Εισαγωγικά θεματα ηλεκτρονικής

.
2015

9, 15780
www.kallipos.gr
ISBN: 978-960-603-174-8

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1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain William Shockley
1948 Claude Shannon (1916-2001) -
Norbert Wiener (1894-1964), , -
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2015

1.
1.1. o
H J.C. Maxwell 19
1
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1.1. .
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3, .
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Ohm ,
1847, Kirchhoff .
:
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1.2
1.2.1

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1 ( )
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2 load,
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3 .
.

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,
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,
, .
Q q (SI)
coulomb (C), 1.6021019
C. , 1 C 6.241018 .
Q , -
( ) F q
r Q. Coulomb:
(1.1)
Q :
(1.2)
r Q q.
SI 0
8.851012 C2N1m2.
1.2.2
.

-
. .
, q -
, W :
(1.3)

V , .:
(1.4)
, :
(1.5)
:
(1.6)
4 :
4 (1.6) =grad=.
, , , , -
( )

.
SI volt (V), (1.4)
1volt=1joule/1coulomb . V=(J/C). , newton/coulomb (N/C)
volt/meter (V/m). , qBA
q BA,
Volt (eV)
1volt, 1eV=1.6021019J.
, ,
. ,

() , , . V=0.
, ,
,
, 5.
, 12 1 2
, , .:
12=12 x=x0=x0=x0
, , :
12=12= (21)= 21
,
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1.1
.
1.2.3
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: (conduction current) -
(displacement current).
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6.
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7.

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(volt),
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1.2.3.1
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(1.7)
SI mpere ()
1 coulomb , . 1 = 1C / 1s.
(1.7) . -
, .
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-
. () () .
1.2,
. -
, ,
, . (-
) .
1.2. -
i, . ,
() .
,
(). , - - -
DC ( Direct Current), , C (Alternating Current). T
8, .
1.2.3.2
,
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n ,
q , :
8 , DC ,
, .
(1.8)
,
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.
SI /m2.
1.2.4
(1.4) (1.7), ,
P ( p), .
. ,
i, :
(1.9)
SI watt (W) 1W=1volt1ampere 1W=1joule/1sec.
1.3 , ,
,

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1.4.1
Maxwell ,
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10,
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.. .
10 , .
11 , (),
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1.4.2
1.2.3,
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, G.S.Ohm, i
:
(1.10)
Ohm12.
R -
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, (1.10) :
G R () .
H (1.10) . , , -
J E :
(1.11)
Ohm
,
.
R (1.6)
(1.10) J i. , (1.9), -
J S
, .:
(1.12)

(1.12)
S.
, S , :
(1.13)
=1/ .
()
(1.10), . Ohm, -
. 1.6 , R -
iR.
-
, Joule. ,
12 Ohm, i , .
() ()
R iR R ,
(1.8) :
(1.14)
SI hm (), : 1 =1volt / 1ampere,
siemen (S) mho (1). , m ( cm)
1m 1cm.
, kilohm (1k=103) megohm (1=106)13.
1.6. R ( G) R iR.
1.4.3
-
.
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, .
Q V
:
(1.15)
C , , -
. (1.15)
V=DQ, D -
(elastance).
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(1.15),
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. dw,
dQ , :
13 10
1.3, .
14 ,
.
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W , :
(1.16)
-
15 (p=dw/dt).

. Gauss -
16 D
:
(1.17)
, S d
+Q Q ,
:
(1.18)
, , :
(1.19)
, Q/S, ,
Gauss D 17:
(1.20)
S
, Q=DS, , :
(1.21)
, (1.21) (1.5),
V=Ed, (1.18) (1.19),
.
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15 , ,
, . C11=C22=...=., .
16 H
. ,
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D .
17 (1.20) D, D
,
: q V S. ,
(1.17) (1.5) Poisson -
:
i=dq/dt . ,
(. ),
. (1.15), C
, .:
(1.22)
18,
:
(1.23)
(1.22) .
4, -
(, , )
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,
, , ,
. 1.7 ,
.
1.7. () () .
SI farad (F) 1F=1coulomb/1volt. , -

1F , ,
farad, microfarad (1F), 1F=1106 F, nanofarad (nF), 1nF=1109
F, picofarad (pF), 1pF=11012 F.
-

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(1.18) (1.19), -
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, , .

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.
1.4.4 - -
H .
,
.
, . , .
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18.
Tesla (T) 1Gauss=1104T, 1T=1N/
Am=1voltsec/m2.

dS :
(1.24)
19 dS .
Weber (Wb), 1 Weber=1Nm/A=1voltsec.
, -
, :
=0
(1.25)
0 ,
(1.17).
,
Biot-Savart, mpere. ,
i
, .:
(1.26)
20 .
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.
, n
( ).
,
Faraday 21 d/dt n ,
, .:
(1.27)
(1.24), (1.25) (1.26)
:
(1.28)
( n=1) :
19 ,
-
( ).
20 -
, , Lorentz. ,
,
Laplace. Laplace -
.
21 ,
, , ..
(1.29)
:
(1.30)
k

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(1.31)
(1.31) , ,
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i, , . : k1i1= k2i2=...=-
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k
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21 ( )
:
(1.32)
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:
(1.33)
k L,
22.
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, i.
, , ,
.
(1.33), (1.29),
. 4,

Ohm , , (
).
1.8 L,
L , iL iL
iL.
, , SI, henry (),
22 , , n -
, : L=0Sn2/ , S -
0 .
, 1 volt,
1A/sec, . 1 =1V1sec/1A.
,
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1.8. .
1.4.5 -
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R , 1.11(), VL ,
L
RL, . (, , -
) .
, RL , ,
1.11(), IL ,
RL, . (, , )
.
, -
. , ,

.
,
, ,
. 1.11(), -
GL=1/RL.
1.11. RL : () () .
1.4.5.2
, Pmax,
. L,
, VL, . .
:
(1.34)
:
(1.35)
, P . ,
max
RL=0, , (1.34)
Rs, :
(1.36)
, Pmax RL, ,
1.12, Rs RL, VL
RL RL L , .
:
(1.37)
, (1.36), : IL ILmax. , VL
R :
L
(1.38)
.
1.12. .
, GL=0, ,
(1.35), Gs, :
(1.39)
, , P G , ,
max L
1.13, Gs GL
L GL GL VL
, . :
(1.40)
, (1.39), : VL VLmax. , -
GL :
L
(1.41)
, (1.38), .
1.13. .
, -
:
, ,
(1.38), Rs<<RL,
, ,
(1.41), Gs<<GL,
, Rs=RL , , Gs=GL.

