are arranged to form a sphere resembling a soccer ball.
C
Allotropes of Carbon
In Graphite, the atoms are arranged in hexagonal rings
60
which connect to form flat sheets.
The atoms in
each sheet are
strongly bonded,
(m.p. & b.p. are
high) but the
bonds between
the sheets are
very weak. They
can easily slide
past each other,
so graphite is
slippery.
The Bucky Balls have not yet found a practical use, but
Because of its slipperiness, graphite is an excellent they have potential for use as high temperature lubricants,
lubricant, used for example, in door locks. Its most familiar for making super-conducting polymers or even as
use is the lead in a lead pencil. specialized capsules for administering medicines.
Unusually for a non-metal and covalent lattice, graphite is a ALLOTROPES:
good conductor of electricity and is used in electric motors Same element, same atoms.
in the rotating contacts called brushes; in this role it both Different atomic arrangements,
conducts electricity and helps lubricate the rotating axle. different physical properties.

TM
Carbon Compounds The Hydrocarbons
All life on Earth is based on carbon compounds, operating With so much variety of carbon compounds, where do you
within an aqueous (water) environment. We have good start?
reason to believe that, if there is life elsewhere in the
Universe, it will also be carbon and water based, although It turns out that many of our important fuels are composed
the details of E.T.s Chemistry, Biology and appearance of mixtures of the very simplest carbon compounds... the
cannot be predicted. Hydrocarbons. These are compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen.
Water is the solvent without equal, and carbon is the only
element capable of forming the variety of intricate and Names & Formulas for the Alkanes
complex molecules needed to make a living organism.
Methane Molecular
Carbon rarely forms ions. The immense scope of carbons Model
Chemistry is based on covalent bonding, and the key is that Molecular Formula CH4
a carbon atom can readily form bonds with other carbon
H
atoms, as well as (notably) hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen Structural Formula
atoms. H C H
H
C C Ethane Molecular
Model
Molecular Formula C2H6
Single Bond
Structural Formula
A single C-C bond involves sharing one pair of electrons.
Each carbon atom has 3 other bond positions available, H H
allowing the formation of chains, rings and networks.
H C C H
Condensed
C C
H H Structural Formula CH3CH3
Propane Molecular
Double Bonds (sharing 2 pairs of electrons) Model
and Molecular Formula
Triple Bonds (sharing 3 pairs) create even more possibilities. C3H8
C C Structural Formula
H H H
H C C C H
The result is that carbon can form more possible
compounds than all the other elements put together. H H H Condensed
Structural Formula CH3CH2CH3
See the pattern beginning to emerge?

The Syllabus requires that you learn the first 8 compounds
in this series... the Alkanes
The ALKANES
are HYDROCARBONS
containing only SINGLE C-C Bonds.
The Molecular Formulas form a pattern
CnH2n+2
where n = number of carbon atoms

TM
How to Name the Alkanes The Alkenes
The Alkanes are just one of many Homologous Series of To name, just add -ENE
are another, similar
carbon compounds. An Homologous Series means a group to the appropriate prefix.
Homologous Series.
of chemicals which form a logical series or pattern, in The Alkenes contain one C=C double bond.
terms of their molecular structure. As youll learn, they
have similar properties which also follow patterns. Since there have to be at least 2 carbon atoms to have a
double bond, the series begins with
You must learn the following rules for naming:
Ethene
Number of Prefix
Carbon Atoms Molecular Formula C2H4
Double C=C Bond
1 Meth-
2 Eth- Structural Formula
3 Prop- H H
4 But- C C Condensed
Structural Formula CH2CH2
5 Pent- H H
6 Hex-
7 Hept- Propene Double C=C Bond
8 Oct- Molecular Formula

...there are many more, C3H6
but this is as far as the Syllabus expects you to learn.
Structural Formula
To name any ALKANE,
H H H
just add -ANE Condensed
to the appropriate prefix above. C C C H Structural Formula CH2CHCH3
H H
The first 3 were on the previous page. We now continue...
Butene
Butane Double C=C
Molecular Formula Bond
Molecular Formula C4H8
C4H10
Structural Formula
Structural Formula H H H H
Condensed
H H H H C C C C H Structural Formula
Condensed
Structural Formula H H CH2CHCH2CH3
H C C C C H H
CH3(CH2)2CH3
H H H H
Pentene C5H10 CH2CH(CH2)2CH3
Pentane
Hexene C6H12 CH2CH(CH2)3CH3
Molecular Formula
C5H12 Heptene C7H14 CH2CH(CH2)4CH3
Structural Formula
H H H H H Octene C8H16 CH2CH(CH2)5CH3
Condensed
H C C C C C H Structural Formula
CH3(CH2)3CH3
H H H H H The ALKENES
are HYDROCARBONS
Hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3 containing one DOUBLE C=C Bond.
Heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3 The Molecular Formulas form a pattern
Octane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3 CnH2n

TM
Properties of the Alkanes and Alkenes Another Important Physical Property:
As you know by now, the properties of any chemical Volatility
substance are determined by the bonding within. A substance is said to be volatile if, at room temperature, it
vaporizes readily. A simple indicator of volatility is the
Alkanes and alkenes contain only 3 types of bond within boiling point, but its not the only factor.
the molecules:
Obviously, the alkanes and alkenes with 4 or less carbon
Single C-C bonds
Double C=C bonds
C-H bonds
} all
non-polar
covalent
atoms are already gases at room temperature, but even
those which are liquids are highly volatile.
Consider octane, a component of petrol. Its boiling point

Therefore, you would expect these compounds to: is a little above that of water, but it is much more volatile.
At room temperature, octane (petrol) in an open container
have relatively low m.p. & b.p.s and youd vaporizes rapidly compared to water under the same
be insoluble in water be correct ! conditions.
be non-conductors of electricity
The explanation is, again, all about bonding. Water
To keep it simple, (K.I.S.S. principle) consider just the molecules tend to cling together because of the dipole-
boiling points: dipole attractions of hydrogen bonding. Octane molecules
have only the weak Dispersion Forces holding them, and
Alkane b.p. State Alkene b.p. State many molecules have enough energy to escape into the gas
(oC) 25oC (oC) 25oC state, even at temperatures well below the boiling point.
Methane -162 gas
Ethane -89 gas Ethene -104 gas The volatility of the alkanes and alkene has important...
Propane -42 gas Propene -48 gas
Butane -1 gas Butene -6 gas Safety Consequences.
Pentane 36 liquid Pentene 30 liquid We havent yet looked at the Chemical Properties of
Hexane 69 liquid Hexene 64 liquid alkanes and alkenes, but dont forget that these are fuel
Heptane 98 liquid Heptene 94 liquid compounds... they contain a lot of energy, are highly
Octane 126 liquid Octene 121 liquid inflammable, and now we find out they are highly volatile
as well! DANGER, DANGER!
When these values are graphed the pattern becomes
obvious, and also the great similarity between the alkanes
and alkenes (at least for this property). Natural Gas
is mostly methane.
100
It must be stored in
high pressure cylinders,
es es outdoors and kept
en
Boiling Point (oC)
lkan Alk
A cool.
0
Propane & Butane

are used as bottled
100
BBQ gas. They are

-1
stored as pressurized
liquids in pressure
200
cylinders and used

-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 outdoors, or in well-
No. of Carbon Atoms ventilated areas only.
Inter-molecular Forces? Small amounts of smelly chemicals are added to gas fuels
Inside each molecule are strong, non-polar, covalent bonds. so that leaks are easily detected by smell.
However, the only forces between the molecules are the
Petrol, Kerosene & Diesel
very weak Dispersion Forces, so m.p. & b.p. are
generally low. are highly volatile liquid fuels. They must be stored in sealed
drums or tanks, and all sparks or flames (even mobile
Dispersion forces become stronger as the size and mass of phones) kept well away. All transfer of fuel from tank to
the molecule increases, which explains the pattern of the tank (e.g. filling the car) must be done outdoors.
graph. SAFETY IS CHEMICAL COMMON SENSE

TM
The Refining of Petroleum Prac Work; Fractional Distillation
Petroleum deposits (including Natural Gas) are the You may have done a laboratory exercise to separate a
fossilized chemical remnants of ancient sea creatures. mixture by fractional distillation. A common mixture used
Petroleum is a complex mixture containing alkanes, alkenes is water and ethanol, a vastly simpler mixture than
and many other carbon compounds, trapped in petroleum, but the principle is the same.
sedimentary rocks.
Fractional Distillation
To obtain the fuels we need, the first step is, of course, to thermometer monitors
locate the petroleum and pump it to the surface. temp. of vapours.
Oil Well Pump, Mixture

Alberta, Condenser
Canada
Heat
er
Photo by Diana
The next step is to separate the petroleum mixture into Ethanols b.p. = 78oC. Waters b.p. = 100oC.
more useful fractions. This is achieved by...
The mixture is heated gently until the vapour temperature
o
Fractional Distillation is about 80 C. At this temperature the distillate collected
which separates the mixture according to differences in from the condenser is relatively pure ethanol, perhaps
boiling point. about 90%. Once all the ethanol has evaporated from the
mixture, the vapour temperature will rise to around 100oC,
indicating that now water is being collected.
Fractionating Tower in a Refinery
Simplified By watching the thermometer, and changing collection
Schematic beakers at the right time, it is possible to collect 2 separate
Diagram fractions from the original mixture.
Gas fraction
L.P.G.
Oil Refinery
Fractionating Towers
Petrol
Vapours condense on
collection trays...
Temperature decreases
Diesel &
at different levels... Kerosene
up the tower
Photo: Nick Fletcher

Heating &
according to boiling point Fuel Oil In an Oil Refinery the same basic process separates crude
petroleum into many fractions... petrol, diesel, kerosene, etc.
based upon different boiling points.
Lubricationg
Vapours Oils
Each fraction is still a mixture. For example, petrol contains
rise through
dozens of individual compounds, and the exact
the tower
composition varies from place to place, and from time to
Vaporized time. It depends on which crude oil source is being refined,
Crude Residue: and on any adjustments made by the chemical engineers at
Oil Grease & the refinery.
injected Bitumen

TM
3. THE CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION
Indications of a Chemical Change Changes of State During Combustion

By now you should be aware that when any chemical Notice that in both the previous examples all the reactants
reaction occurs, one or more of the following will be and products are shown as being in the gas state. We are
observed: used to water being a liquid, but due to the heat produced
by combustion, the water always forms as water vapour,
reactant substance(s) will disappear or be eaten away. H2O(g).
new substance(s) will appear.
colour changes may occur.
precipitates may occur in a solution. Also, notice that octane (a liquid at room temperature) is
a gas may be evolved (bubbles, if in a liquid). shown as a gas because the liquid vapourizes before the
there will be significant energy changes, observed as combustion reaction begins.
changes of temperature, or in the case of combustion
reactions, as visible flames. Combustion generally involves
reactants and products in the gas state.
Combustion Reactions
occur when something burns. Combustion always involves
A Burning Candle
a fuel compound combining with oxygen to form oxide
You may have done a simple practical exercise to
compound(s) of whatever elements are present in the fuel.
examine carefully a burning candle to study the changes
of state occurring.
An example is a reaction you studied in an earlier topic:
The wax melts, soaks up
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
into the absorbent wick,
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
and vaporizes before it
actually burns.
Fuel + Oxygen Oxide compound
Some fuels, just like wax,
will not burn easily unless
Combustion reactions are always exothermic, releasing
a wick is provided to allow easy vaporization so the fuel
chemical energy. In many cases, there is a visible flame
vapour can ignite. Kerosene and heating oils are like
which is a region of gas (in which the reaction is occurring)
this. Visible flame is the
heated up by the energy release so that it glows.
zone where
combustion is
Our most common and important fuels are mixtures of occurring
hydrocarbons.
Natural Gas and L.P.G. (Liquified Petroleum Gas) contain

Methane: Molten, liquid zone of
wax vaporization
methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) Solid wax Wick absorbs
liquid
Fuel + Oxygen Oxide compounds of
the elements Change of Mass in a Combustion
in the fuel If combustion occurs in the
open, the gas products (often
Petrol is a mixture of many hydrocarbons, but we can use carbon dioxide and water
Octane as an example: vapour) escape and disperse
into the surroundings.
octane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water You may have done a simple
C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(g) practical experiment involving weighing a match before,
2
and after burning. You would have found that it lost mass,
Note: When necessary, it is usual to balance the equation due to the escape of the reaction products.
with a fractional mole quantity of oxygen so that the
equation shows 1 mole of fuel. (Simply add total oxygen If carried out in a sealed container, there is no mass
atoms on the right side. If an odd number, write this change, since the same atoms are still present, but simply
number over 2, as the coefficient for O2(g)) rearranged to form the reaction products.
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Break Bonds, Make Bonds Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions
All chemical reactions involve rearranging the atoms of the These concepts have been introduced in previous topics.
reactant molecules. This must involve 2 stages:
Now you must learn more detail about the shape of the
Breaking the bonds in the reactant molecules, so the energy profile diagrams introduced previously.
atoms can be rearranged, and
Making new bonds to create the product molecules. Exothermic Reactions release energy because the
products contain less Chemical Potential Energy than the
For example, in the combustion of methane: reactants. Because the chemicals lose energy, the energy
change (H) is negative.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Here is the Energy Profile Diagram as youve seen it
the reactants are methane and oxygen molecules: before:
Reactants Energy
Level
Energy
Bonds released by = H
Energy Content
must be chemicals
negative
during
broken... reaction
Energy
needed
Products have
LESS energy
Energy must be supplied to break these bonds.
Once the atoms are freed from the reactant molecules, they Now we must add the idea of Activation Energy:
can begin combining into new molecules to form the
products.
Ea Ea = Activation
Reactants Energy
The making of these new bonds always releases energy.
Energy Content
Products
New bonds
are made.
Energy
released
The Activation Energy is like a hill or energy barrier
which must be overcome before the chemicals can turn
Activation Energy into products. The Ea is the energy needed to break some
The reaction cannot begin until some energy is supplied to bonds in reactant molecules so the atoms can begin to
break some bonds in reactant molecules. This energy rearrange themselves. Remember, that this is connected to
requirement is called the Activation Energy. the value of the Ignition Temperature of a fuel.
Once a combustion reaction gets started, the energy
released by the exothermic reaction provides the activation
energy for other molecules, so the reaction continues. Ea
It is this activation energy requirement that explains why Ea

fuels, like petrol, do not just spontaneously burst into flame
when exposed to oxygen in the air. There has to be a spark
Energy Content
Energy Content
or flame to ignite them. H H

The temperature at which a fuel-air mixture will ignite is
called the Ignition Temperature. Its value is related to the
Activation Energy required to get the combustion started.
These 2 fuels release the same amount of energy (H is the
Fuel Ignition Temperature (oC)
same). The one on the left has a lower Ea and therefore a
Petrol 500 approx
Diesel 250 lower Ignition Temperature than that on the right.
Methane (Natural Gas) 540
TM
Endothermic Reactions Incomplete Combustion
are those that require energy to proceed. The products Earlier, you learned about the combustion of typical fuel
have more Chemical Potential Energy than the reactants. compounds like octane, a component of petrol:
Since the chemicals have gained energy, H is considered
positive. octane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
C8H18(g) + 25 O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(g)
These reactions also have an Activation Energy 2
requirement.
This reaction describes complete combustion.
Ea = Activation In many real situations however, there is not enough

