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INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK
Second Edition
Roy E. Hunt
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
Published in 2005 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Hunt, Roy E.
Geotechnical engineering investigation handbook/Roy E. Hunt.2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Geotechnical engineering investigation manual. 1984.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-2182-4 (alk. paper)
1. Engineering geologyHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Hunt, Roy E. Geotechnical engineering
investigation manual. II. Title.
Foreword
Whoever reads this book will never approach geotechnical exploration in the same way
again. Nowhere else has it been made so evident that all boundaries among engineering
geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, soil mechanics, geohydrology, seismology, and a
host of other disciplines are meaningless; that contributions to the solution of geotechni-
cal problems may come from any or all of these sources; or that the practitioner who holds
too narrowly to a single specialty is likely to overlook knowledge that could be of the
greatest benefit to him in reaching proper judgments. This book should be read, if for no
other reason than to appreciate the breadth of geotechnics and to escape from the trap of
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Ralph B. Peck
Preface
Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering that concerns the study of the
interrelationship between the geologic environment and the work done by human kind.
Soil mechanics and rock mechanics are fields in which the mathematical aspects of analy-
sis for the design of engineering works are defined and described as they relate to the geo-
logic environment. Projects involving excavations in rock bear a close relationship to
mining engineering. The basis on which the knowledge structure of geotechnical engi-
neering is built is a thorough comprehension of the elements of the geologic environment.
In reality, therefore, geotechnical engineering consists of two major, but separate, disci-
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plines: geology and civil engineering. Both disciplines are branches of applied science, but
there is a major philosophical difference between them. The geologist bases his conclu-
sions primarily on observations and intuitive reasoning, whereas the engineer measures
properties and applies mathematical analysis to reach his conclusions. The discipline of
engineering geology (or geological engineering) has attempted to fill this philosophical
gap, primarily in connection with the characterization of the geologic environment for
construction works and the evaluation of geologic phenomena such as slope movements,
earthquakes, etc., rather than in relation to the design and construction of engineering
works such as foundations and retaining structures.
This book was conceived as a vehicle to create a merger between geology and civil
engineering; it is a comprehensive guide to the elements of geotechnical engineering
from the viewpoint of investigating and defining the geologic environment for the pur-
pose of providing criteria for the design of engineering workswhether they are in soil
or rock. The geotechnical engineer must be familiar with the many components of the
geologic environment and its characteristics: rock types and rock masses, soil types and
soil formations, groundwater as well as the phenomena generally referred to as geologic
hazards, i.e., flooding and erosion, landslides, ground heave, subsidence and collapse,
and earthquakes.
While conducting geotechnical investigations it is necessary to identify these elements
and to define their spatial orientation by employing various techniques of exploration.
Engineering design criteria are established based on measurements of the hydraulic and
mechanical properties of the component geologic materials, either through laboratory tests
of samples retrieved from the field, or by tests in the field itself, i.e., in situ. The response of
the geologic environment to changing stress fields or other transient conditions, occurring
naturally or as a result of construction activity, is measured with instrumentation.
The emphasis in this text is on the identification and description of the elements of the
geologic environment, the data required for the analysis and design of engineering works,
the physical and engineering properties of geologic materials, and procurement of the rel-
evant data. Approaches to solutions of engineering problems are described for some con-
ditions as an aid to understanding the necessity for the data and their application; general
solutions are described for those problems that can be resolved based on experience and
judgment, without resorting to rigorous mathematical analysis. The analytical aspects of
soil and rock mechanics as applied to the design of foundations, retaining structures,
dams, pavements, tunnels, and other engineering works are not included in this text,
except on occasion as a brief reference to some particular aspect of analysis such as settle-
ments, slope stability, or seepage forces.
The most serious elements of the geologic environment that impact on the work by
humankind are the geologic hazards, and approaches for dealing with these hazards are
described in some detail. These phenomena are considered in terms of the degree of haz-
ard that they pose and the degree of the risk of their occurrence. Solutions to these prob-
lems can follow one of several approaches: avoid the hazard, reduce it, or eliminate it. It
must be recognized that in many instances it is not possible to totally eliminate a haz-
ardous condition and it must either be avoided or reduced to the point where the risk is
tolerable.
It must also be recognized that there are many limitations to our capabilities in geotech-
nical engineering. It is not always possible to define all significant conditions at a given loca-
tion, to obtain accurate measurements of the properties of all geologic materials, or to
predict, for example, the occurrence and magnitude of slope failures, floods, and earth-
quakes. Many analytical approaches are based on empirical concepts, and most are based on
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concepts of elastic theory, which apply only in a general manner to most geologic materials.