, Pmax.
1.5
1.5.1
,
Kirchhoff (-
) - .
24, Maxwell. -

,
, .
,
,
.
, - -
,
, , ,
24 Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, S.Ramo, J.R.Whinnery, T.Van Duzer, WILEY 1965, . 271-273.
25.
, ,
.
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, -
. ,
, . .
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. (distributed)
, (lumped)
-
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, , : fmax<< (c/2 ) -
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-
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1.5.2 -
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, . 26,
-,
27. , (
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( ), .
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() .
, 1.14 , ,
.. x(t) , y(t) .
1.14. .
,
.. , K(t).
, /
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- .. , /
25 , , -
c
26
.
27 ,
, (bit)
: 1bit=10-23Joule/oK, .
.
, / , ..
, . (),
.
, , . x(t), -
, . 28:
(1.42)
, ,
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-
(.
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1.5.3 -
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) () ,

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1.6
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1.6.1
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, . () -
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, -
, . 29. ,
28 , / S ,
: y(t)=S[x(t)].
29 , , , ,
, , . , ..,
, , ...

30.
,
.
1.6.2 ,
-
. (branch)
, (node) .
(loop)
.
, .
, (planar).
.
,
.
. , -
, . ,
(mesh).
, ,
. , 1.15,
, , , ()
.
1.15. .
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1.16. .
30 ,
.
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, .
( ) ,
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. , 1.15 1.16,
, .
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,
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1.6.3
1.4, ( ) .

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.
1.17. .
1.6.4
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, -

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31 :
, ,
,
-
,
, J,
.
, () :

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31 ,
, .
, . , .

, Tellegen. , -
,
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32.
, , -
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Kirchhoff () ,
3.
1.6.5

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, 1.18,

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1.18. () () , - .

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1.1,
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32 , Tellegen . ,
.
33
3.
, , DC AC ,
:
) ,
) .
, ,
.
1.1
1.7
(DC) (AC)

.
, , ,
, , ,
, , ... 1.2,
, , .
1.2

(DC+AC ) , iD
(DC) VBE, IC
(AC) d, ib
Va, Ib
, ,
, 10
,. 1.3
10 .
1.3
1
10-18 atto a
10-15 femto f 1 femtoampere ()= 1 fA=110-15 ampere
10-12 pico p 1 picofarad () = 1 pF =110-12 farad
10-9 nano n 1 nanovolt () = 1 nV =110-9 volt
10-6 micro 1 microampere () = 1 A =110-6 ampere
10-3 milli m 1 millihenry () = 1 mH =110-3 henry
103 kilo 1 kilohertz () = 1 Hz =1103 hertz
106 mega M 1 megaohm() = 1 M = 1106 ohm
109 giga G 1 gigahertz () = 1 GHz =1109 hertz
1012 tera T 1 teraohm() = 1 T =11012 ohm
1015 peta P
1018 exa E
,

, .
-
, decibel (dB) 34
. , p pOUT -
pIN , :
(1.43)
pOUT= p, =0 dB. , >0 dB ,
1.4.2 1.4.2.1,
, <0 dB, , , 35.
(1.14), dB -
36, :
(1.44)
(1.45)
, , Ai , .
, , =10, . OUT=10IN, = 20 dB . -
20 dB, OUT=0,5IN, = -6 dB, .,
.
, (1.43), (1.44) (1.45) .. 1 mW (milliwatt)
1 Volt 1 mA, dBm, dBV dBmA, -
,
.
, 40 dBV
1 V (), 100 V.
(Footnotes)
1
.
34 .
35 dB
<0, >0 dB,
36 (1.44) (1.45) (1.43) (1.14)
R.

Gray P.E. and Searle G.L., Electronic Principles: Physics, Models, and Circuits, J.Wiley & Sons, 1969.
Chirlian P.M., Electronic Circuits: Physical Principles, Analysis, and design, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Horowitz P. and Hill W., The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Dorf R.C., The Electrical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 1993.
R. L. Boylestad Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2006.
. ., , , 2 ., 2006.

,

B

Coulomb
Laplace
Lorentz

Poisson

()

volt (eV)

Tellegen

Lenz

Ampere
Coulomb
Gauss
Ohm

Faraday
Oersted
Ohm ()

-

/

Joule

AC
Ampre (A)
Coulomb
DC
Decibel (dB)
Farad (F)
Joule
Tesla (T)
Volt (V)
Watt (W)
Weber (Wb)
2.
2.1
1
() , . ,
. ( -
) .
,

.
() :

.
, -

.
/ .
, , -
, -
. ,
,
- , .
2.2
,
.. , -
.

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(sensors). -
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.
2.2.1
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:
(analog signals), ,
, .
, 2.1.(),
,
, ..
(continuous time - discrete amplitude signals),
, , ,
() . 2.1.()
2.1.().
.
, , (discrete time
signals), , .. -
, .
, , 2.1.(), 2.1.().
(digital signals), -
.
, .. ,
. 2.1.(), -
2.1.(),
.
, -
,
. , ,
, , . ,

.
2.1. : () ( ), ()
, () , () ( )
. ,
, 1. , 2.2, -
1 (analog-to-digital
converter, ADC) (digital-to-analog converter, DAC).
- , -

. 2.7,
.
2.2. .
2.2.2
H ,
, , ,
.
, , .
, , ,
- . , , ,
. , (deterministic)
, (random or stochastic),

.
, , ,
(0<<) P, P (0<P<)
E. -
1. , (1.14),
(t), R p(t)=2(t)/R, i(t),
p(t)=i2(t)R. R=1, , . p(t)=2(t)=i2(t),
, ,
p(t), :
,
. ,
.