Energy oxygen available, or the fuel and oxygen do not get mixed
thoroughly enough for all the molecules to find each
Products
Ea other in the time available. In these cases, the combustion
Energy Content
may be incomplete:
H less
octane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water
positive C8H18(g) + 17 O2(g) 8CO(g) + 9H2O(g)
Reactants
2
If there is even less oxygen, or really poor mixing of

molecules, the reaction can be even more incomplete:
Practical Work less
octane + oxygen carbon + water
You may have carried out experiments to observe and
C8H18(g) + 9 O2(g) 8C(s) + 9H2O(g)
describe various exothermic and endothermic reactions. 2
In this topic, you have seen combustions, while back in In this case, the solid carbon formed is soot, often
topic 2 you saw active metals react with observed from diesel exhausts, burning candles, and
water or acids. In topic 3 you measured bunsen burners set to a yellow flame.
the heat released
during dissolving
These were all Exothermic.
Way back in topic 1, you studied

and observed electrolysis causing water to decompose
when electrical energy was added. In
topic 2 you decomposed carbonates by In real situations, the total result of burning a fuel can be
heat and studied the Endothermic some combination of all the 3 situations above... some
extraction of metals from ores. molecules burn completely forming CO2, and some burn
incompletely to CO or even soot.
Incomplete Combustion
of carbon-based fuels
results in the formation of
Carbon Monoxide and/or soot
Endothermic
Reactions Try the Worksheet at the end of this section

TM
Pollution from Combustion of Fuels Photo: Ken Kiser
When pure hydrocarbon fuel compounds burn completely
the products are carbon dioxide and water vapour. Neither
of these can be considered as pollution since they are
part of the natural chemical cycles on Earth.
Carbon Dioxide
However, the release of billions of tonnes of CO2 from
fossil fuel combustion is believed to be leading to a
Greenhouse Effect, and causing global warming. This
may be leading to (is leading to?) major environmental
changes, such as alterations to climates and weather
patterns.
The Greenhouse Effect can be minimized by reducing the Carbon Monoxide

usage of fossil fuels, and switching to fuels which do not is produced in all petrol engines due to incomplete
increase CO2 levels, such as ethanol from plant sources. combustion of the fuel. It does not cause any large-scale
environmental damage, but is very toxic to people.
Toxic pollution results from either incomplete combustion,
or from impurities in the fuels. Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxygen and nitrogen in the air do not normally react with
Photo: Daniel West each other. However, at the high temperatures inside an
engine, they react:
nitrogen + oxygen nitric oxide

N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
Nitric oxide (or nitrogen monoxide) reacts further to form

toxic nitrogen dioxide, NO2(g), and is involved in the
formation of petrochemical smog which causes a toxic
and serious pollution problem in cities.
To avoid the problems caused by both carbon monoxide

and the oxides of nitrogen, modern cars are fitted with
catalytic converters on their exhaust systems. These
promote the reaction:
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) N2(g) + CO2(g)

Sulfur Dioxide
Fossil fuels, especially coal, contain small amounts of sulfur Modern car engines also have advanced fuel-air control
compounds. When these are burnt with the fuel: systems to ensure the most efficient, complete combustion
possible. These measures have been very successful in
sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide reducing air pollution problems in some cities.
S + O2 SO2(g)
The final solution to the problems associated with burning
This gas is a serious pollutant because it reacts with water fossil fuels may be solved for us when petroleum supplies
in the environment to form a strong acid. This can lead to run out. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource, and many
Acid Rain which can destroy natural environments such estimates suggest that world supplies will only last about 30
as forest and lake ecosystems. years, at current usage rates.
Emission of SO2 is minimized by In 2005, the world economies were shocked by a sudden
removing sulfur impurities during the refining of liquid spike in the price of petroleum. It is highly probable that
and gas fuels. such events will continue to happen (for both political and
economic reasons). This is certain to encourage research
scrubbing the exhaust emissions from coal-burning
and development of alternative, sustainable fuels. Its
power stations and sulfide-ore metal smelters. The SO2 already happening...
can be collected and used to make sulfuric acid for
industry. Now theres a career idea
for todays Chemistry students!
TM
4. RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Slow, Fast and Explosive Combustions Explosive Reactions

Combustion reactions can occur at different rates, occur when fuel molecules are well mixed with air, and
depending on conditions. there is no limit on the flow of fuel to the combustion area.
For example, if a gas leak fills a room with a fuel gas mixed
In a camp fire, or slow combustion stove, large pieces of with air, any spark or flame can start a reaction that
solid fuel (e.g. wood) burn slowly and steadily. Theres accelerates so fast that the heat release and gas pressure
plenty of fuel, so why is the reaction slow? creates a shock wave... it explodes!
Although there is a large piece of fuel available, it can only

burn at the surface where oxygen can get to it. The reaction
rate is limited by the surface area available. If the wood had
been chopped into small chips, there would be a greater
surface area and it would burn faster, assuming plenty of
air could get to it. (Solid fuel heating stoves are often
slowed right down by limiting the amount of air getting in.)
Fast Combustions
In a gas stove or bunsen burner,
the fuel is mixed with air before
ignition. The fuel and oxygen
molecules are intimately mixed
together, then ignited as they
reach the burner nozzle.
The reaction is fast, and limited

only by the flow of fuel-air
mixture to the burner. Its not just gas molecules that can mix with air to form
explosive mixtures. Fine dust particles suspended in air can
explode too, if the particles are at all capable of
combustion.
Explosions have occurred with wheat dust, coal dust,

cotton fibres and even custard powder, in factories where
dust or fibre was allowed to mix with air.
The point is that the rate of a combustion reaction
depends on the fuel and oxygen molecules colliding with The safety consequences are obvious. Any work
each other environments where dust can be produced need to ensure
dust supression, good ventilation, air filters, or whatever is
CH4 necessary to prevent explosive mixtures forming in the air.
O2
collision
The RATE of a Chemical Reaction
depends on the reactant molecules
energy COLLIDING
Reaction released
Any situation which increases the
Rate of Collisions
will increase the
REACTION RATE
CO2 H2O

TM
Temperature & Kinetic Energy of Particles The Effect of Concentration
According to the Kinetic Theory of Matter, all matter is If a chemical reaction is occurring in solution, the
composed of particles (molecules, atoms or ions) which are concentration of the reactant(s) can affect the chances of a
constantly moving. collision, and control the reaction rate.
In solids, the particles can only vibrate in one place.

In liquids, they are close together, but move around. Concentration Low,
In gases, they are far apart and flying in all directions. collisions less likely,
Rate of Reaction
As temperature increases, the movement increases. Slow
Increased heat energy causes an increase in the kinetic
energy of the particles.
TEMPERATURE
is a measure of the average
At higher concentration, the chances of reactants colliding
KINETIC ENERGY
is increased, so reaction rate is higher.
of the particles
Therefore, at higher temperatures the particles move faster

and are more likely to collide with enough activation
Product
energy for the reaction to proceed. The result is that:
The RATE of Chemical Reactions

Increases with TEMPERATURE Product
Product
Practical Work: In reactions involving gases, higher gas pressure increases

Temperature & Rate of Reaction the concentration of the particles, by forcing them closer
You may have done experiments in the laboratory to together. So gas pressure also increases reaction rates.
observe and measure this relationship.
The RATE of Chemical Reactions
Many reactions are suitable for study; a simple one is: Increases with CONCENTRATION
or with GAS PRESSURE
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
Three identical test tubes of More Practical Work:

the same acid solution can be Effect of Concentration
set up at different Using the same reaction as on the left, you could set up
temperatures. three test tubes of acid at different concentrations by using
the same acid, but diluting the solution in each tube:
Different temperatures are
achieved by immersing each Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3
tube in a beaker containing Vol. of acid (mL) 10 10 10
Vol. of water (mL) 20 10 0
ice and water
30 20 10
tap water
hot water Note that the amount of acid is the same in each tube, but
the concentrations are different.
Identical pieces of magnesium
are dropped into each tube. Identical pieces of magnesium could then be dropped
The rate of the reaction can into each tube, and the
be observed by the rate of bubbling (of H2 gas). To rate of reaction
measure the rate, the time taken for the magnesium to observed or measured
disappear could be measured. (For graphing purposes, as before.
the reciprocal (1/time taken) can be used as a value for rate
of reaction.) You would find that
Tube 3 would react
You would find that the fastest.
higher temperature faster rate of reaction
TM
How Catalysts Work
Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate There is no single, simple model to explain how a catalyst
You may have done a simple experiment as suggested by
speeds up reactions by reducing the Activation Energy.
the diagram:
There may be dozens of ways that various catalysts work;
Same quantity of solid calcium carbonate here are just two.
on each spoon
Lumps
Powder
Model 1: Surface Adsorption
Both lumps Some catalysts work by holding the reactant(s) in such a
and powder
react with way that collision and reaction become more likely. In some
acid in cases too, the bonds within a reactant molecule are placed
exactly the
same way, under strain so that less energy is required to break
but you bonds to start the reaction process.
would
observe that
the powder
Reactant
reacts faster.
molecules Product
molecule
Same quantity of same strength acid
The reaction occurring is
Reactant Collision
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq) &
molecule(s)
adsorb to Reaction
You would have found that the reaction occurs faster with surface
the powdered solid than with larger lumps. This is because Bond placed under
the smaller solid pieces in the powder add up to a larger
strain by adsorption CATALYST
to catalyst
total surface area for the acid to react with. Collisions
between reactants occur more often, so the reaction
Many Industrial processes rely on catalysts of this type:
proceeds faster.
In the manufacture of Ammonia
Catalysts N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Fe catalyst
2NH3(g)
A Catalyst is a chemical substance which increases the
rate of a reaction, without being consumed or permanently
the reaction rate is speeded up using an iron catalyst, finely
changed by the reaction.
divided to provide greater surface area.
Catalysts are widely used in Industrial Chemistry (examples In the Catalytic Cracking of petroleum compounds at
at right) but perhaps the most notable example of catalysts an oil refinery (to be studied in a later topic) larger
is in Biology. All living cells carry out thousands of hydrocarbon molecules are broken up to increase the yield
chemical reactions which would occur far too slowly for life of the valuable petrol fraction. The reaction is speeded up
to function if not for catalysts. In every cell, every reaction by a catalyst of Zeolite; a natural clay mineral with a large
is made possible by protein catalysts called Enzymes. surface area, and an affinity for hydrocarbon molecules.
Catalysts Lower Activation Energy Model 2: Alternative Chemical Pathways

The effect of catalysts is to reduce the Activation Energy Some catalysts work by providing an alternative chemical
pathway which has a lower Activation Energy. In these
requirement for the reaction.
cases, the catalyst might be a reactant in a series of
Without Catalyst
reactions which then regenerate the catalyst at the end.
Ea
For example, the reaction
Reactants
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Energy Content
H With Catalyst.
Activation Energy is very slow, but if a small amount of NO2(g) is added to the
reduced mixture, 2 faster reactions occur in sequence:
Products
Reaction 1: SO2(g) + NO2(g) SO3(g) + NO(g)
Note that H is NOT affected
Reaction 2: 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
If the Activation Energy requirement is lower, then at any The NO2 is regenerated at the end, and has not been
given temperature there will be more reactant molecules consumed... it is a catalyst for the reaction, and each NO2
having the energy to react... so the reaction goes faster. molecule can be recycled over and over.
TM
Practical Work: Catalysts Another Example
You may have carried out a practical experiment to see the of an experiment on catalysts uses the following reaction:
effect of a catalyst on a reaction rate.
hydrogen + iodide + hydrogen iodine + water
A popular experiment is to use the familar reaction peroxide ions ions
H2O2(aq) + 2I-(aq) + 2H+(aq) I2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
The reaction is quite slow, but can be followed visually over
with, and without a catalyst. several minutes because while the reactants are colourless,
the iodine product is a yellow-brown colour.
The catalyst used is a small
piece of copper metal, which a
strip of magnesium ribbon is Solution
wrapped around. (The metals darkens as
must be in contact.) Product I2
Colourless forms
In contact with the copper, it Reactants
will be found that the
magnesium reacts much faster
than an identical experiment
without the copper.
At the end of the reaction, the copper is totally If a few drops of a dilute solution of sodium molybdate
unchanged... it speeds the reaction up, but is not (NaMoO4) is added to another identical mixture, the
consumed or changed itself; it is a catalyst. reaction proceeds to completion much faster... a few
seconds compared to many minutes.
The method by which the copper catalyses the reaction -
does not fit either of the models described on the The molybdate ion (MoO4 , a polyatomic ion) acts as a
previous page. catalyst and remains in the solution unchanged at the end.
It works by providing an alternative sequence of lower-

activation energy reactions, which regenerate the molybdate
ion at the end.


keep it simple science Copying is permitted according to the Site Licence Conditions only
METALS
1. OUR USE of METALS
2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY of the METALS
3. PATTERNS of the PERIODIC TABLE
4. QUANTITY CALCULATIONS... the MOLE
5. METALS from their ORES
...all in the context of how Chemistry contributes to cultural development

Technology Needs Metals Chemistry of the Metals
In the previous topic you learnt about the
The great sweep of human cultural development Elements of the Periodic Table. In this topic you
has many aspects... Language, Religion, Art & will concentrate on the chemistry of the metals,
Music, and, of course, Technology. and some of the chemical patterns that they
show.
The history of technology is closely linked with ... and Speaking of Patterns,
our use of metals; in fact historians have named in this topic you will find that
some parts of history after the metals that
changed the way people lived. The Periodic Table
No
n-
Dagger from the Bronze Age is full of patterns Me
t a l s tal
s
Me
This topic starts with a quick look at the history
of metal use, and ends with a study of how we
get metals from the Earth, and the chemistry of Measuring Chemical Quantities
the extraction process. In this topic you will also be introduced to the
concept of the Mole...
Electrically powered smelter plant not a burrowing mammal!
for extracting not a traitor within the group!
Aluminium from its ore not a gangsters girlfriend!
certainly not a skin blemish!
A Chemical Mole is a clever way to measure
quantities; essential for analysis & chemical
manufacture.
If you know the mass,

you can figure out
how many atoms there are...
thanks to the mole.
Photo courtesy of Comalco Aluminium Ltd
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 Metals

1
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au


Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember
the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to
this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
The Activity Series

History of of the Metals
Metal Use
Metals Electron Transfer
We Use REDOX
Today
Our Use of 1st Ionization

Energy
Metals Chemical Activity
of the Metals
Activity & Usage
of Metals
Patterns of the History of the

METALS Periodic Table Periodic Table
Definition of the
Mole.
Avogadros
Number
Quantity
Calculations
Extracting Metals
from Ores the Mole Molar Ratios in
Reactions
Empirical
Formulas
Case Study:
Minerals Mole Quantity
Extracting Ores
Copper Calculations
&
from its Ore Resources
Gay-Lussacs Law
&
Avogadros Hypothesis
The Case for
Recycling Metals