An awareness of our limitations should lead to the adoption of conservative design strate-
gies and the inclusion of adequate safety factors to provide for unknown contingencies.
The greater majority of the techniques and concepts presented herein are expected to be
applicable for many years to come, but there are certain areas where the state-of-the-art tech-
nologies are changing rapidly. Some parts of this work, therefore, are expected to become
modified with time, particularly in the areas of earthquake engineering, offshore technology,
the application of electronics to the measurements of properties, and instrumentation.
The reader will find the presentation somewhat different from that of the usual engi-
neering text. Emphasis is on the practical approach to problem-solving rather than the the-
oretical, with the objective of making it possible for the user to retrieve key data rapidly.
The author thanks his many colleagues in the profession who offered their comments
on the book, particularly Dr. Ralph B. Peck, as well as the many authors and publishers
who granted permission to reproduce many of the tables and figures, or who provided
figures themselves. Special thanks go to his wife, Marilia, for her patience and forebear-
ance during this long effort.
Note: Photographs without credits were taken by the author.
The foregoing was included in the original edition of this book in 1984, published under
the title Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual. Much of what the author wrote in
1984 still applies today. This new edition reflects the experience that the author has gained
over the past 20 years, as well as new developments in existing technology. Significant
developments have taken place in the areas of remotely sensed satellite imagery, global
positioning systems (GPS), geophysical exploration, and cone penetrometer testing. Most
significant has been the digitizing of data recording and retrieval as applied to many
aspects of exploration, field and laboratory testing, and instrumentation.
Roy E. Hunt
Author
Now in private practice, Roy E. Hunt, P.E., P.G., has over 50 years of experience in geo-
technical and geological engineering. Mr. Hunt has been an adjunct professor of engi-
neering geology, Graduate School of Civil Engineering, Drexel University, and currently
holds a similar position in the Geosciences Program at the University of Pennsylvania. He
has been the consultant on two new nuclear power plants in Brazil; for a toll road program
in Indonesia and a new airbase in Israel; for offshore mooring structures in the Philippines
and Brazil; and for landslide studies in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Indonesia, Puerto Rico,
and the continental U.S. Assignments also have taken him to Barbados, England, France,
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the U.S. Virgin Islands, and locations throughout the continental U.S. His past affiliations
include Joseph S. Ward and Associates, where he was a partner, and Woodward-Clyde
Consultants, where he was director of engineering in the Pennsylvania office.
His education includes an M.A. in soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Columbia
University, New York (1956), and a B.S. in geology and physics, Upsala College, East
Orange, New Jersey (1952). He is a registered professional engineer in New Jersey, New
York, and Pennsylvania; a registered professional geologist in Delaware, Pennsylvania, and
Brazil; and a certified professional geologist. His professional affiliations include the
American Society of Civil Engineers (Life Member), Association of Engineering Geologists,
and the American Institute of Professional Geologists. He has received the E.B. Burwell Jr.
Memorial Award, Geologic Society of America, Engineering Geology Division, and the
Claire P. Holdredge Award, Association of Engineering Geologists, for his book Geotechnical
Engineering Investigation Manual (1984); and the Claire P. Holdredge Award, Association of
Engineering Geologists, for his book Geotechnical Engineering Techniques and Practices
(1986) both books published by McGraw-Hill, New York.
Contents
Chapter 2. Exploration............................................................................................................15
2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................15
2.1.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................15
2.1.2 Methodology............................................................................................................15
2.1.3 Scope ........................................................................................................................15
2.2 Surface Mapping..................................................................................................................17
2.2.1 General......................................................................................................................17
2.2.2 Research Data ..........................................................................................................17
2.2.3 Remotely Sensed Imagery ....................................................................................21
2.2.4 Terrain Analysis ......................................................................................................28
2.2.5 Site Reconnaissance ................................................................................................41
2.2.6 Preparation of Subsurface Exploration Program ..............................................43
2.3 Subsurface Exploration ......................................................................................................43
2.3.1 General......................................................................................................................43
2.3.2 Geophysical methods ............................................................................................44
2.3.3 Reconnaissance Methods ......................................................................................66
2.3.4 Continuous CPT(ASTM D5778)............................................................................66
2.3.5 Test and Core Borings ............................................................................................74
2.3.6 Borehole Remote-Sensing and Logging ..............................................................93
2.3.7 Groundwater and Seepage Detection ..................................................................96
2.4 Recovery of Samples and Cores ........................................................................................99
2.4.1 General......................................................................................................................99
2.4.2 Test Boring Soil Sampling....................................................................................101
References ....................................................................................................................................828
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................831
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................997
Color Figures
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