.
: .
x(t) [t1,t2], .
x(t) t[t1,t2]. , t=t2-t1,
(t2>t1). , , , . t1= t2=, x(t)
.
: .
x(t) t
:
x(tkT)=x(t), k=1,2,... (2.1)
T x(t) x(t) -
0. =0 2T0, 3T0,
... .
. , -
.
f , . :
(2.2)
f0 f
. Hertz (Hz) 1Hz=1sec1.
: .
.
,
.
: .
x(t) :
x(t) =x(t), t
(2.3)
, , , :
x(t) =x(t), t
(2.4)
, x(0)=0, , , .
, , , , , ,
, .:
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
- :
- . , ,
, . , ,
. , -
.
, x(t) t, . x(t)=0
t<0. , .
2.3 :
, , -
. ,
,
.
2.3.1
x(t),
. :
(2.8)
= ., 2.3.
, ()
.
. , -
, , .
, DC
, . .
2.3. .
2.3.2
x(t) :
(2.9)
=. u(t) (unit step function):
(2.10)

. , , -
, t=t0,
.
,
. 2.4()
, ..
V , 2.5(). t=t0,
, ,, 0 V.
2.4. () ()
.
2.5 , ..
. ,

. , V :
td (delay time): 50%
,
tr (rise time):
10% 90% ,
ts (settling time): -
, .. 3 5%, ,
(overshoot) . ,
=(VmaxV)/V ( %) V.
2.5. .

, . ,
. ,
, ,
,
, . ,
, , (step
response) 2.
2.3.3
, 2.7,
:
(2.11)
=. r(t) (unit ramp function). :
(2.12)
u(t) [ (2.10)].
2 . .
2.6. (2.11) t0=1 =2.
2.3.4
-
,
, , 3.
:
(2.13)
=.
. ,
, , . ,
t=T , :
x(T)=2.71A x(T)=0.37A
2.7 ,
, .
2.8. : ) )
2.3.5
, 2.8, :
(2.14)
4 0, 0
0. , .
1 rad/sec ( sec) (1
3 x(t)=ejt .
4 ,
(peak-to-peak amplitude), . xmaxxmin=xpp=20.
rad=2). 0 ,
:
(2.15)
f Hz/sec (1 Hertz =1 -
) , , : 0=2f.
, ,
Fourier5,
.
2.8. .
, -
-
AC (Alternating Current).
.
, 2.9, x(t)=k+Asint, (DC) -
k , k<A, k>A,
.
2.10. DC AC .
2.3.6
, ,
, . , -
.
, (impulse function),
.
5 Fourier Fourier,
Fourier.
2.3.6.1
2.10(),
:
(2.16)
(t2-t1)= .
2.10(), -
.. (t2-t1)=. , (2.16)
:
(2.17)
2.10. () , ()
[ (2.17)].
, -
, , ,
.
2.3.6.2

, . 0. :
(2.18)
(t) Dirac.
(t)
t=0 , ,
:
(2.19)
, (t) , . (t)=u(t).
2.11, , , (impulse function) -
(2.18).
.
, ,
(=min) .
2.11. t=t0.

. -
(impulse response),

.
2.3.6.3
, , , ,
, . 2.12,

6.
, 2.12(), , -
. 2.12(),

. , ( )
, xpp=2A. , 2.12() 2.12(),
-
, . </2. /
(duty cycle).
2.12. .
6
, DC .
2.3.7
, , , -
. ,
,
.. 2.13() 2.13().
2.13. ) )
, , -
, 7.
, (2.11), 2.13() :
, , x(t+T)=x(t)
, 2.13(), :
, , x(t+T)=x(t)
2.4
-
, . ,

. .
, (average) x(t) T (DC)
:
(2.20)

. :
:
. ,
:
7 , . ,
, ,
.
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,
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(t-nTs), n=0, 1 ,2,..., .
, , :
16 Shannon-Nyquist : -
,
, . .
[C.E.Shannon, Communication in the presence of noise, Proc. IRE, vol.37, pp.10-21, January 1949.
, 1915
..Whittaker: On the functions which are represented by the expansion of interpolation theory, Proc. Royal Society, Edinburg,
vol.35, pp.181-194, 1915, Nyquist 1928: H.Nyquist,
Certain topics in telegraph transmission theory, AIEE Trans., vol.47, pp.617-644, 1928].
17 , Nyquist fs=2B,
B=[fmax-0] , , B=[fmax-fmin].
(2.39)
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., , , 1987.
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Dirac

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, , -
, , ,
,
.
3.6.6
3.36 ,
.
RB RC, VCC, , :
- ,
DC, AC,
.
3.36. .
iB iB RB
-,
, .
, S, ,
iB - , RB. , - ,
VCC
i, iB .
,
S , , iB,
, , S iB.
, Kirchhoff ,
:
(3.36)
, 11 , . iO=0,
RC, , :
(3.37)
. iC RC .
iC, , UT,
:
(3.38)
, (3.37) (3.36), :
(3.39)
(3.39), DC AC
, , , ,
3.37, -.
3.37. - 3.36.
3.36 , -
( ). -
, (3.39), UT ,
DC VCC AC S (RC/
R). , -
, , RC/R>1, RC/R
, , .
, 3.38,
. , -
2.7 RC/R , ,
11 iO iOUT , . iO=-iOUT. ,
3.32 3.35 iOUT -
OUT.
(3.39), , , VCC
, , S=0, .
3.38. 3.36, S=0 UT=VCC, S=RBVCC/RC