2

1. OUR USE OF METALS

The First Uses of Metals The Iron Age (approx. 2,500 to 1,500 years ago)
For most of human existence, people used tools of About 1,000 B.C. the extraction of iron from its ores
stone, wood and bone. Primitive tribes were familiar was discovered. This requires much higher
with gold which occurs uncombined in nature, but it is temperatures, and the breakthrough was probably the
too soft to be useful for anything but jewellery and invention of the bellows, a device to pump air into a
decoration. furnace so the wood or charcoal burns hotter.
About 5,000 years ago, in the Middle East, some Iron is stronger and harder than bronze. A warrior
people accidentally discovered that if certain rocks armed with iron weapons will usually beat a bronze-
were roasted by fire, small amounts of copper armed man. Iron tools and even the humble nail
would be found later in the ashes. Copper is too allowed new developments in buildings, ships,
soft to be really useful, but there was a brief wagons... remember that towns, trade and commerce
Copper Age around the eastern end of the give wealth and power. An iron plough allows more
Mediterranean Sea. Copper was used for land to be cultivated to grow more food, to feed a
decoration, jewellery, small utensils, and bigger army... and so on.
occasionally for knives and spear points.
It is no accident that the dominant world power of this
The big breakthrough was the discovery by these time was ancient Rome, because their technology
copper-using people that if they roasted copper- was based on iron.
bearing rocks (ores) with tin ores, the resulting
alloy (mixture) of copper and tin produced a From the Medieval to the Modern
much harder metal, bronze, which could be cast After the collapse of the Roman Empire the various
in moulds, and hammered to shape many useful cultures that dominated the Dark Ages still had iron-
tools and weapons. based technologies.
The Bronze Age (approx 4,500 to 2,500 years ago) The next great technological change was the
It is no accident that the rise of the great Industrial Revolution which began about 1750 in
ancient civilizations occurred about this England. This had many aspects, but the big change
time. The stone blocks of the pyramids and in technology was the use of coal (instead of wood) for
fuel. As well as steam engines, coal allowed for large
temples of ancient Egypt were cut and shaped
scale smelting of iron and the invention of steel (an
with bronze chisels. Egyptians, and later alloy of iron with carbon).
Greeks, dominated their world because their
soldiers were armed with bronze swords, The engines, tools and machinery of the great
spears and arrowheads. factories were based on steel. Transport was
With bronze tools they built better ships and wagons for revolutionised by steel locomotives running on steel
transport and trade, which brought wealth and power. rails. Steel ships replaced wooden ones, and steel
weapons (machine guns,
Sad as it might be, the tanks and artillery) achieved
facts of human history new heights (depths?)
are that progress has
in warfare and mass
destruction.
been marked by conflict,
war and conquest, and
metals have been a vital In the 20th century, new metals
part of that development. and alloys became available... aluminium, titanium,
chromium, and many more.
Metal has many
advantages over stone, This was made possible by electricity, which is
wood, or bone: needed in large amounts to extract some metals from
their ores, or to purify and process them once
metal is harder, stronger, and flexible, not brittle. extracted.
metal can be cast, hammered or drawn into shapes not Human Progress has always been linked
possible in stone, such as saw blades, swords and armour. to our use of Metals.
when tools become blunt, metal can be re-sharpened. Progress in metal usage has always been
linked to the availability of energy
Basically, a warrior with a bronze sword always beats a bloke to extract the metals.
with a stone axe... we call that progress!
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 Metals 3


The Metals We Use Today Solder is an alloy of 30-50% tin with lead.
In one sense, we are still in the Iron Age. Iron
is still the metal we use the most, but nearly Its most notable property is a very low melting
always it is mixed with other elements in a point, around 150-200oC.
variety of alloys, notably steel.
Its major use is in plumbing for sealing the joints
between pipes, and in electronics for connecting
small components on a circuit board.
Metals That Are Used

in Their Pure State
Although we use a wide range of alloys, there are
some important metals we use in their pure,
elemental state.
Aluminium is very lightweight, yet strong and

corrosion resistant
Steel is used for bridges, tools and machinery,
bolts, screws and nails, reinforcing inside Its lightweight strength is
concrete structures, engines, vehicle bodies, perfect for aircraft
trains and their rails, ships, and tin cans. construction.
Why is steel so widely used? Lightweight and a good
conductor, it is used for
Iron ore occurs in huge deposits, so iron is electricity power lines.
common and economical to produce.
Steel (in its various forms) is hard and strong. Malleable and corrosion resistant, it is ideal for
It can be cast, milled, rolled, worked, bent, cut window frames and drink cans.
and machined into any shape or size.
Copper is used for electrical wiring in buildings and
As always, our usage of the different steel alloys appliances, because of its great electrical conductivity
is linked to their particular properties: and its ductility for ease of wire-making.
Steel Iron, Properties Uses Metal Extraction Needs Energy
Alloy with... Our use of different metals through history can be
linked to the availability of energy.
Mild steel 0.2% strong, but car bodies,
carbon malleable pipes, roofing In topic 1, you learned about the process of
chemical decomposition; where a compound
Tool steel 1-1.5% very hard drills, knives, breaks down into simpler substances.
carbon hammers
Decomposition is generally an endothermic
Stainless 20% nickel resists food utensils, process; energy is absorbed by the reactants
Steel & chromium corrosion, medical tools during the reaction. Generally, you must supply
hygenic energy to make the process happen.
Brass Metal ores are mineral compounds. To obtain the
is a common non-ferrous (no iron) alloy. elemental metal involves decomposition, which is
endothermic and requires energy. Some
compounds require more energy than others for
decomposition.
Brass is an alloy
of copper and Copper and tin ores require little energy. A decent
zinc (about 50% wood fire can smelt the metal from its ore. This why
each) copper and bronze were used in ancient times.
Iron ore requires more energy for decomposition.

Brass is very hard, but easily machined for screw Thats why the Iron Age came later.
threads, etc. It is more expensive than steel, but is
corrosion resistant, so it is ideal for taps and Aluminium and other modern metals require
fittings for water and gas pipes. even more energy, and electricity works better
than heat, so these only became available in quite
recent times.
4

2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF THE METALS

Metals React With Oxygen Metals React With Acids
One of the most familiar laboratory reactions is The different activity levels of the metals is most
the burning of magnesium: clearly seen when metals are reacted with dilute acids.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO You may have done experimental work to
observe how vigorously different metals react
with a dilute acid.
In fact, many metals will burn, some a lot more
readily and violently than magnesium: Metals like calcium and
magnesium react
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide vigorously.
4 Na + O2 2 Na2O
Zinc and iron are slower.
In these cases there is a violent exothermic
reaction, with light and heat energy produced. Lead is very slow indeed.
The product is often a powdery, crumbly solid.
Copper does not react at Bubbles of
Other metals, such as aluminium and zinc, react all. gas are
on the surface and the oxide compound formed
produced.
is airtight and prevents further reaction. Thats When there is a reaction,
why these metals are often dull-looking... the the gas produced is A flame test
surface coat of oxide is dull. hydrogen. gives a pop
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide explosion
The metal is eaten away
2 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3 and dissolves into the liquid.
This is because it forms a
Other metals, such as copper, react with oxygen soluble ionic compound. Exactly what the
very slowly and only if heated strongly. Some, compound is, depends on which acid is used.
like gold, will not react at all. Examples:
The point is, that different metals Zinc + Hydrochloric Hydrogen + Zinc
have different chemical activities. acid chloride
Zn + 2 HCl H2 + ZnCl2
Metals React With Water
Another favourite school reaction is when sodium Magnesium + Nitric Hydrogen + Magnesium
reacts with water. This is often done outdoors, acid nitrate
because it results in an exciting little explosion. Mg + 2 HNO3 H2 + Mg(NO3)2
What happens is: Iron + Sulfuric Hydrogen + Iron(II)

acid sulfate
Sodium + Water Hydrogen + Sodium Fe + H2SO4 H2 + FeSO4
(gas) hydroxide
2 Na + 2 H2O H2 + 2 NaOH
The ionic compounds formed are collectively
known as salts, so the general pattern of the
(In fact this is NOT the explosion reaction. The reactions is
explosion is the reaction of the hydrogen with
Metal + Acid Hydrogen + a Salt
oxygen, to form water)
Once again, some metals react easily and

rapidly and form the metal hydroxide, while It will help you greatly to learn
others react slowly if heated in steam, and form the common laboratory acids
oxides. Common Name Chem Name Formula
Hydrochloric = Hydrogen chloride HCl
Zinc + Water Hydrogen + Zinc oxide
Sulfuric = Hydrogen Sulfate H2SO4
Zn + H2O H2 + ZnO
Nitric = Hydrogen nitrate HNO3
Metals like copper and gold do not react at all.
There is an Activity Series of metals. WORKSHEET at end of section


The Activity Series of the Metals Electron Transfer

From these 3 patterns of reaction, it seems there in Metal Reactions
is a further, underlying pattern. Certain metals, The chemical reactions that allow us to see the
like sodium, always seem to react readily and pattern of the Activity Series are just part of an
vigorously. Others, like copper, always react even greater pattern in Chemistry... the process
slowly or not at all. of electron transfer.
From this, and other reaction studies, the To understand this, look again at the reaction
common laboratory metals can be arranged in between a metal and an acid:
an Activity Series:
Zinc + Hydrochloric Hydrogen + Zinc
acid (gas) chloride
Most K
Active Zn + 2 HCl H2 + ZnCl2
Na
HCl and ZnCl2 are both ionic compounds. Here
Li is the equation re-written to show the individual
ion species.
Ba
Zn + 2H+ + 2Cl- H2 + Zn2+ + 2Cl-
Ca
Study this carefully and make sure you
Mg understand why there have to be 2 of some ions
to agree with the original balanced equation.
Al
Notice that the chloride ions (Cl-) occur on both
Zn sides of the equation unchanged. Nothing has
happened to them at all. We say they are
Fe spectator ions. Like by-standers at a car crash
they are not involved, while other atoms and
Sn ions undergo serious changes.
Since they arent actually involved, we can leave

Pb the spectators out. This is called a net
equation.
Cu
Zn + 2H+ H2 + Zn2+
Ag
Least
Active Au Now we can see what really happened;
a zinc atom became a zinc ion
If you look for these metals on the Periodic Table and 2 hydrogen ions became a (covalent)
you will notice a further pattern. hydrogen molecule.
Positions of the first 6 metals To do this, the zinc atom has to lose 2 electrons,
of the Activity and the hydrogen ions must gain a pair of
3 Series. electrons to share.
2 6
1 5
4 Zn Zn2+ + 2e-
2H+ + 2e- H2
The highly active metals all lie to the extreme left of
the table, AND the higher their activity, the lower down
the table they are within each column. Now it should be clear what really happened: the
zinc atom gave a pair of electrons to some
This is one of many patterns that allows you to use hydrogen ions. Electrons were transferred from
the Periodic Table instead of learning many small one species to another.
facts. For example, instead of memorising the Activity
Series fully, you can remember the pattern above and The equations above are Half-Equations and
always be able to figure out the order of the most are often used to describe what is really
active metals. happening in a reaction.
7

Oxidation and Reduction First Ionisation Energy

The transfer of electrons from one species to Although youre not yet required to know
another is one of the most fundamental and about Oxidation and Reduction, this bit you
important general reactions of Chemistry. have to learn.
The reaction between zinc and acid can be Definition

visualised like this: The Ionisation Energy of an element is the
electrons transferred energy required to remove an electron from
an atom.
+ For technical reasons, the measurement of this

+
energy is carried out for atoms in the gas state.
Zinc atom 2 Hydrogen ions
Zn(g) Zn+(g) + e-
Hydrogen molecule
The energy required for this to happen is the
1st Ionisation Energy
+2
We know that zinc atoms normally lose 2
Zinc ion electrons to form the Zn2+ ion. However, the
Covalent bond formal definition for this process involves
(2 electrons being shared) just the loss of 1 electron.
The zinc atom has lost 2 electrons, Every element has its own characteristic
value, even those elements which would not
normally lose electrons, such as non-metals
like chlorine.
Zn Zn2+ + 2e-
For historical reasons, Cl(g) Cl+(g) + e-

the loss of electrons is called Oxidation
Normally a chlorine atom forms a negative ion
by gaining an electron.
and the hydrogen ions have gained electrons. K
Increasing values for 1st Ionisation Energy

Technically though, it is possible for it to lose
an electron if energy is added.
This energy is the 1st Ionisation Energy Na
2H+ + 2e- H2 Even the inert gases, which normally do not Li
form ions at all, can be forced to lose an
The gain of electrons is called Reduction electron if energy is added. They too have a Ba
1st Ionisation Energy value.
Ionisation Energy Ca
Neither process can occur alone... they must Determines the Activity Series
occur together Mg
In order for a metal to begin reacting with an
acid, (or with water or oxygen) it must lose an Al
The zinc oxidation allows the hydrogen to be electron. This will require the input of its 1st
reduced, and the hydrogen reduction allows the Ionisation Energy.
zinc to be oxidised. Zn
If the value for 1st Ionisation energy is very
The total reaction is an Oxidation-Reduction low, the metal will gain this energy easily and Fe
and is commonly abbreviated to REDOX. quickly from its surroundings. It will readily
enter the reaction, and the reaction will Sn
Note that the syllabus does NOT require you to proceed vigorously.
know these definitions yet, but it is worth
knowing about Redox for future topics. You ARE
Pb
If its value for 1st Ionisation energy is higher,
required to know about electron transfer and its
involvement in metal reactions.
the atom cannot react so readily or Cu
vigorously... its activity is lower.
Ag
WORKSHEET at the end of section The ACTIVITY SERIES of the Metals
is determined by Au
1st IONIsATION ENERGY

8

Choice of Metals Another example is the choice of metals for

water pipes.
Based on Activity
Sometimes which metal is chosen for a
Steel is cheap, but
particular application is based on its position in
since iron is about the
the Activity Series.
middle of the Activity
Series it will corrode
Example
(rust) by contact with
In critical electronic connections, such as
water. Is it better to
computer network plugs, it is essential that the
choose a lower activity
electric signals get through without loss or
metal such as copper,
distortion.
which will not corrode
as quickly, but is more
Normally we use copper for electrical wiring, but
expensive? Brass fittings
in a critical connection plug it is worth the extra
expense of using gold.
The decision is usually
to use cheap steel Copper pipe
Copper is a low activity metal, but can slowly
pipes for longer,
react with oxygen to form a non-conducting
outdoor uses like your
oxide layer in the connection. Gold is lower
garden taps.
down the activity series and will not react at all,
so the plug connection cannot corrode.
Indoors, where
distances are shorter,
Golds extremely low chemical activity (due to
copper is chosen,
a relatively high 1st
especially for hot water
Ionization Energy)
supply. Indoors a
is part of the
rusted-out leaking steel pipe would be a
reason it has
disaster, so its worth paying more for copper.
always been used
for jewellery.
Interestingly, sometimes the higher activity
metals corrode less. Aluminium and zinc are
higher up the Activity Series than iron. They
Golds low activity
react rapidly when exposed to oxygen, but the
means it will not
surface layer of oxide is airtight and waterproof,
tarnish or corrode,
and prevents oxygen or water getting to the
so it retains its
metal underneath. Therefore, these metals can
beautiful colour and
be used in situations where corrosion needs to
lustre.
be prevented.
Galvanised steel is coated with a thin layer of

zinc to prevent (or slow down) corrosion of steel
roofing, fence wires, nails, bolts, etc.
Bronze & Gold

have been used throughout history
in Art and Religion

9

3. PATTERNS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Atomic Structure, Atomic Number and Mass
Here is a quick reminder of some basics about atoms you need to know:
In the Nucleus The Periodic Table
are is firstly a list of the elements, arranged in order,
Protons & and showing all the basic details.
Neutrons In orbit around Atomic Number
the nucleus are
the Electrons 18 Equal to the number of
electrons and the number of
protons in each atom
Electrons = Protons = Atomic Number

Ar
Argon
Chemical Symbol
Element Name
Each elements atoms have a different,

characteristic, number of protons and
39.95 Atomic Weight
electrons. Therefore, each element has a NOT the Mass Number
different Atomic Number. However, the Periodic Table is far more than a
simple list. Why is it such a complicated shape?
In the Periodic Table the elements are arranged
in order of Atomic Number. The shape and arrangement of the Periodic
Table is a very clever device to allow many
Protons + Neutrons = Mass Number patterns and groupings to be accommodated.
(Electron mass is insignificant) You have already learnt one pattern in the
The Mass Number is always a whole number, position of the most active metals, and their 1st
but in the Periodic Table the Atomic Weight is Ionisation Energies.
shown instead. There are lots more...
(How and why this is different will be explained in a later topic)
History of the Periodic Table

The modern concept of a chemical element Mendeleev used many physical and chemical
developed almost exactly 200 years ago. properties:
atomic weight density
By 1830 there were about 40 known elements. melting point formula of oxide compound
Even with such a small sample, people began to density of oxide and many more,
notice patterns: and arranged the elements in order of weight, but
with elements with similar properties under each
Dobereiner (German) pointed out that there other.
were several groups of 3 elements with Similar elements placed in
vertical columns Inert Gases had NOT
remarkably similar properties: been discovered
Lithium, sodium & potassium was one triad.

Chlorine, bromine and iodine formed another triad.
Mendeleevs vertical families
By 1860, with over 60 known elements, included Dobereiners triads
and Newlands octaves, but
Newlands (English) proposed a Law of had one big difference...
Octaves.
If the elements were arranged in order of relative Mendeleevs genius was to realize that there were
weights, Newlands found that every 8th element probably missing elements that hadnt been
(an octave) was similar in properties. These discovered yet. He cleverly left gaps in his table for
similar elements included Dobereiners triads. these undiscovered elements.
The system worked well for the first 20 elements, The most famous case was that of the missing
but then became confused. element Mendeleev called eka-silicon. He used the
patterns in his table to predict, very precisely, the
The basis of the modern Periodic Table was properties for eka-silicon. Scientists went looking for
developed by the Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev such a substance and soon found a new element
in 1869. (which was named Germanium) with properties
exactly as predicted.

Patterns of the Periodic Table

In Mendeleevs day no-one could explain why these patterns existed.
However, when scientists see patterns in nature like this, they know there must be
underlying rules or laws of nature causing and controlling the patterns.
Perhaps Mendeleevs great contribution was not just the Periodic Table itself,
but the stimulus it gave other scientists to investigate the reasons behind the patterns.
Within 40 years Science had unravelled the secrets of atomic structure,
the electron energy levels, and more.
At this stage, your task is to learn some of the patterns.
Melting Point
You learned in topic 1 how melting point is determined by
the bonding within a substance.
At the left side of the table are the very active metals of the
Activity Series. They are also usually soft, and have
Electrical Conductivity relatively low (for metals) melting points.
As you go across any row (period) of the table,
you will move through a number of metals, then one Moving to the right across a period you enter the Transition
or two semi-metals, then into the non-metals. Block containing typical hard, high melting point metals,
held strongly together by metallic bonding.
Therefore, the conductivity will start out high, but
rapidly decrease as you encounter a semi-metal, Further right you hit the Semi-Metals. These often have very
and become extremely low at the non-metals. high melting points because of their covalent lattice
structure.
Semi-Metals
Non- Then you enter the Non-Metals which have covalent
Metals Metals molecular structures and quite low mps. At the far right
column, each period ends with an Inert Gas which are all
single-atom molecules, and have the lowest mp of each
period.
This pattern repeats itself along each period.
Conductivity Sketch Graph. Melting Points of Elements
decreasing
2,000
Periods 3 V
Peaks are Transition Metals
Boiling Points or Semi-M
Metals
(oC)
follow a similar pattern to Si Period 4

1,000
Melting Points
Melting Point
K Rb
Na
0
Kr
Ar Inert Gases
Valencies are the same
down each group Atomic Number
Chemical Bonding, Valency & Reactivity

What youve already learnt about the Activity Series, Ionic and Covalent Bonding and Valency
will help you make sense of the following: Group 8 Inert Gases
No chemical reactions,
+1 0 no bonding
+2 +3 4 -3
3 2 -1
-2 1
Activity of Metals
Semi-MMetals Activity of Non-M
Metals
Most active at
bottom-lleft. Metals (Covalent only) Most active at top-rright
(+ve ions) (Fluorine)
Activity (generally)
decreases upwards Activity (generally)
and to the right. Non-M Metals
(Covalent or (-v
ve) ions) decreases downwards
Bonding and to the left.

13

Atomic Radius
The size of an atom is the distance across its outer electron shell. The following diagrams
You might think that the atoms along each period would be the are to scale and show the
same size, because its the same orbit being added to. relative sizes of the first
However, the increasing amount of positive charge in the 20 elements
nucleus pulls that orbit inwards closer and closer to the centre.
H He
37 The numbers given are the atomic radii in picometres. 50
1 picometre = 1x10-112 metre
Radius increasing down a group
Li Be B C N O F Ne
152 112 88 77 70 66 68 70
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
186 160 143 118 110 102 99 94
Radius decreasing across a period

K Ca
231 197
Down each group the radius increases.
This is because, as you go down a group, you have added
an entire electron shell to the outside of the previous layer.
Spreadsheet Plot of Atomic Radii

300
Atomic Radius (picometre)
rend Rb
sing T K
The Syllabus requires that you Increa a group
down De
produce a table and a graph of Na acr creasi
200
the changes in a property oss ng

a p Tren
across a period, Li erio d
d
and down a group
100
Kr
When you do, you can clearly d
Ar ng Tren
see how the Periodic Table got Ne Increasai group
its name. He down
Periodic means recurring at

0
1 10 20 30
regular intervals.
Atomic Number
This graph shows what a
spreadsheet plot gives for the
radii of the first 37 elements. There are a number of irregularities and glitches
apparent on the graph. It is beyond the scope of
Notice how the same graphical this course (and way beyond the K.I.S.S. Principle)
pattern keeps recurring... it is a to attempt an explanation of these.
periodic pattern.

14

Ionisation Energy Successive Ionisation Energies

The meaning of the 1st Ionisation Energy was Having added the energy of 1st I.E. and removed
explained previously in relation to the Activity an electron from any atom, it is then possible to
Series of Metals. add more energy and remove a 2nd electron,
and a 3rd, and so on.
A(g) A+(g) + e-
1st I.E. A(g) A+(g) + e-
where A stands for any atom
in the gas state + 2+ -
2nd I.E. A (g) A (g) + e
Any atom can lose an electron if enough energy
is supplied... even atoms which do not normally
lose electrons.
3rd I.E. A+2(g) A3+(g) + e-
The Periodic Trend ...and so on,

in 1st Ionisation Energy according to how many electrons
You should remember that the very active the atom has
metals are the ones with low 1st ionisation
energies. They easily lose their outer electron(s) Once the first electron is removed, the
and so react readily. remaining electrons are pulled in tighter to the
nucleus. Each one experiences increased force
The trend for the whole Periodic table is: of attraction, so it requires more energy to
remove the next electron. Therefore, each
1st Ionisation Highest value successive ionisation requires more energy.
Energy
Once the entire outer orbit has been stripped
decreasing
away, the next ionisation must remove an

electron from an underlying orbit, which
requires a huge increase in the next ionisation
energy. This results in an interesting pattern:
increasing Patterns in Successive Ionisation Energy Data

Lowest
(values shown are energy units)
Successive Elements on Period 3
Explanations:
1st I.E. increases to the right because each atom Element Electron 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
across a period has more and more (+ve) Config. I.E. I.E. I.E. I.E.
nuclear charge attracting and holding electrons
in the orbit concerned. Therefore, it requires Sodium 2.8.1 0.5 4.5 6.9 9.6
more energy to remove an electron.
Magnesium 2.8.2 0.7 1.4 7.7 10.5
1st I.E. decreases down each group because, at
each step down, an extra whole layer of electrons Aluminium 2.8.3 0.6 1.8 2.8 11.6
has been added to the outside of the atom. The
outer shell is further away from the nucleus, and Notice how the values jump (underlined data)
is partially shielded from nuclear attraction by as the next ionisation has to remove an electron
the layers of electrons underneath it. Therefore, it from the next lower orbit.
becomes easier and easier to remove an electron.
Electronegativity Highest Value Inert gases
is a value assigned to each element to Fluorine not included
describe the power of an atom to

(values decrease down)
attract electrons to itself. Electronegativity Values

1.0 1.5 of selected elements 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Atoms with a tendency to gain (values decrease to left)
0.9 3.0
electrons and form negative ions have
high values. 0.8 2.8
Atoms with a tendency to lose
0.8 2.5
electrons easily (low 1st I.E.) and form
(+ve) ions have very low values. 0.7 2.2
Once again, there is a pattern in these
0.7
values in the Periodic Table.

15

4. QUANTITY CALCULATIONS & THE MOLE

Quantities in Defining the Mole
Chemical Calculations For technical reasons, the atomic standard
Atoms, molecules and ions always react with each used to compare the masses of all atoms is the
other in fixed, whole-number ratios. Thats why carbon atom, which contains
balancing an equation is so important... it actually
brings the equation into line with what is happening 6 protons
at the particle level. 6 neutrons
6 electrons
For example, when hydrogen and oxygen react to
form water, the balanced equation is
Atomic Number = 6 6p+
Mass Number = 12 6n0
2H2 + O2 2H2O
This is a true description of what is happening to the

molecules: The mass of this atom is
defined to be exactly 12.000000
atomic mass units (a.m.u.) and all other atoms
are given masses relative to this one.
Since this is the standard of comparison, the

2 Molecules 1 Molecule 2 Molecules formal definition of the mole is:
of H2 + of O2 of H2O
the number of atoms contained in
However, when we carry out chemical reactions in the exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
laboratory or in Chemical Industry, we cannot see or
count the molecules. Instead, we measure the mass Note: In Topic 1 it was pointed out that the Mass
or volume of substances. Number for any atom is a whole number. It has still
not been explained why the Atomic Weights in the
To measure out the correct numbers of particles for a Periodic Table are mostly not whole numbers.
reaction we need a simple way to convert masses and
volumes to numbers of molecules, and vice-versa. This WILL be explained in a later topic.
Thats the purpose of If you cannot wait, go find out about Isotopes.
The Mole
1 mole is a quantity of a chemical substance.
Avogadros Number
Just how many atoms are in 1 mole?
1 mole of any element or compound contains Obviously, it is a very large number. We now
exactly the same number of particles. know that it is about 6,000 billion trillion.
1 mole of each substance has a different mass, Avogadros Number

because the atoms and molecules all weigh
differently. 6.022 x 1023
particles in 1 mole of anything
The really clever and convenient thing about the
mole is its link to the Periodic Table and the This number is named in honour of an Italian
Atomic Weights shown. scientist who you will learn about soon.
6 18 82
C Ar Pb
207.2 grams of
Lead
contains
39.95 grams of
Carbon Argon Lead 6.022 x 1023
Argon
Lead atoms
12.01 39.95 207.2 contains
6.022 x 1023
12.01 grams
of
Argon atoms Carbon
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
= 12.01 grams = 39.95 grams = 207.2 grams contains
6.022 x 1023
EACH OF THESE HAS THE SAME NUMBER OF ATOMS Carbon atoms


Calculating Mole Quantities Moles and Numbers of Particles

You need to be able to calculate mole quantities Since one mole of any substance contains
in terms of both mass and number of particles. Avogadros Number of particles:
Molar Mass No. of moles = No. of particles you have

The Molar Mass of any chemical species is the Avogadros Number
mass (in grams) of 1 mole of the substance.
n= N
You need to add up all the Atomic Weights of all NA
the atoms given in the formula.
Examples:
Name Formula Molar Mass (g) Example Calculations
Argon Ar 39.95 1. How many moles are present in a sample of lead
Sodium Na 22.99 containing 7.88 x 1024 atoms?
(for elements like these just use Atomic Weight)
Solution n= N = 7.88x1024
Oxygen O2 (16.00 x 2) = 32.00 NA 6.022x1023
Chlorine Cl2 (35.45 x 2) = 70.90 = 13.1 mol
(these elements are diatomic molecules... 2 atoms each)
2. a) How many atoms of lead are needed to make
0.0250 mole?
Water H2O (1.008x2 + 16.00) = 18.016
b) What would be the mass of this quantity?
Carbon Dioxide CO2 (12.01 + (16.00x2)= 44.01
Sodium chloride NaCl (22.99 + 35.45) = 58.44 Solution
(add up At.weights of all atoms in the formula) 23
a) n = N so N = n x NA = 0.0250 x 6.022x10
22
Worksheet at the end of this section NA = 1.51 x 10 atoms
b) m = n x MM = 0.0250 x 207.2 (molar mass of Pb)

= 5.18 g
Number of Moles in a Given Mass
When you weigh a chemical sample you then Mole Quantities
need to be able to calculate how many moles
this contains. in Chemical Equations
When you consider an equation like
No. of moles = mass of substance you have 2H2 + O2 2H2O

molar mass you know it means
n= m
MM
Example Calculations 2 Molecules 1 Molecule 2 Molecules

1. How many moles in a) 5.23g of magnesium? of H2 + of O2 of H2O
b) 96.7g of water?
However, the number of molecules reacting is
Solution a) n = m = 5.23 = 0.215 mol
really just a ratio. The actual numbers might be
MM 24.31
2 million H2 + 1 million O2 2 million H2O
b) n= m = 96.7
MM (2x1.008 + 16.00)
or, 200 zillion H2 + 100 zillion O2 200 zillion H2O
= 96.7/18.016
= 5.37 mol
or, (lets use Avagadros number)
2. What mass is needed if you want to have 1.50 (2 x NA) H2 + NA O2 (2 x NA) H2O
moles of salt (sodium chloride)?
= 2 moles H2 + 1 mole O2 2 moles H2O
n= m so m = n x MM = 1.50 x (22.99 + 35.45)
MM = 1.50 x 58.44 The Balancing Coefficients
= 87.7 g
in a Chemical Equation
May be Interpreted as
Worksheet at the end of this section
Mole Ratios
19