UT=0.
DC 3.1, DC
, 3.39(),
.
S , DC -
VS, , , .
IB , ,
(3.37), C=0. , , =0, DC ,
3.39(), : VOUT=VCC.
3.39. DC 3.36: () () VS=0.
(DC)
, VUT
DC , :
(3.40)
DC - 3.40, . -
3.37, DC .
3.40. DC - 3.36.
H AC -
, 3.41, AC
:
(3.41)
3.41. C 3.36.
(AC)
. , , RC/
RB>1, AC ut RC/RB
AC (), , , 180
(). AC , ,
.
3.42 (3.41), C -
- . DC ,
, AC
AC .
3.42. C - 3.36.
-
3.5.2.1.
DC DC -
3.40(), . VS=0, :
RIN=RB
DC VCC
VS, =0 , , =0,
3.39() VCC=0, RC, .:
ROUT=RC
, AC 3.41, AC :
Rin= RB
AC , s=0, :
Rout=RC
, DC
AC ,
. 3.44, , DC, AC
, -
, , , DC AC
.
3.43. () DC () AC 3.36.
3.7
3.3.3, ,
, ,
.
, -
, .. (DC) (AC)
DC AC ,
,
.
,
.
3.7.1
2, ,
.
,
,
.
-,
, , , ,
(2.26), :
, ,
.
,
,
,
.
, 3.44, ,
. R2,
, 3.3 ( 3.7 3.8),
.
, . , .
3.44. .
, , , .. ,
R2 ( iR2), I. ,
, -
( ) . , R2 (
iR2) ( ).

. 3.45(), 3.44 -
, . (=0), , 3.45(),
, . (=0).
3.45. 3.44 () () .
, R2, ,
R1 R2, , R2, :
(3.42)
, , R2 :
(3.43)
, , R2,
, :
(3.44)
:
(3.45)
, , R2
,
, .:
(3.46)
, R2 :
(3.47)
, , iR2=R2/R2.
3.7.1.1
, :

.
,
(),

.

.
,
,
.
-
,
.
.
,
, -
3.6.6 iB.
DC AC
, DC AC ,
.
2.7,
.
-
, ,
,
3.3.
(
),
, -
(, , ).
, ,
, , , Kirchhoff
. , , -
-
12. ,
, . , ,
13.
3.7.2. Thevenin Norton

-
, 3.5.2.2 3.6.1,
, , .. ,
.

, , -
.
, , Thevenin
Norton,
12 3.3.1 i1 .
13 ( ) 3.3.2.
.
, -
, ,
, ,
.
3.7.2.1 Thevenin
Thevenin : -
, , ,
Thevenin , Th, , RTh.
Thevenin
, , Thevenin,
,
.
,
, . , Thevenin
-

. -
Thevenin.
3.46 , Thevenin, -
, . ,
, Thevenin
h=. , , ..
, ( ) , ,
, RTh.
3.46. Thevenin.
3.7.2.2 Norton
Norton Thevenin :
, ,
, Norton , iN,
, GN.
Norton
, ,
Norton, ,
.
, Thevenin, Norton,
,
.
3.47 Norton, i
, . -
, i,
Norton iN=i, ,
.. , i,
GN .
3.47. Norton.
3.7.2.3
Thevenin Norton
, , , Thevenin Norton.
, 3.6.2
, , RAB=1/GAB,
RTh=1/GN, , 3.48, :
(3.48)
iAB -
.
3.48. Thevenin Norton .
Thevenin Norton, , -
, :
Thevenin Norton. ,
.
Thevenin Norton :
, .
, . h Thevenin,
, iN Norton,
:
(3.49)
iO, -
, iO ,
, :
(3.50)
, -
. ,
, ,
.
Thevenin Norton
/ ,
. ,

, , . , , Thevenin, ZTh,
Norton, 1/, : h=,
h 1/ -
.
, Thevenin Norton -

. ,
,
, , Thevenin Norton, ,
.
, ,
.
3.7.2.4
1 : 3.44 , Thevenin,
R2.
Thevenin, -
:
R2 ,
, Thevenin. , R2
.
, 3.49(), ,
, , ,
() ( ) ()
( ).
3.49. 3.44 Thevenin.
, Thevenin :
Th==()+()
()= ()=R1
. Th==+ R1
(3.51)
, , -
Thevenin , , .:
RTh= R1
(3.52)
3.49() Thevenin ,
R2. R2 , ,
R2, :
(3.53)
, R2 iR2=R2/R2, .:
(3.54)
(3.46) (3.47) 3.7.1

(3.55)
(3.51) (3.52). (3.55)
Thevenin :
(3.56)
, , , .
3.50, R2 iR2 Q
R2, . , -
Thevenin - R2.
3.50. , 3.49() Q -
R2.
2 : 3.51 Thevenin
,.
3.52. Thevenin.
,
RL , ,
S(t) RS.
, :
S(t)iS(t)RS(t)=0
, iS(t)=0, S = . , (t)= (t) = S.
, , Thevenin
, , .:
(3.57)
Thevenin, -
.
, ,
S=0 =0 =0 , , RTh=0. , Thevenin ,
Th 3.52.
3.52. Thevenin 3.52.
3 : Thevenin (DC+AC) -
3.6.6 ( 3.36).
Thevenin , .
, , (3.39):
(3.58)
Thevenin , ,
, , . S=0 VCC=0.
, , S=0 iB=0 , , iB=0, RTh=RC
3.53.
3.53. Thevenin 3.36.
4 : 3.54.
3.54. .
, i,
i
.
, , Thevenin, Norton,
Thevenin
Norton, , , -
, .
, ,
. ,
Ohm,
, 3.5.2.1.
, =,
RE, .:
==RE= iRERE
iRE, RE, :
iRE= i+i= (+1)i
, :
(3.59)
, , , 3.55,
(3.59).
3.55. 3.54.
5 : 3.56.
3.56. .
, R
, RO=/iO.
=, i ,
iB , , RS, =RSiB
, , iO+iB=iB.
, , 3.57,
:
(3.60)
3.57. 3.55.
3.7.2.5

.
-
, , -
.
, -
.
3.7.3. ,
,
, -
.
, , : ,
,
, .
, 3.58(), 5k
S=9 volts i2=0.5mA. , S
5k, , , , -

5k. , 3.58() ,
S, i2=0.5mA.
3.58. .
,
- --
. , , s, -
, , , , (i1i3).
, ,
3.6 -
. , , ,
i, ,
.
, , , : , -
R R i,
, , R, ikR
R
R.
, 3.59,
= i2R R R,
.
3.59. .
3.8
,
, ,
, .
, ,
, , ,
. -
, ,
, ,
, .
.
, .. ,
Thevenin Norton ()
( ),
. , ,
, .
3.60 , , -
, (
Thevenin Norton) ( ).
3.60. .
, 3.60() 3.60(),
, :
= S RSiAB
, ,
(3.61)

i = iS GSAB
(3.62)
-
, , [AB=0, iAB=S/
RS] [=S, iAB=0], , [iAB=iS, AB=0] [iAB=0, AB=iS/GS].
,
, 3.4.2.1, -
.
3.61 3.61 3.62. -
- RAB GAB, ,
, Q
- . Q -
.
3.61. 3.60.
3.8.1

. -
.
, 3.62(), .. Thevenin ,
i(t)=[(t)],
3.62().
3.62. () ()
.