Mole Quantities Calculating Mass Quantities

in Chemical Equations (cont.) in Reactions
The balancing coefficients of an equation can Mole calculations allow you to calculate the mass of
be interpreted as the mole ratio of reactants and products and reactants involved in a reaction.
products.
Example Problem
So, 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O Aluminium burns to form aluminium oxide.
If 4.29g of aluminium was burned,
means 2 mol. reacts with 1 mol. to form 2 mol. a) what mass of oxygen would be consumed?
or, 4 mol. reacts with 2 mol. to form 4 mol. b) what mass of aluminium oxide would be formed?
or, 100 mol. reacts with 50 mol. to form 100 mol.
or any other proportional quantities. Solution
Always start with the balanced equation:
Example Problem
4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3
a) If 0.50 mol of sodium reacted completely with
mole
hydrochloric acid, how many moles of products
ratio 4 : 3 : 2
would be formed?
No. of moles of Aluminium: n = m = 4.29
b) What mass of each product would be formed?
MM 26.98
= 0.159 mol
Solution
a) The balanced equation is
a) Mass O2 consumed:
mole ratio Al : O2 = 4 : 3
2 Na + 2 HCl H2 + 2 NaCl
moles of O2 = 0.159 x 3 = 0.119 mol
mole
4
ratio 2 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol : 2 mol.
mass of O2: m = n x MM = 0.119 x 32.00
so, 0.50 mol : 0.50 mol : 0.25 mol : 0.50 mol = 3.81 g
Answer: 0.25 mol of H2 and 0.5 mol of NaCl b) Mass Al2O3 produced:
mole ratio Al : Al2O3 = 4: 2 (i.e. 2:1)
b) Mass of Hydrogen: m = n x MM = 0.25 x 2.016 \ moles of Al2O3 = 1/2 x 0.159 = 0.0795 mol
= 0.50 g
Mass of salt: m = n x MM = 0.50 x 58.44 mass of Al2O3: m = n x MM = 0.0795 x 101.96
= 29 g = 8.11 g
Worksheet at the end of this section Worksheet at the end of this section
Practical Work: Using Mass & Mole Ratios

to Determine a Formula ceramic
A common experiment is to burn a piece of magnesium in a crucible, as crucible
suggested by the diagram.
Reaction: Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Careful measurement of mass allows the empirical formula for magnesium

oxide to be determined.
Typical Measurements Analysis of Results

Remember that to convert any mass to moles:
Mass of empty crucible = 42.74 g
n = m / MM
Mass of magnesium = 2.05 g
Mass of crucible Elements Magnesium : Oxygen
+ product after burning = 46.22 g Ratio of masses: 2.05 g : 1.07 g
Ratio of moles: 2.05 / 24.31 : 1.07 / 16.00
Mass of magnesium oxide (divide by Atomic Weight)
formed = 3.48 g = 0.0843 mol : 0.0669 mol
Mass of oxygen in Simplified ratio = 0.0843/0.0669 : 0.0669/0.0669 (divide both by the
compound = 1.07 g = 1.26 : 1 smaller)
Nearest whole number ratio 1 : 1
There is often a large error
Empirical Formula is MgO due to incomplete burning

20

A Little History... How the Mole was Invented

Gay-Lussacs Law Avogadros Hypothesis
The Italian, Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) was trained in
Joseph Gay-Lussac was a French scientist with
Law, but became very interested in Science.
an unfortunate name by modern standards. He
lived 200 years ago, and was very interested in
In 1811, he noticed the similarity between Gay-
flight using balloons, so he investigated the way
Lussacs Law (an empirical law based on
gases react chemically.
experiment) and the concept that atoms must
combine in simple, whole number ratios to form
After a series of clever experiments, in which the
compounds.
volumes of reacting gases were measured, in
1808 he proposed the Law of Combining
This led him to make an hypothesis:
Volumes:
Equal Volumes of all Gases
When measured at constant temperature Contain Equal Numbers of Molecules
and pressure, the volumes of gases in a
chemical reaction show simple, whole- (when measured at the same conditions
number ratios to each other. of temperature and pressure)
This was a vital breakthrough in the history of

The volume of a gas is easily changed by temperature
Chemistry.
and pressure, so it is very important that the volumes
are all measured at the same conditions.
For example, consider the reaction:
Examples of Gay-Lussacs Law Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g)
Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g)
Prior to Avogadro, it was assumed that the the
1 litre 1 litre 2 litres
reaction involved single atoms, like this:
Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) Water(g) (vapour)
H(g) + Cl(g) HCl(g)
2 litres 1 litre 2 litres
but the combining volumes (discovered by
Hydrogen(g) + Nitrogen(g) Ammonia(g)
experiment) were
3 litres 1 litre 2 litres
Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g)
Notice that in every case, that the volumes are
1 volume : 1 volume : 2 volumes
always in a simple, whole number ratio to each
other.
Now, reasoned Avogadro, gases react in simple,
whole-number volume ratios because each litre
Now consider the balanced equations for these
of gas has the same number of molecules in it.
three example reactions:
Therefore, to get the volume ratios shown
above, each hydrogen molecule, and each
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
chlorine molecule, must have 2 atoms!
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
i.e. Hydrogen is H2(g) and Chlorine is Cl2(g), and
the correct equation is
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
The mole ratios are the same as the volume
ratios discovered by Gay-Lussac!
Then, for the same reaction, scientists could
measure the masses of these gases as well as
Why should this be?
volumes. This showed that chlorine atoms must
be about 35 times heavier than hydrogen...
... enter chemists were on the way to figuring out the
relative atomic weights of elements, and being
Avogadro! able to calculate chemical quantities.
Although he did not invent the concept of the

mole, we name the number of particles in 1 mole
in Avogadros honour... Avogadros Number
21

Comparing Mass Changes Molar Volume of a Gas

When Metals Burn
Atoms always react in simple whole-number If 1 mole of any chemical species contains the
mole ratios, but atoms have different masses, same number of particles (Avogadros Number)
and compounds have various formulas, so the AND if equal volumes of gases contain equal
result is that chemicals do NOT react in simple number of particles (Avogadros Hypothesis),
ratios by mass. then it follows that
1 mole of any gas
Thats why we need the mole... we measure must occupy the same volume,
quantities by their mass, but this makes no if measured at the same
sense until moles are calculated.
temperature and pressure.
The syllabus requires that you should consider
the mass changes involved when various This volume is the Molar Volume and is the
metals combine with oxygen to form their oxide same for every gas. It is measured at the
compound. standard set of conditions known as Standard
Laboratory Conditions (SLC); 25oC and 1
The following table shows the mass changes for standard atmosphere of pressure.
100g of the metal in each case:
100g of Formula Mass O2 Mass of 1 mole of any gas = 24.8 litres at SLC
Metal of oxide needed(g) Oxide formed
Lithium Li2O 115 215

Mole Calculations Involving Gases
This additional knowledge opens up the
Iron Fe2O3 43 143 opportunity to carry out quantity calculations
which involve mass and volumes of gases.
Zinc ZnO 49 149
Example Problems
Lead PbO2 15 115 1.
If 15.65g of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was
Empirical & Molecular Formulas completely decomposed by heat, what volume of
carbon dioxide gas would be produced (if
You are reminded that a molecular formula really
measured at SLC)?
does describe the atoms present in a molecule.
Solution
The molecular compound methane, Always begin with the balanced equation for the
has formula CH4, because thats reaction.
exactly what each molecule contains... CaCO3(s) CO2(g) + CaO(s)
1 carbon atom and 4 hydrogen atoms. mole ratio = 1 : 1 : 1
Moles of CaCO3: n = m = 15.65 = 0.1564 mol
Lattice structures, either ionic or covalent MM 100.09
are NOT molecular. Mole ratio is 1 : 1, so moles of CO2 formed = 0.1564
Example: sodium Molar Vol.
Volume of CO2 = 0.1564 x 24.8
chloride, NaCl = 3.88 L (at SLC) of all gases
at SLC
The formula does NOT 2.
describe a molecule, What volume of hydrogen gas (at SLC) would be
but only gives the simplest ratio between the produced if 10.00g of lithium metal was reacted
bonded atoms... this is an empirical formula. with sulfuric acid?
Earlier was an example of how formulas are Solution

determined by analysing the mass composition 2 Li(s) + H2SO4(aq) H2(g) + Li2SO4(aq)
2 : 1 : 1 : 1
of a compound.
Moles of lithium: n = m = 10.00 = 1.441 mol
You should note that this method can only MM 6.941
produce an empirical formula. (In fact, the word Mole ratio is 2:1, so moles of H2 = 1/2 x 1.441=0.7204
empirical means something determined by
experiment, not by theory.) Volume of H2 = 0.7204 x 24.8
= 17.9 L (at SLC)
If a molecular compound, with molecular
formula X2Y6 was analysed by mass
measurements, its empirical formula would be Worksheet at the end of this section
calculated to be XY3... simplest ratio of atoms.
22

5. METALS FROM THEIR ORES

Ores and Minerals The Importance of
... and now back to the metals. Predicting Yield from an Ore
The whole situation of economic feasibility
Minerals are naturally occurring compounds. makes the science of Analytical Chemistry vital
Rocks are mixtures of various minerals. Most in the mining and metals industry.
minerals are lattice structures, both ionic and
covalent. Some very common minerals include: Mining operations cost millions of dollars to set
up. To do so, the operators need to be sure that
Silica, which is chemically silicon dioxide the ore contains enough metal to be profitable.
(SiO2) and is the most common mineral on Chemical analysis in the laboratory is used to
Earth. Other compounds are often included in measure the mineral content of the ore body, to
the silica lattice to make silicate minerals. predict the final yield of the metal.
These occur in virtually all rocks.
Calcite, which is calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is
the main mineral in limestone and marble.
Some minerals contain significant quantities of

metal(s), chemically combined in the compound.
Ores are rocks and/or minerals from which it is

economically worthwhile to extract a desired metal.
It is the economic part of this definition which is

critical. For example, there are many rocks and
minerals that contain significant amounts of iron and
aluminium. These are not iron ore or aluminium
ore unless it is economically worthwhile to mine and
process them to get the metal.
Ores are Non-Renewable

Resources
Comalco Aluminium Ltd
Minerals and ores have been formed over

Photo courtesy of
millions and billions of years of geological

processes on Earth.
Because of that time-frame, the ores are non-

renewable in the sense that once we use them
up, they cannot be replaced.
There is no immediate concern for running out

What Makes It Economically Worthwhile? of the most important ores, but unlimited
Basically, economic feasibility is the balance exploitation of any non-renewable resource is:
between:
irresponsible, to future generations.
the Commercial Price for which the metal can unsustainable, because all non-renewable
be sold and things must eventually run out.
the Production Costs of mining and economically stupid, because it may be
transporting the ore, and chemically extracting cheaper to re-use and recycle, than
and purifying of the metal. to constantly extract new materials.
environmentally damaging, because mining
Another factor is the abundance of the metal and metal smelting have a history of pollution
and its ores on Earth. For example, iron is and ecosystem destruction.
relatively cheap because it is very common in
huge deposits of iron ores. In the not-too-distant future it may become
economically worthwhile to begin mining the
Platinum is very rare, so it commands a high old rubbish dumps around our cities, to recover
price. This makes it worthwhile to mine even the discarded metals in societys garbage.
very low-grade ores. A low-grade iron ore would
not be worth mining!


Case Study:
Extraction of Copper from its Ores
Copper Ores include a variety of

compounds of copper, including: Froth Flotation to Concentrate the Ore
The ore is crushed into a powder and the copper
copper(I) sulfide, Cu2S minerals are separated from the silicates by a process
copper(II) hydroxide mixed with of Froth Flotation which relies on differences in
copper(II) carbonate, Cu(OH)2.CuCO3 wettability and density.
Compressed air blown in to
These compounds usually occur as thin create a froth of bubbles Froth
veins of blue-green minerals embedded in overflows
masses of worthless silicate rock. for
collection
The copper content of the entire ore body Froth
might be only 3% or less. Therefore, the first Crushed

step after mining is to separate the copper Ore
minerals from the rock. in a
slurry of
water and
wetting
oil Waste
Mineral
Chemistry of Smelting Slurry
The concentrated copper minerals now
undergo Decomposition Reactions. Compressed air creates a froth of bubbles
in a detergent solution.
In Australia, the main copper ores contain
copper(I) sulfide. If this is heated in a furnace Copper minerals, sprayed with a special oil,
supplied with plenty of air the reaction is: cling to the bubbles and are carried upwards to
overflow with the froth.
Copper(I) sulfide + oxygen Copper + Sulfur dioxide
Cu2S + O2 2Cu + SO2 Silicate minerals are wetted by the water and,
being denser, sink to the bottom.
The copper collected is about 98% pure.
The collected froth is then treated to separate
Sulfur dioxide is a serious pollutant if the oil and detergent for re-use.
released from the smelter.
These days it is collected and used to The ore concentrate is now about 30% copper.
manufacture sulfuric acid... a useful by-p
product.
Final Purification by Electrolysis

The major use of copper is for electrical wiring. For this it needs to be 99.9% pure.
Copper is purified by electrolysis:
The impure copper is

immersed in CuSO4
+ - After migrating
through the solution,
the ions are re-
solution and electrified:
deposited as pure
Impure Pure copper metal on the
Cu Cu2+ + 2e- Copper Cu+2 ions Copper
dissolves migrate through deposits
other electrode:
into CuSO4 solution on
solution
The copper dissolves electrode Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
into the solution, but
impurities do not. Impurities

27

The Case for Recycling Producing the electricity usually

involves the burning of coal at a power
The point that mineral ores are non- station. The burning of fossil fuels like
renewable has already been made. coal is a major contributor to the
Eventually, any non-renewable resource Greenhouse Effect which many
must run out, so recycling is inevitable. scientists are now convinced is causing
massive climate changes to the entire
There is also a strong environmental Earth.
case for recycling of metals, especially
aluminium.
Extracting
aluminium from
its ore requires
about 200kJ
(kilojoules) of
energy per kg
of metal. This Recycling aluminium requires about 7kJ
energy is of energy, a saving of about 96% in
mainly in the energy and environmental impact!
form of
electricity,
which is
needed in huge
quantities for
the electrolytic
smelting
process.
Most local councils now operate Recycling Centres which can sort out paper,
glass, plastic, etc from our garbage, as long as we remember to put recyclables in
the correct bin. Aluminium (mainly drink cans) collected this way is returned to
scrap-metal businesses which clean and re-melt the metal to return it to
manufacturing industry for re-use.
Scrap Metal
awaiting recycling.
Photo by Pawel Grabowski

28
TM
Emmaus Catholic College SL#802440
WATER
1. THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER
2. STRUCTURE, BONDING & PROPERTIES OF WATER
3. THE CHEMISTRY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
4. HEAT CAPACITY & CALORIMETRY
...all in the context of waters vital role in the natural world

Water... Amazing Stuff ! Chemically...
Its seems very strange to devote an entire topic to just one You already know several different ways to describe and
simple compound. visualize the water molecule...
O
H2O
But water is so important in so many ways...
H
H
all life
on Earth H O
depends on H
WATER
In this topic you will learn more about the
Chemical Bonding
within and between water molecules, and how this is
WATER responsible for waters many unique properties.
is involved You will learn about the

in our
life &
leisure
Chemistry of Solubility
and how we measure concentrations, and calculate with
Photos by Diana
Molarity
of solutions.
WATER...
Finally, as a lead-in to Topic 4, you will learn about waters
covers most of the Earth quite remarkable Heat Capacity, and how we use it in the
controls weather and climate technique of
carves landscapes
makes up 75% of all living things
dissolves things
Calorimetry
for measuring energy changes
absorbs heat during chemical processes.
...and much more
TM
Comparison
of
The Many Roles Properties
of Water Bonding in Water
on Earth Basic Properties:
Density, and Similar Molecules
m.p. & b.p. CH4
NH3 Polar
Water Content Covalent
H2S
of the Bonding
Earths Spheres
Dipoles
&
Structure, Hydrogen Bonds
Importance of Bonding
Water &
Properties
More Unusual
of Water Properties of Water;
Surface Tension
&
Viscosity
WATER Water as a Solvent
Chemistry
How
of Ionic & Polar
Heat Capacity
Aqueous Substances
&
Solutions Dissolve
Calorimetry
Temperature,
Heat Energy Ionic Solutions
& &
Waters Specific
Equations
Heat Capacity Heat Capacity
& Life on Earth.
Thermal
Pollution Measuring
Calorimetry Dynamic
Concentration; Equilibrium
& Calorimeters Molarity in a
Heat Saturated Solution
of
Solution Endothermic
&
Precipitation Reactions
Exothermic
Changes

TM
1. THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water in the Spheres of the Earth Revision: Solutions, Solute and Solvent
In the Atmosphere, water is present as water vapour, and
as tiny liquid droplets in the clouds.
A SOLUTION is a mixture, usually of a solid (the
SOLUTE) and a liquid (the SOLVENT).
The solute and solvent particles are intimately associated

so that the mixture cannot be separated by filtration, and
the solute will never settle to the bottom. We say the
solute is dissolved in the solvent.
The Many Roles of Water on Earth

Water is essential in all living things because it is
a solvent for all the chemicals in a living cell, and the

medium in which all the chemical reactions occur.
a reactant or product in many biological reactions, such as
photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
a transport medium for carrying substances, such as when
food, oxygen, etc. are carried in the blood.
In percentage terms, water makes up between 1% and 5% a shock-absorber and support structure. Many plants and
of the air, varying with time, place and weather. simple animals (e.g. worms) rely on water pressure in their
tissues to hold their body in shape. Our brain and other
In the Lithosphere, water makes up about 10% of the solid body parts are cushioned by water-based body fluids.
Earth. Although solid rock and minerals seem perfectly dry, a habitat (place to live) for many species. Water habitats
there is often water incorporated into the crystal lattice have very stable temperatures because of waters ability
structure of many minerals. When volcanoes erupt, a huge to absorb heat with little temperature change.
amount of steam is released as the rocks are melted.
The Hydrosphere is, of course, nearly all water. Oceans

contain about 3% dissolved salt, but the ice caps, rivers and
lakes are virtually 100% water.
In Living Things, water makes up about 75% of every life-

form, but jellyfish or watermelons are more like 95% Photo by
Krys Squires
Water is a major factor in global climate, weather and the

Water in the landscape shaping of landforms.
clouds
snow
eroded The water-cycle produces all rain, hail and snowfall.
valley
Water is the main agent of erosion, carving out the valleys
and wearing down the mountains, creating the landscapes.
Water can absorb, transport and release vast amounts of
ll
fa
heat energy. The ocean currents largely control global
Glacier r
te climates by re-distributing heat world-wide.
Wa
For humans and their civilization, water is a major resource
for drinking, cooking, washing and recreation.

for crop irrigation and farming.
in industry as a solvent, cleaning agent and cooling agent.
Belinda for transport by boat and ship.
Photo by Diana
Lake for generating hydro-electricity.

TM
Basic Properties of Water Waters Density Anomaly
You may have done some simple practical work to For almost every pure substances the solid is more dense
investigate some of the basic properties of water. than the liquid.
Water is the opposite... liquid water has a higher density

Density of Liquid & Solid Water than ice. How do we explain this?
Density is the ratio between the mass of a substance and
the space (volume) it occupies. All pure substances have In solid water (ice) the molecules form a molecular
a fixed and characteristic density. lattice. Each molecule is held rigidly in place.
Density = Mass
Volume
D= m
V
A simple method is
to weigh an empty,
dry measuring
cylinder, then fill
with water. Read the
volume of water
accurately then re- When ice melts to form liquid water, the molecules have
weigh to get the enough energy to move around freely. However, they are
mass of water. still very close together, and in fact they wriggle in even
closer to each other than when rigidly arranged in the solid
Ideally, you would lattice. Now there is the same mass of particles crammed
repeat these into less space... higher density.
measurements with
different volumes
of water.
For ice, you need to weigh it quickly before it melts. If
the ice cubes really are cubes or rectangular prisms, you
might measure length, width and height, then calculate
the volume.
Typical Results
Liquid water: Mass = 245 g Volume = 250mL

Since solid ice has a lower density, it floats in liquid water.
D = m = 245 = 0.98 g/mL
V 250 Melting & Boilingo Points
Pure water melts at 0 C, and boils at 100oC, under
Ice: Mass = 33 g Volume = 36mL normal 1 atmosphere of pressure.
D = m = 33 = 0.92 g/cm3 (As you may know, the celsius temperature scale is based
V 36 on the m.p. & b.p. of water.)
Note: Under different pressures, or if impure, the m.p. and b.p.

will change. For example, it can be difficult to get a good,
When measuring volume, we normally measure liquids in
hot cup of tea on a high mountain, because at the lower
millilitres (mL) and solids in cubic centimetres (cm3). For air pressure the water boils at a much lower temperature.
practical purposes these are equal volumes.
You may have done experiments to find out the effect of
impurities on the boiling point. A common experiment is
Density changes with temperature. to boil water with, and without, an additive such as salt
Water achieves its highest density at 4oC. and measure the boiling temperature. It will usually be
found that the boiling temperature rises by several
This value is 1.00 g/mL degrees with solute dissolved in it.

TM
2. STRUCTURE, BONDING & PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water the Weirdo! Ammonia NH3 Structural formula

We are so familiar with the everyday properties of water H N H
that we do not realize how unusual and strange water is, Lewis Formula
until we make a careful comparison with other, similar H N H H
compounds.
In this molecule, the 4 pairs of
H
Some of these properties will be studied in this topic, but electrons surrounding the nitrogen
heres a preview: atom are also at the points of a
tetrahedron.
The Strange Properties of Water
Abnormally high m.p. and b.p. However, one pair is not
Abnormally high viscosity and surface tension involved in a covalent
Abnormally high Heat Capacity bond... it is an unbonded
Unusual Density anomaly (already described) pair, but still occupies a
... when compared to similar sized molecules. point of the tetrahedron.
Why? Its all a matter of bonding...
Bonding in The result is that the ammonia

Molecular Compounds of Hydrogen molecule is a triangular pyramid shape.
To understand water, we need to compare it to other,
similar sized, covalent molecules containing hydrogen:
Water H2O Structural formula H O
H
Methane CH4 Structural formula
Lewis Formula H
H C H
Lewis Formula
H O In the water molecule there are two
H Covalent bonds H unbonded pairs occupying 2 of the
H points of the tetrahedron.
(shared pairs of
H C H electrons)
Therefore, the water molecule is bent.
o
H The diagrams suggest a 90 right angle
The Lewis Formula, and the structural formula, would between the hydrogen atoms, but in
suggest that the molecule is a flat, box-shape. However, the 3-D it is more like 105o.
pairs of electrons in each covalent bond always try to get as
far away from each other as possible, and in 3-dimensions Hydrogen sulfide H2S
this results in a tetrahedron shape (a regular, triangular has exactly the same bonding geometry as water. The
pyramid with 4 points as far apart as possible). central sulfur atom is larger than oxygen, but otherwise
the molecules are very similar.
Lewis formula Structural formula
H S H S
H H
Each point of a
tetrahedron is as far
away from the other 3
as it can get.
In the methane molecule, each

covalent bond (and therefore each
hydrogen atom) is as far away from
the other 3 as it can get.

TM
Comparing the Polar Covalent Bonding
Properties of These Compounds To understand water better, you must learn more about
The 4 compounds CH4, NH3, H2O and H2S are of covalent and ionic chemical bonding.
comparable size and bonding. Now we compare their
melting and boiling points, and how these are related to Up to this point, you have seen these types of bonding as
their relative molecular weights. quite different things. Now you must realize that they are
really different degrees of the same thing.
Compound Molecular m.p. b.p.
Weight (oC) (oC) An analogy might help... Imagine sharing some lollies with
CH4 16 -183 -162 another person. If both of you are very fair about it, and
neither dominates or intimidates the other, the sharing will
NH3 17 -78 -33 be equal:
My Share Your Share
H2O 18 0 100 This is like a pure
covalent bond
H2S 34 -86 -60 where electrons are
shared evenly
Graph of m.p. & b.p.

100
H2O for these compounds An ionic bond can be thought of as the lolly-sharing
between a hungry bully and a wimp who hates lollies
anyway:
Melting Points & Boiling Points (oC)
bo
Bullys
s Share Wimps
s Share
ili
Gimme everything available I didnt want those anyway

ng
po
When electrons are

0
in
ts
shared so unequally,
me
ltin the result is
NH3 gp (+ve) and (-ve) ions
oin
ts being formed.
H2S
100
e
lin
-1
rend
dt Now you must learn that there is also a situation (or a
cte
xpe whole heap of situations) in between these extremes, where
E
CH4 the lollies will be shared, but perhaps not evenly.
200
15 20 25 30 35
-2
Sharing,
Molecular Weight
but not
evenly.
Usually, the m.p.s & b.p.s of comparable substances show
a steady increase as the atomic or molecular weight In chemical bonding, this kind of sharing is called a Polar
increases. Covalent Bond and occurs when electrons are shared
between 2 atoms with quite different values for
This graph shows that both water and ammonia have Electronegativity. (This was introduced in Topic 2... revise)
unusually high melting and boiling points. Water
especially has values way above those of comparable A Pure Covalent Bond
molecules. occurs when electrons are
shared evenly.
Why? Whats going on?
dipole
This is a d
In Topic 1 you learned how the properties of m.p. & b.p. In a Polar Covalent Bond It has 2 opposite poles
are controlled by the bonding within substances. the sharing is not even.
The electrons are
Covalent molecules are held together internally by strong attracted more to one +
covalent bonds (intra-molecular bonds). These atom than the other.
however, are not the bonds that must be overcome to melt This causes the bond (and perhaps the entire molecule) to
or boil the substance. become electrically polarized. The electric charge is not evenly
distributed. One end has a greater concentration of electrons and
Its the forces between the molecules (inter-molecular has a slight negative charge (), while the other end becomes
bonds) that must be overcome to melt or boil a molecular slightly positive (+). The Greek letter delta () is used to denote
substance. a small amount of something, in this case electric charge. The
In water, it seems these forces are unusually strong! molecule is called a dipole, meaning it has 2 poles.
TM
Polar Bonds Create Inter-Molecular Forces Hydrogen Bonding in Water
The charges on each end of a molecular dipole are only a In the water molecule the covalent bonds are very polar, so
fraction of the size of the charges on an ion, but they do the atoms develop especially large partial charges. Each
cause electrical forces to occur between nearby molecules. molecule is a dipole, and strong inter-molecular Hydrogen
Bonds attracts each molecule to its neighbours.
+
+
+
+ These forces
are called
Dipole-Dipole + +
Forces +
+ Inter-molecular
Hydrogen Bonds

between
molecules
Intra-molecular
It is these forces which are the inter-molecular forces
Covalent Bonds
that hold the molecules together in the solid state. These within molecules
are the forces which must be overcome with thermal
energy in order for the solid to melt. These are the forces
+
+
which determine the m.p. and b.p. of a molecular
substance.
It is this network of hydrogen bonds that holds the
The strength of the dipole-dipole force varies according to molecules in a rigid lattice in the solid state.
the degree of polarity of the covalent bond (how evenly or
unevenly the electrons are being shared) and also varies The Hydrogen Bonding is the reason that ice has such
according to the shape of the molecule. In some a high melting point, compared to other molecules.
substances the forces are very weak, in others quite strong. (Ammonia also has relatively high m.p. & b.p... same
reason!)
The strongest dipole-dipole forces are about 1/3 as strong
as a full-scale ionic bond. These occur whenever hydrogen Once melted to a liquid, the molecules can move around,
atoms are bonded to Oxygen, Nitrogen or Fluorine, and but cling to each other because of the hydrogen bonds.
are called... The molecules even wriggle closer to each other and the
density increases.
Hydrogen Bonds
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Fluorine are all small, strongly To boil water to a gas, the molecules must be able to totally
electronegative atoms. Hydrogen is even smaller, and once break free from the hydrogen bonds. This requires
the electrons are sucked away from it in the polar bond, considerable energy, so water has an unusually high boiling
the hydrogen atom is really a naked proton. point, compared to other molecules.
O, N or F atom
H atom +
Polar Covalent Bond Hydrogen Bond
The result is an especially strong set of partial charges, a

It is the
powerful dipole, and strong inter-molecular force, which
HYDROGEN BONDING
attracts nearby molecules to each other. These especially Photo by
between water molecules Mario Magallanes Trejo
strong dipole-dipole attractions are called
which explains all of waters
Hydrogen Bonds.
weird and unusual properties

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More of Waters Unusual Properties Viscosity
As well as the Density Anomaly and the very high m.p. is another phenomenon you may have experimented with.
and b.p., water has other properties which, compared to
other similar size molecules, are quite extraordinary. Viscosity is a measure of how sticky or thick a liquid
is. Technically it is measured as the resistance of a liquid to
You may have done simple practical work to demonstrate flowing through a thin tube, but it can be thought of as
these: how easy or difficult it is for things to move through the
liquid.
Surface Tension
is a phenomenon where a liquid acts as if it has a skin at
the surface. In most liquids the effect is small, but water has
a relatively strong surface tension. You may have dropped marbles into
various liquids and compared the
rates at which they fell, as a way to
observe viscosity differences.
Liquids like oil are very viscous, so

you may get the idea that water has a
low viscosity. Yes it has, compared
to oil, but thats not really a fair
A piece of metal comparison.
being supported
on the surface In fact, when the viscosity of water
tension of water is compared to liquids with similar
size molecules, waters viscosity is
very high.
Why?
Technically, the metal is NOT floating. Its that hydrogen bonding again...
The explanation is, as usual, hydrogen bonding. Water The hydrogen bonds between water
molecules have a network of forces attracting them to each molecules cause them to cling to
other. At the surface, this network of force resists each other, and make it much more
penetration and can support objects which will sink if difficult for a moving object to
pushed through the skin. move through the liquid.
Surface tension is also the reason that water forms droplets.
The high viscosity of water has had a major impact on the

evolution of any aquatic animals who need to move
quickly to catch food or escape predators.
Fast moving aquatic animals are always streamlined in

shape and equipped with powerful tails or flippers for
propulsion.
Photo by Natasha Whiteley
Photo by Diana
The surface tension network of forces tries to pull the

droplet into a spherical shape. The dew-drops in the photo
are hanging on a spider web.