:
= S iRS
(3.63)
, , -
Q.
S (DC) VS, Q
[Q,VQ], (3.63) :
VQ = VS IQRS
(3.64)
S(t)=VS
.
Q iQ -
, .
DC , .:
(3.65)
S VS, .,
3.63, AC .. s=Vmsint Vm<VS,
(3.63) :
(VQ+VmQsint) = (VS+Vmsint) (IQ+mQsint)RS
(3.66)
VmQsint=q mQsint=iq (C) -
, VQ Q, Q.
3.63. 3.62.
(3.66) ,
, , 3.64, S , -
, iS
. Q,

.
,
Q Q+ Q [VQVmQ, IQImQ], ,
(3.65),
.
, , ,
, AC ,
.
DC C ,
AC .
3.64. Q 3.62
Q.
, Q
,
VQ/Q, , . , AC ,
rQ, Q , Q0,
.:
(3.67)
, Vm<<VS :
(3.68)
, rQ, . Q , , -
i(t)=[(t)] Q
.
, 3.64 :
, Q 3.64 S(t)=VS.
Q DC , DC
3.66().
, S(t)=VS+Vmsint, , Q
.
Q () -
() , ,
. , VQ ,
Q , , , VmQ ImQ.
(3.67) AC rQ
Q DC
- Q.
, AC 3.65(),
rQ.
3.65. () DC () AC 3.62.
3.8.1.1

, ,
.
,
, , ,
(DC) (AC) , ,
DC AC .
,
. ,
- ,
DC C , , 14,
3.1.
, ,
DC C Thevenin Norton,
:
,
, -
( )
. ,
DC AC , .. , 3.64
3.66.
, ,
,
, .
, -
. -
, , ...
, 3.62
, - , ,
- - -
-.
, DC AC -
3.65, :
DC:

(3.69)
AC:

(3.70)
RS Rs DC AC Thevenin
.
, Q
rQ ,
AC ( ) .
,
, -
, .. AC,
( ) ( DC) .
3.8.2
o -
DC C ,
.
.
-
. , ,
() . ,
:
, (DC)
(DC+AC) - - -
.
,
DC (DC ) , , -
14 , , ,
AC , .
. , AC AC
- AC . ,
3.1,
,
rQ(VQ/IQ). , AC
,
.
AC
C -
. , 3.66, -
DC C .

:
,
,
()
.
, C
, C , -
AC .
3.66. .
, 3.63,
, . -,
, , . , , ,
rQ(VQ/IQ), C
, ,
(3.67), .
3.9
3.9.1
, -
-
.
,
,
,
.
, 3.67, -
, 15 ,
-, - .
,
Thevenin ( Norton)
.
3.67. ZL .
, -
. ,
, , .
( ),
, , ,
.
.
, , , -
,
.
, -
, :
() -
, :
, , -
- , , ,
() , , -
, 16 .

-
, , -
.
, -
, , -

.
3.68, ,
1, 2 i1, i2, , , (AC) -
.
15 ( ) -
, 4.
16 = (two port), . () .
3.68. .

, -
1, 2, i1, i2. , ,
, , ,
.
, , ,
, ,
, , ,
.
, , ,
, .
, ( ),
.
3.9.2 z
i1 i2 -
, 1 2 :
(3.71)

1 2 i1 i2. zij, (i,j=1,2)
, , z, -
, , z - ,
3.69.
, z- ( ) -
. ,
, (3.71) , ,
, , . ,
, . ,
, ,
, -
Thevenin, .
3.69. (z ).
, .
,
. , (3.71)
, :
:
(3.72)
:
(3.73)
:
(3.74)
:
(3.75)
, , i2 iOUT -
.
(3.72) (3.75)
, . . ,
,
zij. , .
, (3.72), ,
, . i2=0, :
(3.76)
, , . 2=0,
:
(3.77)
, , , , ,
, :
(3.78)

(3.79)
, , z- , -
, ,
, ..
.
3.9.3 y
1 2, i1
i2 :
(3.80)
, (3.71), , -
i1 i2 1 2.
yij, (i,j=1,2) (3.80) -
, , y,
, , y - , 3.70.
3.70. (y ).
, y-
, Norton , , y--
z-. , -
(3.80),
z-.
, :
(3.81)
, , :
(3.82)
, :
(3.83)
, , :
(3.84)
, , y- ,
, ,
,
.
3.9.4
, ,
i1 i2 1 2,
[1=(i1,2), i2=(i1,2)] [i1=(1,i2), 2=(1,i2)], :
(3.85)

(3.86)
hij gij, (i,j=1,2), -
, z- y-,
. -
, ,
, z- y-
.
, h-, , -
, g- .
3.9.4.1 h
(3.85) h-, ,
3.71, Thevenin, ,
Norton.
3.71. h- .
h-
h- , z- y-. ,
3.71, (3.85), i1=0, .
, , , ,
:
(3.87)
, 2=0, . ,
, , i, :
(3.88)
, , . 2=0, :
(3.89)
, , . i1=0, :
(3.90)
, h-:
:
:
h-
, ,
, h-.
3.10 Miller
,
, . , ,
. , , -
, ,
.
3.72, ,
, (, iIN), , (OUT, iOUT),
(1, 2) (i1, i2).
3.72. .