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3. THE CHEMISTRY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Water as a Solvent Covalent Molecular Substances

Perhaps the main reason that water is so important to living may, or may not dissolve, in water depending on their own
things, and in the study of Chemistry is that it is a great polar nature, and on how large the molecules are.
solvent.
If the solute molecules are themselves polar, they will
This doesnt mean that everything will dissolve in water... generally dissolve, because the water molecules will
far from it. You may have done experimental work to try to surround each molecule, attracted by dipole-dipole forces.
find any general rules about which substances will, or will
not, dissolve in water. Generally, it all depends on the type In the case of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) (alcohol) the water
of bonding within the substance. molecules form hydrogen bonds with the ethanol
molecules which contain the highly polar -OH chemical
Ionic Compounds group.
are (generally) soluble in water, and all because water Water molecules form
molecules are polar. hydrogen bonds and +
h
hydrate the molecule
so it dissolves
Ionic compounds are composed of a strong ionic crystal +
lattice. It requires a high temperature to melt this lattice, but
water molecules can dissolve the crystal by surrounding

each ion and detaching it from the lattice. +
+
Ions h
hydrated
(surrounded by water
molecules) and taken Ethanol CH3CH2OH
into solution
+ +
Na + Cl- There are many covalent molecules like this, with -NH or
+ -OH groups on the molecule, including all the alcohols and
the sugars such as sucrose (table sugar).
Small, non-polar covalent molecules such as iodine (I2),

oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2) will dissolve in water, but
only in small amounts... we say they are sparingly soluble.
Na+ Cl- Na+ These molecules do not have any dipole charges to attract
a water molecule and become hydrated, but they are so
+ small and have such small dispersion forces holding
Cl
-
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- them to each other, that they can simply spread out, in
Lattice Ionic small numbers, among the water molecules.
disintegrating Lattice
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Dispersion Forces

are extremely weak attractive forces that exist within all
substances. Among non-polar molecules they are the
only inter-molecular forces acting to hold the molecules
Notice how the the (+ve) ions are surrounded by water together. This is why such substances have very low
molecules which are presenting the () end of their m.p. & b.p. Knowledge of how and why these forces
dipole to the ion. The (-ve) ions are surrounded by arise is not required for this course.
molecules presenting the (+) end of the dipole.
With each ion surrounded by dozens of water molecules, Larger non-polar molecules will NOT dissolve in water.
the attraction between the ions is blanketed and the They are too large to simply disperse among the water
individual ions can no longer get close enough to each molecules, and there are no dipoles for the water molecules
other for their charges to bond them together. to associate with or form hydrogen bonds.
An ionic compound in solution is made up of free moving, These substances include petrol, oils and waxes, and are
separate, hydrated ions. often described as hydrophobic (= water hating/fearing)
because they will not mix with water.

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A Special Case to Know About... Water as a Solvent (continued)
Hydrogen Chloride
In the pure state, the compound hydrogen chloride (HCl) Covalent Network Substances
is composed of small polar molecules: like the elements Silicon and Carbon, and compounds like
silicon dioxide SiO2 (the mineral silica), are crystal lattices
HCl molecules of atoms bonded together covalently.
+ +
Despite the dipole-dipole attractions, the m.p. & b.p. are

quite low, so pure HCl is a gas at room temperature.
You would expect that these molecules would dissolve in

water, but they do much more than just dissolve... they
interact so strongly with water that the molecules ionize
and become separate H+ and Cl- ions.
+ HCl(g)
Since the bonds are non-polar, or only slightly polar, water
molecule molecules are not attracted, and the substance will NOT
dissolve.
Compounds with Very Large Molecules

Living cells produce many very large molecules, each
containing perhaps tens of thousands of atoms. Some, like
cellulose (in plant cell walls) contain many polar groups,
and water molecules will be attracted and form hydrogen
+ bonds. However, the cellulose molecules are often linked
+
- together by their own hydrogen bonding, and covalent
Cl + cross-linking, and it is impossible for the huge molecules
+
+ to be taken into solution.
Separate, hydrated ions Cellulose is therefore insoluble, but is described as being
Cl-(aq) and H+(aq) hydrophilic (= water loving) because water will cling to it,
wet it and soak into it very well.
Hydrogen chloride dissolved in water is, of course, Some protein molecules will dissolve if they have a folded,
hydrochloric acid. This is more than just dissolving in globular shape that allows water molecules to surround
water because the molecule has ionized... what was a polar them. This is the case with enzyme proteins, which are
covalent bond has become ionic, due the the influence of dissolved in the water inside a cell, or in the blood.
the polar water molecule.
Other proteins, like keratin (in hair and skin) are in long
chains that cross-link to others. They will not dissolve, but
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) are hydrophilic.
Plastics, such as polyethylene, are composed of huge

molecules too. Most are non-polar, and may be cross-linked
(aq) means aqueous. with each other. They tend to be insoluble in water and are
This is Latin for in water. generally hydrophobic.
In an equation it means
Molecules in the gas dissolved and hydrated by water Like dissolves like...
state. molecules. water is polar, so it dissolves:
ionic compounds
polar molecules (unless too large)
This equation describes the dissolving of HCl gas to
very small non-polar molecules (sparingly)
form hydrochloric acid.

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Ionic Solutions Dynamic Equilibrium in a Saturated Solution
When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the crystal If you keep adding and stirring salt into water until the
lattice disintegrates and the (+ve) and (-ve) ions become solution is saturated, you reach a dynamic equilibrium
separately hydrated to form the solution. between the ions still in an undissolved, solid, crystal lattice,
and those in the solution as separate, hydrated ions.
Dissolving of sodium chloride:
For simplicity in this diagram, the water molecules have
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + -
Cl (aq) been left out.
The positive (+ve) ions are collectively called cations.

Negative (-ve) ions are known as anions.
Ions in a
You need to be able to write an equation to describe the saturated
dissolving of any ionic compound. solution
More examples:
Dissolving of magnesium nitrate:
This ion Ions dissolve from the lattice into
Mg+2(aq) +
-
Mg(NO3)2(s) 2NO3 (aq) precipitates
solution, while dissolved ions leave
the solution and join the lattice
Notice that the equation must balance in terms of the ratio AT THE SAME RATE
of the ions. In this case there are 2 nitrate ions for each
magnesium ion. Notice also that the total of (+ve) charges This ion
dissolves
is the same as the total of (-ve) charges.
Dissolving of aluminium chloride:
Al2Cl3(s) 2Al+3(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)
Try the Worksheet at the end of this section

Undissolved
solid
Dilute, Concentrated, Saturated
If you dissolved a pinch of salt in a bucket of water this is
a dilute solution, meaning that it contains very little
solute compared to the amount of solvent.
Since dissolving and precipitating occur at the same rate,
If you dissolved a heaped spoonful of salt in a glass of the concentration of the solution does not change, and the
water the solution is concentrated... it has quite a lot of amount of undissolved solid remains the same. At the
solute compared to the amount of solvent. macroscopic level, it seems that nothing is happening, but
down at the atomic level things are moving... ions
There is a limit to how much solute can be dissolved in a constantly dissolving into solution and precipitating back
given amount of solvent. When this limit is reached, and out of it again. This is known as a Dynamic
the solution contains as much solute as it can hold, it is said Equilibrium
to be saturated.
Dynamic Equilibrium in a saturated salt solution:
Different compounds have different solubilities, and this
o
can change with temperature, but as an example, at 25 C a NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
salt-water solution is saturated when about 36g of salt have
dissolved in each 100mL of water. We say the solubility of
salt is 36 g/100mL, or simply 36 % m/v. This double-arrow symbol indicates that the reaction is
occurring in both directions, at the same rate, in dynamic
(% m/v means percentage mass to volume and refers equilibrium.
to the measurement of grams (mass) in 100mL (volume).
Many chemical reactions reach this state.
This is not the only way we can measure the concentration
of a solution... the Mole is Back!! (soon)

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Precipitation Reactions
Not all ionic compounds are as soluble as salt. Some reach
saturation at such a low concentration that you can
Ionic
consider them as being insoluble.
Solutions
in dropper
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is soluble: bottles
Ag+(aq) +
-
AgNO3(s) NO3 (aq)
Spot-TTest
Plate
Sodium chloride is soluble:
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
If you mix these 2 solutions together, you are really mixing You may have done experimental work as suggested by this
water containing 4 separate ions... Na+, Cl-, Ag+ & NO3 .
-
photo, to discover any patterns regarding which ions are
often involved in precipitation reactions, and which mostly
However, silver chloride (AgCl) has an extremely low stay in solution.
solubility, so the mixture of ions may contain Ag+ ions and
Cl- ions at concentrations way above the saturation The results of such experiments are often summarized by a
concentration of AgCl. The ions will immediately form an list of Solubility Rules. In keeping with the K.I.S.S.
ionic crystal lattice and solid AgCl will precipitate from the Principle, here is a simplified version:
solution, until the correct dynamic equilibrium of solid and
solution is re-established. Solubility Rules
Precipitation of solid silver chloride: Mostly Soluble (and stay in solution)
Na+ & K+ always

-
Na+(aq)+ Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3 (aq)
-
AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3 (aq)
- NO3 always
Cl- Br- & I- (except with Ag+ & Pb+2)

This is an ionic equation describing exactly what happened.
-2
On the left is the mixture of ions that were brought SO4 (except with Ag+ Pb+2 & Ba+2)
together in the 2 solutions. The Ag+ and Cl- ions have
combined to form solid AgCl, while the other 2 ions have Mostly Insoluble ( and form precipitates)
stayed in solution, unchanged... they are spectators.
-2
CO3 (except with Na+ & K+)
We can leave out the spectators to see the essential change
that occurred: OH- (except with Na+ K+ Ba+2 Ca+2)
Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) AgCl(s)

If you learn these rules you can predict what will happen
when 2 ionic solutions are mixed:
This is a net ionic equation.
Example 1
Notice that it is simply the reverse of the equation for the Mix solutions of barium hydroxide & potassium iodide.
dissolving of silver chloride.
Prediction: No reaction. There is no combination of any of
Ionic equations can be tricky to balance. If insoluble PbCl2 is these ions which will form an insoluble precipitate.
formed by precipitation of ions, the net ionic equation is:
Example 2
2 Cl-(aq) + Pb+2(aq) PbCl2(s) Mix solutions of potassium carbonate with copper(II)
sulfate.
Notice that 2 Cl- ions are needed. If these were delivered in a
sodium chloride solution, then to balance everything, 2 Na+ Prediction: A precipitate of copper(II) carbonate will form.
ions must be present in the full ionic equation.
Net ionic equation:
Cu+2(aq) + CO3 (aq)
-2
2Na+(aq)+ 2Cl-(aq)+ Pb+2(aq)+ 2NO3 (aq)
-
PbCl2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3 (aq)
-
CuCO3(s)
Try the Worksheet at the end of the Section

TM
Measuring Concentrations With the Mole Why are There
Earlier, the idea of measuring the concentration of a Different Concentration Measurements?
solution was introduced. One way to do this is to measure Simple: its a matter of convenience, for the particular task
the mass of solute in each 100mL of solution (%m/v). being done.
However, although this is fairly common, it is not the
standard way to express or measure concentrations. In an industrial situation it might be required to mix up a
salt solution for pickling olives (for example). To make it
The Mole is Back! easy and efficient, the instructions might be
For reasons that will become obvious later, the standard 1 kg of salt to every 10 litres of water
method for measuring concentrations of solutions is in or some such.
moles per litre (molL-1). In this case the units of concentration would be kilograms
per litre (kgL-1).
Concentration = number of moles (of solute)
(of solution) Volume (of solution) In another situation, it might be convenient to use %m/v.
c= n In Chemistry, it is usually best to measure in molL-1

V (molarity) because this allows easy conversions of mass,
volumes of gases and volumes of solutions, when chemical
Units of measurement reactions are involved.
c in moles per litre (molL-1)
n in moles (mol), and remember that n = m Technique For Making Solutions
V in litres (L) MM
One important laboratory technique is that of making up a
solution to a required concentration.
Example Problem 1 The first step is to calculate the mass of solute required to
If 12.00g of pure solid NaCl was dissolved in water, and make the desired solution, as in Example Problem 2, on the
made up to 250.0mL (0.2500 L) of solution, what is the left of this page.
molar concentration (molarity) of the solution?
Once this exact mass is weighed out, the technique is:
Solution:
Step 1. Find the number of moles. MM(NaCl) = 58.44g Dissolve Solute in a small
n = m/MM = 12.00/58.44 amount of (pure) water in a
= 0.2053 mol clean beaker
Volumetric Flask
Step 2. Calculate concentration.
c = n/V = 0.2053/0.2500
concentration = 0.8214 molL-1
Carefully transfer solution

Example Problem 2 into a Volumetric Flask.
What mass of potassium iodide is required to prepare Rinse beaker with small
amounts of water & add
150.0mL (0.1500 L) of solution with a concentration of
washings to flask
0.2000 molL-1?
Step 1.
How many moles are required to get this concentration?
Add water to flask to fill it to
c = n/V so n = cV = 0.2000 x 0.1500 the mark.
= 0.03000 mol (Use a dropper to avoid over-
Step 2. What mass is this? MM(KI) = 166.0g shooting)
Insert stopper & mix well.
n = m/MM, so m = n x MM
= 0.03000 x 166.0 Note that to make 500mL of solution you do NOT add
mass = 4.980g 500mL of water. You make the volume of the solution up
to 500mL... yes, there IS a difference!
Once a solution is prepared this way, other solutions can be

Try the Worksheet, at the end of Section made from it by taking measured quantities, and diluting
them appropriately.

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Diluting to a Desired Concentration Equipment for Diluting Solutions
A common procedure in the Chemistry laboratory is to You may have done practical work in
have chemical solutions already prepared to a known the laboratory to learn how to carry
concentration, and dilute them to new concentrations as out a dilution.
needed.
The required volume (calculated as in
To calculate the new concentration, or to calculate the Example Problem 2 on the left) is
volume needed to get a desired concentration, use the measured by pipette and transferred to
following relationship: a volumetric flask.
Pure water is added to the mark.

c1V1 = c2V2 These are bulb
pipettes which
(or cV = constant)
measure
accurately a single
c1 = concentration of original solution, in molL-1
volume
V1 = volume of original solution used, in L **
e.g. 25.00mL
c2 = concentration of diluted solution, in molL-1
V2 = volume of diluted solution made, in L **
For odd amounts
(like 5.6mL) use a Bulb Pipettes
** It actually doesnt matter what units you use, so long
graduated pipette.
as you are consistent throughout the calculation. In the
examples below, volumes are in mL.
The Concentration of Ions in Solution
When an ionic compound dissolves in water the ionic
lattice disintegrates as the individual ions are hydrated and
Example Problem 1 taken into the solution. What is the concentration of the
If 25.00mL of a solution of concentration 0.3750molL-1 individual ions?
was diluted to a new volume of 500.0mL, what is the
concentration of the diluted solution? If the compound contains ions in a 1:1 ratio this is a very
simple situation. For example, consider the dissolving of
Solution salt, sodium chloride:
c1V1 = c2V2, so c2 = c1V1/V2
= 0.3750 x 25.00/500.0 NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
c2 = 0.01875 molL-1
(1.875 x 10-2) If the solution has a concentration of (say) 0.5 molL-1, then
Example Problem 2 the concentration of the Na+ ions is 0.5 molL-1 and the
It is required to make 250.0mL of a solution with concentration of the Cl- ions is 0.5 molL-1 as well.
concentration 5.000x10-3 molL-1, from a stock
solution with concentration 0.2250molL-1. What However, if magnesium chloride (MgCl2)dissolves there are
volume of the stock solution should be measured for 2 chloride ions for every 1 magnesium ion. If the
dilution? concentration of the solution was 0.5 molL-1, then the
individual ion concentrations are:
Solution MgCl2(s) Mg+2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
c1V1 = c2V2, so V1 = c2V2/c1
= 5.000x10-3 x 250.0/0.2250 0.5 molL-1 0.5 molL-1 1.0 molL-1
V1 = 5.555 mL
(In fact, you would not be able to measure such a precise In a 0.5 molL-1 solution of aluminium sulfate the
volume by pipette. Appropriate answer is really 5.6 mL) concentrations would be:
2Al+3(aq) + 3SO4 (aq)
-2
Al2(SO4)3(s)
0.5 molL-1 1.0 molL-1 1.5 molL-1
Try the Worksheet, at the end of Section Something worth knowing:

In Chemistry, square brackets around a formula is
shorthand for molar concentration of...
e.g. [NaCl] means molar concentration of NaCl

TM
Mass, Volume & Concentration in Precipitation Reactions

Armed with a knowledge of molarity you can now link calculations involving
concentration of solutions to masses and even gas volume quantities.
Example Problem 1 Example Problem 2

15.00mL of 0.3055 molL-1 solution of lead(II) nitrate To measure the concentration of salt in a 40.0mL
was treated as follows: seawater sample, an excess of silver nitrate solution was
An excess of potassium iodide solution was added, added to precipitate all the chloride ions. The precipitate
causing a precipitate. The solid precipitate was collected was collected by filtration, dried and weighed. Its mass
by filtration, dried and then weighed. was 2.76g
What substance, and what mass, was collected? a) What substance was precipitated?
b) Write a net ionic equation for the precipitation.
(Note: an excess of something means that the quantity c) Write a full ionic equation for the reaction.
added was more than enough to ensure a complete d) Calculate the number of moles of precipitate
reaction) collected.
e) How many moles of chloride ions must have been in
Solution the seawater sample?
Step 1: use the Solubility Rules to figure out what f) Calculate the molar concentration of salt in the
substance precipitated, then write a balanced equation seawater.
for the reaction.
Solution
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
a) From Solubility Rules: Silver chloride, AgCl
Step 2: find how many moles of Pb(NO3)2 were present
in the 15mL (0.015 L) of solution. b) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
c = n/V, so n = cV = 0.3055 x 0.01500
n(Pb(NO3)2) = 4.5825 x 10-3 mol -
c) Ag+(aq)+ NO3 (aq)+ Na+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)
AgCl(s)+ NO3 (aq)+ Na+(aq)

Step 3: find how many moles of PbI2 were precipitated. -
The balanced equation shows the mole ratio is 1:1, d) n = m/MM MM(AgCl) = 143.35g
so n(PbI2) = 4.5825 x 10-3 mol = 2.76 / 143.35
n(AgCl) = 0.0193 mol
Step 4: convert moles to mass. MM(PbI2) = 461.0g
n = m/MM, so m = n x MM e) Mole ratio in equation is 1:1
-3
= 4.5825x10 x 461.0 n(Cl-) = 0.0193 mol
m(PbI2) = 2.113g
f) c = n/V
Note: = 0.0193 / 0.040 (40mL = 0.040 L)
The working above assumes 100% precipitation of the c(NaCl) = 0.481 molL-1
lead ions. Technically, a small fraction of the lead ions
would stay in the solution, so not quite all of it would
precipitate. However, the solubility of PbI2 is very low,
so for simplicity (K.I.S.S.) were assuming complete
precipitation. Worksheet next page
Example Problem 3 A little revision of Topic 2 Moles of HCl present in the solution:
What volume of hydrogen gas (measured at SLC) could c = n/V, so n(HCl) = cV = 1.50 x 0.050 = 0.075 mol
be produced from the complete reaction of 50.0mL of
1.50 molL-1 hydrochloric acid with magnesium. Moles of H2: equation shows mole ratio = 2:1
n(H2) = 0.075/2 = 0.0375 mol
Solution
As usual, start with a balanced equation: Volume of H2: (remember 1 mole = 24.8 L at SLC)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq) vol(H2) = 0.0375 x 24.8 = 0.930 L (930 mL)

TM
4. HEAT CAPACITY & CALORIMETRY
Temperature, Heat Energy & Heat Capacity Measuring Heat Energy Changes
When heat is added to any substance, what really happens When any substance gains or loses heat, the amount of
is that the particles (atoms/ions/molecules) move faster. In heat energy involved depends upon:
solids the particles just vibrate more quickly, in liquids or
gases they actually move around faster. the amount of substance. i.e the mass.
the Specific Heat Capacity of that substance.
What we measure and understand as temperature is really the temperature change.
a measurement of the average kinetic energy (movement)
of the particles. H = - m C T
Not all particles speed up equally when heat is added: H = change in heat energy, in joules (J)
m = mass of substance, in grams (g)
100 grams of Copper C = Specific Heat Capacity, in J/oC/g
Temperature rise
T = temperature change, in degrees celsius (oC)
1000 joules
of about
Heat Energy 25oC Notes
The Greek letter delta () means change in...
Chemical Data Sheets may give Heat Capacities for
If you do the same thing to water: 1 kilogram of substance instead of 1 gram.
No problem; just divide by 1,000.
100 grams of Water Why is there a negative sign??
For technical reasons (explained later) if the
1000 joules Temperature rise
of about temperature goes up, the energy change is considered
Heat Energy 2oC negative. If temperature drops (negative temp. rise), the
energy change is considered positive.
The negative sign in the equation takes care of this.
The temperature of the water does not change much when
heat is added. Example Problem 1
How much energy is needed to raise the temperature of
(Explanation: its those sticky polar molecules again! 50.0g of water by 12.0oC?
Water molecules cling to each other by hydrogen bonding. Specific Heat Capacity of water = 4.18 J/oC/g
This means they are hard to accelerate, and it takes more
energy to make them speed up.) Solution
H = - mCT
Specific Heat Capacity is a measure of how much heat = - 50.0 x 4.18 x 12.0
energy (in joules) is required to change the temperature of = - 2,508 J
1 gram of a substance, by 1oC. The units of Heat Capacity (In this non-chemical situation the (-ve) sign can really be
are, therefore, joules per degree per gram (J/oC/g) ignored. The energy required is 2.51 x 103 J (2.51 kJ))
Comparison of Some Specific Heat Capacities Example Problem 2
o If 10,000 J of heat energy was added to 100g of ethanol
Substance Heat Capacity (J/ C/g) (Specific Heat Capacity = 2.44 J/oC/g) what would be
the temperature rise?
Water 4.18
Solution
Typical Metal 0.3 (approx) Since the temperature will rise, technically the energy is a
negative quantity, so H = - 10,000J
Other Liquid Solvents H = - mCT,
Ethanol (alcohol) 2.44 so T = H/(-m x C)
Acetone 2.17 = -10,000/(-100 x 2.44)
Petrol (mixture) 2.2 (approx) = 41.0 oC i.e. Temp. will rise by 41oC
Note that waters Heat Capacity is much higher than
most other substances... Try the Worksheet at End of Section
...another of waters weird and unusual properties
TM
Calorimetry Endothermic and Exothermic Changes
is a technique used to measure the energy change occurring were introduced in Topic 1. Here is a quick reminder:
during chemical processes. The word is derived from the
calorie, a unit for heat energy no longer in use. The Exothermic Reactions (Exo= to go out)
equipment used to make energy measurements is called a are the reactions that produce and release energy.
calorimeter. Reactants Energy
Level
Energy
(Since we now use joules for our energy unit, maybe we released by = H
Energy Content
should call it a joulemeter) chemicals
during negative
reaction
Since many chemical processes occur in water, and because
water has such a high Specific Heat Capacity (i.e. it can
Products have
absorb lots of energy with little temperature change) LESS energy
calorimetry often uses water as the working fluid or
medium used to absorb the heat energy.
The amount of energy involved is the delta-H for the
Simple Laboratory process, and is measured per mole of the substance(s)
involved. When the chemicals lose energy, the temperature
Calorimeter
in a calorimeter rises, because the energy release heats up
the water in the calorimeter. This is why, when the
temperature rises, the energy quantity is considered
Thermometer measures negative... the chemicals involved have LOST this amount
temperature change of heat energy.
Endothermic Reactions (Endo = to go in)

are the reactions that absorb energy... those where you must
supply energy to make it happen.
Products have
MORE energy
Copper Beaker
Energy Content
Energy
reaction container absorbed by
chemicals
= H
during positive
reaction
Polystyrene body and lid
Reactants Energy
prevents heat loss/gain Level
with the surroundings
The delta-H for this change is considered positive

because the chemicals have gained energy. The temp.
change is negative, because the calorimeter temp. drops.
Practical Work: Typical Results for dissolving of Potassium hydroxide

Heat of Solution Mass of water placed in calorimeter = 100g
You may have carried out experiments to measure the Mass of potassium hydroxide dissolved = 4.50g
energy change that occurs when ionic compounds Initial temperature of water = 21oC
dissolve in water. Final temperature of solution, after dissolving = 28oC
Temperature change, T = 7.0oC
Total mass in calorimeter
General Method: Calculations:
Use a calorimeter to measure the temperature change in a Solution is mostly water
H = - mCT
measured mass of water, when a measured mass of a solid = - (100 + 4.5) x 4.18 x 7.0
dissolves. = - 3, 058 J for the dissolving of 4.50g
You can then calculate: Energy per gram: H = - 3,058/4.50 = -679 J per gram
the energy change occurring (for the quantities used)
and then, Energy per mole: MM(KOH) = 56.1g
the energy change per gram of solute. H = -679 x 56.1 = - 38,100 J per mole
and then,
the energy change per mole of solute. Heat of Solution = - 38.1 kJmol-1 (exothermic)

TM
Heat of Solution Waters Heat Capacity & Life on Earth
is the common name for the energy change that occurs The fact that water has a remarkably high Specific Heat
when 1 mole of a solute dissolves in water. Capacity is of enormous significance to weather, climate
and life on Earth.
Hsol is negative if energy is released.
(exothermic: the calorimeter temperature rises) It means that, on a hot day, the ocean or a lake can absorb
Examples: soluble hydroxides (e.g. NaOH, KOH) a large amount of energy from the Sun without much
temperature change. The air and the land may get very hot,
Hsol is positive if energy is absorbed. but the water temperature changes very little. In cold
(endothermic: the calorimeter temperature falls) weather, the air and land can get really cold, but the water
Examples: ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), changes only a little.
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
This means that water habitats have very stable
Limitations of Calorimetry temperatures and do not change much from day to night,
When you use a simple calorimeter to measure an energy or even summer to winter. Aquatic organisms do not need
change in the laboratory, there are a number of complex temperature control mechanisms because their
assumptions and approximations involved. habitat remains quite stable.
It is assumed that the calorimeter itself does not absorb a
significant amount of the heat energy of the reaction.
This source of error is minimized by using a copper
reaction vessel, since the very low Specific Heat Capacity of
copper means it absorbs little energy.
It is assumed that there is no heat lost or gained between

the calorimeter and the surroundings.
This source of error can be minimized by good heat
insulation of the calorimeter.
It is assumed that the Specific Heat Capacity of the More importantly, the oceans absorb and transport (via
solution reacting in the calorimeter is the same as water.
ocean currents) huge quantities of heat from the tropics
i.e. C = 4.18 J/oC/g
For many solutions this is not quite true, but (generally) the towards the poles. This has the effect of cooling the
error this causes is very small. tropical areas and warming the temperate regions, and
generally evening-out the Earths temperature.
A serious limitation of many calorimetry experiments in
school laboratories is the poor precision of the usual lab. Without water, very little of the Earth would have liveable
thermometers. Usually these can only be read to the nearest temperatures. Without the moderating effect of water,
0.5oC, and if the temperature change is only a few degrees, the tropics would be too hot for life, and the temperate
the % error is huge. Serious calorimetry needs regions would be too cold.
thermometers with a precision of at least 0.1oC.
Thermal Pollution This is thermal pollution, and is very destructive to

Some industries, especially coal-burning or nuclear power aquatic habitats.
stations produce large amounts of waste heat.
The main problem is a matter of solubility.
In some places, these plants are situateded beside lakes or
the sea so that the water can be used for cooling the Oxygen, and other gases, are sparingly soluble in water.
equipment. Typically, lake water is pumped through the Aquatic organisms are totally dependent on this low
equipment, then hot water discharged back into the lake. concentration of dissolved gases for their survival.
The problem is, that the solubility of gases decreases as

the temperature rises. If the water temperature rises by as
little as 5oC, the dissolved oxygen concentration drops by
20% and fish begin to suffocate.
Not only that, but increased temperatures can interfer

with the normal breeding cycles and alter the delicate
balance between populations of food plants, disease
Photo by Daniel West microbes, parasites, etc. Habitat destroyed!


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TM

Baulkham Hills High School SL#802445

THE CHEMICAL EARTH

but first, an introduction...

Elements Compounds Nucleus contains

Although there are millions of different substances, they are

Physical Changes v Chemical Changes

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Mixtures on Earth Positions in the Occurrence

The Composition of Matter...

THE COMPOUNDS Formation of Ions

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 2 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

1. THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER... MIXTURES

Elements, Compounds & Mixtures Compounds

The atoms might be all separate, like this...

Note that although there

Other compounds may contain different atom types

Example: Salt Sodium (NaCl)

Although there are 2 types of atoms present, they cannot be

This is a 2-D diagram of a 3-D lattice

ELEMENTS Only one type of atom

Cannot be separated into parts

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 3 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Solids of Different Grain Size

Since the parts (fractions) of a mixture are not in any Coarser

For example, imagine mixing sugar into your coffee to

Atmosphere: is the gaseous part of the Earth... the air. Air

Biosphere: technically refers to those parts of the Earth Clear

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 4 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

The commonest ways to separate a solution are:

Tap allows each

If 2 or more liquids are miscible, separation is more

If you had (say) a mixture of oxygen (O2(g)) and hydrogen

What about separating air into its parts?

The technique used is called Fractional Distillation.

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 5 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

A common task is to begin with a mixture of sand, salt

A Point of Good Technique

Try the Practice Questions at the end of section Solid Pure

Repairing the Landscape after Gold Mining

D.I.P. = density difference

To separate the gold, the deposits are scooped up by

Useful Product of Separation

Issues Associated with Waste Products

Modern operations discharge waste into settling ponds,

Points of Good Technique

6. Weigh the dried salt Mass of

2. It is appropriate to round-off the final answers to 3

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 7 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Elements in Nature? Classifying the Elements

Hydrogen does not easily

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 9 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Black Shading = Liquid

This block Grey Shading = Gas

Mercury (metal) and Bromine (non-metal)

What Determines the State? A Note about the Gases

The Properties of Elements Determine Their Uses

3. COMPOUNDS... Ionic & Covalent

Atomic Structure The Mass of an Atom

Using the atoms on the left as examples:

Mass numbers are always whole numbers, since there must

The Atomic Weight is not the same as the Mass Number.

No. of Protons = No. of Electrons Mass Number 40 = sum (protons + neutrons)

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 1 12 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au