Miller -
.
3.10.1 Miller
3.72(), . , , , ,
.. R -
, , Miller, , ,
R1, , R2, ,
3.73.
3.73. R R1 R2 Miller.
R1 : 3.73(), R :
(3.91)
(2/1) . 3.73(),
R1=1/iR , :
(3.92)
, >>1, :
, R2, :
(3.93)
R2=2/iR , :
(3.94)
, >>1, : R2 R
, R R1 R2, ,
3.73() , ,
, R R1 R2
.
3.10.2 Miller
3.72(), . .. R

, OUT, , Miller,
, , R1, , , R2,
, 3.74.
3.74. R R1 R2 Miller.
R1 R
R iR . 3.74(),
i1 i2 ,
, R .
, :
, (-i2/i1) i , :
, 3.74():
(3.95)
, Ai>>1, :
, , , :
(3.96)
, Ai>>1, :
3.10.3
1 :
3.75.
3.75. Miller.
3.36 -
R - . R, ,
3.6.6. , ,
. S RIN ROUT,
.
, ,
Miller, R R1 R2, 3.76.
(3.92) (3.94),
R.
3.76. R 3.75 R1 R2
Miller.
(3.39), (DC+AC)
, -
3.76.
, A>>1, : R1=(R /A) R2 R , ,
, :
(3.97)
, , iO=0, :
, iC, , :
(3.98)
, , (3.97), iR2R2=, :
(3.99)
(3.99) (3.39) 3.36
S, DC ( ), AC -
, ( ).
, S, AC
3.75, :
(3.100)
, (3.41), R
3.37.
, , :
, , A>>1 R , (R /A)
.
2 :
3.77.
3.77. Miller.
3.55 , ,
(3.59). , , , ,
Miller RE RE1 RE2,
3.78.
3.78. R 3.77 R1 R2
Miller.
(3.95) (3.96) i
. , 3.78, i =(iL/iIN)= , :
, , , RE1,
(3.59)
.
3.11
1.4.2 , .
( ),
. ,
, , -
,
.
, -
, .
, 3.8
3.9.1. 3.79
.
3.79. .
: () -
() .
, (, ) , .
,
, , .
, ,
, , , -
. , ,
2.18 2.21 2.8.1.
3.80 , ,
, ,
z-, y-, h-, g- , , -
.
3.80. : () () .
,
-,
, .
, 3.80(), ,
.. A=/IN Ai=iO/iIN,
, .:
(3.101)

(3.102)
-
.
, 3.80()
3.79, , ,

( ),
, i, .
, , , --
,
. , 3.81(),

.
, 3.80()
, (forward path), ,
, . ,
(reverse backward path).
3.80(), , ,
( ) (
). , , , , -
,
( ) .
, -
, ,

.
(feedback operation)
-
.
,
-
, .
.
, , 17,
, ,
, .
z-.
(. )
, ,
.
,

, , - [ 3.81].
3.81. -.

,
.

, -
, , [ 3.82].
17 , ,
. ,
,
,
.
3.82. .

,
. -

,
, , [ 3.83].
3.83. .
-
, ,
.
,
,
, , - [ 3.84].
3.84. -.

Kuo F.F., Network Analysis and Synthesis, J.Wiley & Sons, 2nd Ed., 1966.
Van Valkenburg M.E., Network Analysis, Prentice-Hall, 3rd Ed., 1974.
., , , 1987.
. ., , , 2 ., 2006.

Norton

-

-

DC, AC

134, 141
Thevenin
AC

DC

(AC)

Miller

Norton
Thevenin

Norton
Thevenin
y-
z-

h-

Kirchoff

y
z

Norton
Thevenin

-

(DC)
(DC)

y-
z-

h-

/

-

4.
4.1
-
Kirchhoff ,
.

,
, , ,
.
, , , . -
, , .
.
, -
, .
,
. ,
-
.
,

. Bode -
. ,
, .
4.2

. , 2,
, ,

. ,
, . -
. ,
, . , , , ,
.
, -

.
, .. , , .., -

, ,
.
,
,
. ,
,
, , -
Kirchhoff.
4.2.1 R, C L
,

.
4.2.1.1 R
4.1(), t=0 1 2,
R(t) R (t) .
, iR(t) R, :
(
4.1)
iR(t) t=t1>0
i(t) R 1, . t<0,
, , . ,
4.1(), R ,
iR(t) R(t)
, ,
.
4.1. () (t) R t=0 () -

R.
4.2.1.2 C
4.1() -
C. , ,
4.2, 1 2 t=0, C(t)
(t).
, t>0, iC(t) :
(4.2)
-
t=0, . C(0) i(0)
t=0.
1, 1 i(t) , .
t<0 i(t)=0.
4.2. (t) C t=0.
, .
, , . t=0
t=0+, () i0,
0 .
, 4.3(), V, -
:
t<0 : iC(t)=0 C(t)=0
0 t 0+ :
(4.3)
t>0+ : iC(t)=0 C(t)=V
q0 V.
, t= 1,
, . , :
t< : iC(t)=0 C(t)=V
t + :
(4.4)
t>+ : iC(t)=0 C(t)=0
, , q t=.
, 4.3(), , i,
i(t<) 1.
4.3. () (12) t=0 C (t)=V

() (21) t=.
(4.3) (4.4),
, :
, C 4.3,
i0 i
.
,
- -
, 2
.
, 4.4,
(t=0) (t=), . i0 i (CV)
(CV), :
2 2.3.6.2 (CV) (CV)
q0 q, (4.3) (4.4),
i0 i.
, -
, . ,
,
.
4.4. C 4.3.
C
, W, :
W=Vq0= CV2
(4.5)
,
, [ (1.16)] :
(4.6)
, , ,
W, ,
W. .
, ,
4.2, C , . (t)=Vsin(t+).
,
t=t0, , (t1-t0),
, (4.2):
(4.7)
(4.7)
C(t)=(t) , . ,
/2 (90)
.
4.5, t=t0,
[ (4.7)] CV, .
90, , . t0
.. t1, 3, -
i [C()]
3 .
[t0, t1].
4.5. C.
4.2.1.3 L
4.6, t=0 1 2,
L iL(t) i(t),
L(t), t>0 :
(4.8)
, , .
t=0. , -
i(t) ,
, . t=0 t=0+, 0,
iL(t).
4.6. i(t) L t=0.
, i(t)=I, :
t<0 : iL(t)=0 L(t)=0
0 t 0+ :
(4.9)
t>0+ : iL(t)=I L(t)=0
, t= 1,
, , ,
:
t< : iL(t)=I L(t)=0
t + :
(4.10)
t>+ : iL(t)=0 L(t)=0
4.7
t=0 t=, ,
,
W=L2, [ (1.31)] W=(1/2) L2.
4.7. L 4.6 t=0 t= i(t)=I.
C,
i(t)=Isin(t+), L L(t)=LIcos(t+), .
4.8, 90,
(t0, t1) .
4.8. L.
,
4.6 (t) -
i(t). , 4.9, L
t=0, . t>0, (4.8) :
(4.11)
k
.
4.9. (t) L t=0.
, (t)=V iL(0)=0 L(0)=0, ,

(4.11) t>0, :
(4.12)
k=0 , iL(0)=0, k=I0
(4.12) :
(4.13)
, (. ),
iL(t)
4, 4.10.
4.10. L, t=0
L(t)=V, iL(0)=0 iL(0)=0.
, . (t)=Vsin(t+), iL(0)=0 L(0)=0,

, (4.11) t>0, :
(4.14)
, iL(0)=0, k :
(4.15)
, iL(0)=0, k :
4
.
, t=t0 i(t0)=I0, :
(4.16)
k L
, , , k .
4.2.1.4
,
. ,
, , 1,
, -
ts ( 2.3.2).
, -
[ (4.1)],
, .
,
, ,

. ,
, ( )
, . , , ,
. ,
(4.2) (4.8) -
, .
, , 4.3() C -
(t)=V, (4.3) . ,
Kirchhoff C t=0
, , . .
iL(0) L 4.6, t=0
i(t)=I, , . iL(0)=0. , t=,
4.3() V, 4.6,
.
, Kirchhoff (4.3), (4.4) (4.9),
(4.10) , 5, -
, , ,
. , q
6 .
, , -
( ) ,
, :
, ,
,
, ,
7
,
5 ,
, R,
, ,
.
6 (1.28) (1.30) 1.5.4.
7 , -
t.
8
, 4.1 4.2.
, ,
1.3.3, (4.2), ,
. ,
, . ,
,
, 9,10.
, -
,
11. ,
, ,
-
.
4.2.2
,
Kirchhoff
,
. , ,
- ,
- , ,
, . , .
, --
(RC) , 4.11,
. , , ,
, S(t), , DC V,
AC .
,
, , 12 ,
, / /, -
- (RL) , . ,

.
8 3 , , 3.1.
9 -
, , ,

.
10 -
C(t)=Vsin(t+) ..
S d , i(t)=0S(/t) E=C/d
. : i(t)=(0S/d)Vcos(t+) , : i(t)=CVcos(t+),
(4.2)
.
11 3.1. DC AC .
12 4.2.1.4
, .
4.11.
, .
4.2.2.1
R, C 4.11,
-
Kirchhoff.
, C ,
1, S(t)
, .,
R(t)+C(t)=0
(4.17)
, C(t)=0, R(t)=0.
2, S(t)
, . , ,
iS(t). , , :
(4.18)

(4.19)
, Kirchhoff (4.1) (4.2),
R(t) C(t) , ,
:
(4.20)

(4.21)
C .
, - , -
(DC) (. 4.2),
(C)
,
. , ,
,
1 .
, (4.20) (4.21), 4.11,
1 , , , .

.
,
( 1), . S(t)=0, , ,
.
, (4.20) (4.21), :
(4.22)

(4.23)
, (4.17) (4.18), ,
R(t) t>0, C(t) (4.18).

, , , -
.
, -
,

.
, ,
, -
. , (. ,
) .
.
, 4.11 (4.20) (4.21), -
:
(4.24)

(4.25)
R(t)
S(t), C(t)
S(t).
-
.
, RC , , 4.12(),
, , 4.12(),
, (. 2.8.4).
4.12. () () .
4.2.2.2 DC
4.13 4.11, DC V,
1 . t=0 2,
. , -
R ,
.
4.13. DC RC t=0.
, (4.17) (4.18)
, :
t<0 : C(t)=0, R(t)=0 iS(t)=0
, t0 :
(4.20) (4.21) t0 :
(4.26)

(4.27)
, , ,
t0 : R(t)+C(t)=V.
, (4.26), 1 :
R(t)=Aet
(4.28)
, (4.26), RC+1=0 =1/RC,
:
(4.29)
t=0+,
2.
, t0 R(t)+C(t)=V -
, . C(0+)=0, R(0+)=V. , t=0+ (4.29)
(4.26) R(0+)=, =V, .:
(4.30)
(4.30) (4.26) t0
R iR(t)=iC(t) C, .:
(4.31)
, :
(4.32)
4.14 R(t) C(t). , -
2, V
, , (, ,
) , .
4.14. R(t) C(t) 4.11 t=0.
, 4.13
V [ (2.9) (2.10)]. ,
,
[ (2.13)],
V. (2.13) (4.28)
RC (4.30), [RC=(V/I)(Q/V)=t]
=RC .
4.14,
, , t=T (4.30) (4.32) :
R(T)=0.37V C(T)=0.63V, ts>10
, , 90% -
. , T RC
. , -
4.15() T, 4.15() T
4.15. R(t) C(t) 4.11 () ()

T=RC.
,
S(t) , , 0 , <<RC,
S(t) . , , t= >>ts,
1, , C()=V,
. , 4.16, C(t)='R(t), 'R(t)=R(t)
R(t)+C(t)=0, i(t) , .
(4.33)
4.16. 1 t= C.
, :
, t
(4.34)
(4.26) , , t=+
C(+)=V, 13:
(4.35)
(t-) t=,
4.17.
4.17. C(t)=R(t) 4.16 t= (

t=).
R ,
C 4.13, ,
. , (4.30), :
(4.36)
, 'R(t)=C(t), (4.35):
13 , .
(4.37)
, (4.5)
, ,
[ (4.6)], R,
.
4.2.2.3
4.11,

Vp. ,
4.18, , , .
4.18. R(t) C(t) RC

.
4.2.2.4
4.11 . -
, ,
,
S(t)=Vssin(t+0).
, 1 2 t=0,
00, 0/2, :
t<0 : C(t)=0, R(t)=0 iS(t)=0,
t0 : R(t)+C(t)=Vssin(t+0) iS(t)=iR(t)=iC(t)
(4.38)
, , t>0, :
(
4.39)

(4.40)

. , (4.39)
:
R(t)=Ro(t)+R(t)
(4.41)
:
(4.42)
, :
R(t)=VRsin(t+1)
(4.43)
, (4.40), :
C(t)=Co(t)+C(t)
(4.44)

(4.45)

C(t)=VCsin(t+2)
(4.46)
, , . R C,
, VR VC, 1 2,
.
, , 4.19 t=0 -
S(t0)=Vscost, 4.20, ,
R(t) C(t) t0,
(4.47)

(4.48)
(4.41) (4.44).
4.19. RC.
, R(t) :
(4.49)
C(t) :
(4.50)
, , -
S(t)=Vscost, ,
, , t10RC, .
R AC , ,
. t=0, :
(4.51)
(4.52)
VR VC R C
, . -
.
, [ (4.43)] (4.39), , ,
:
(4.53)
, :
(4.54)
, (4.46) (4.40), :
(4.55)

(4.56)
, (4.49) (4.50), :
(4.57)

(4.58)
() R, (4.53), :
R(t) R
S(t) R,
() C, (4.55), :
C , C(t) S(t),
, (4.53) (4.55), R C :
R + C = /2 R C = /2 (4.59)
, 4.20, (4.57) (4.58) -
( ) RC
t=0 S(t)=Vscost.
4.20. R(t) C(t) 4.19.
, ,
,
t=>0 :
S() = R() + C()
(4.60)
:
R(t)
iS(t) , .
, t>0 iS(t)=iR(t)=iC(t)=R(t)/R,
AR, VR, C VC, R C, , -
, ,
, =RC,
.
, , ,
, , RC=T.
4.2.2.5
RC 4.13, ,

T ,
.
RC, /
, , , ,
, (4.53), (4.54), (4.55) (4.56),
.
, RC , [(
4.12)], (4.54) (4.56) ,
, ,
.
, 2.8.5:
RC . -
, -
, .
,
.
,
R C, . =RC .
, c=2fc,
() . ,
(4.53), (4.56) :
(4.61)
, (4.54) (4.55), :
Rc=/4 Cc= /4
(4.62)
4.3 -

Kirchhoff. , , ,
, DC AC , -
,
, -
, .
, , , , -
, , -
Euler-de Moivre ,
,
.
, -
, , ,
14 .
,
, , 3, -
15. ,
, Ohm, ,
, Ohm
.
, , V (t) I -
i(t), 16 () :
(4.63)

:
(4.64)
R , . , , ,
14 (= phasor).
15 .
16 (impedance)
.
(reactance) -
V I (4.64). ,
[V/I], .:
(4.65)
, (4.63) Euler-de Moivre, :
(4.65)
.
(admittance) ()
G , B, (susceptance), .:
(4.66)
:
(4.67)

(4.68)
,
( )
.
, ,
, , , ,
, ,
Ohm Mho ( Siemen), .
4.3.1
4.21, R
S(t)=Vscost. , R :
R(t) = S(t) = Vscost
(4.69)
, iR(t), , R(t), :
(4.70)
4.21. R S(t).
Vs=VR Is=IR (4.65),
(4.69) (4.70) :
R(t)=Re[VR]=Re[VRejt] iR(t)=Re[IR]=Re[IRejt]
:
(4.71)
Ohm R.
, S(t)=Vsej(t+), , S(t)=R(t), :
(4.72)
. (4.1), R , ,
. (4.64), . Ohm,
R :
(4.73)

(4.74)
, (4.71), :
ZR=R
(4.75)
. R ZR,
R.
4.22, R 4.21
S(t)=Vscos(t+), VR IR t=0.
4.22. () 4.21 () .
4.3.2
C 4.23, -
S(t)=Vscos(t+), C(t) , :
C(t) = S(t)=Vscos(t+)
(4.76)
, iC(t), (4.2), :
, :
(4.77)
:
IC=CVC
(4.78)

VC=Vs
4.23. C S(t).
, 4.2.1.2,
C(t) C, iC(t)
, , 4.24(), (/2) 90,
. (/2) 90.
4.24. () C 4.23 () -
.
, , (4.76) (4.77) :
C(t)=Re[VCej(t+)] iC(t)=Re[ICej(t++/2)]
, S(t)=VSej(t+), C(t)/iC(t) , , VC/IC -
, ZC C:
(4.79)
, e j/2
=j, , .:
(4.80)
, 4.24(), C C
90 VC .
, (4.63) (4.80), :
(4.81)

(4.82)
, (4.78):
(4.83)
. C ZC,
(4.81) .
VC/IC (4.83) |XC| XC
, (4.81), XC
/2 . , , (4.80) :
(4.84)
4.3.3
, L(t) L 4.25 -
S(t)=Vscos(t+), :
L(t) = S(t)=Vscos(t+)
(4.85)
, iL(t), (4.8), :
, :
(4.86)
:
(4.87)

VL=VS
4.25. L S(t).
, L -
, , 4.26(), -
(/2) 90, . (/2) 90.
4.26. () L 4.25 ()
.
, (4.85) (4.86) , , -
, S(t)=VSej(t+), L(t)/iL(t), . VL/IL ,
ZL L:
(4.88)
, 4.26(), VL L 90
L .
(4.88) L ZL :
(4.89)
:
(4.90)
, (4.87):
(4.91)
VL/IL XL
:
(4.92)
4.3.4
Ohm
, .
17, , -
.

. ,
-
, , .
, 3.5.2,
,
17 , , , .
f=2/ .
, , DC , 3.5.1,
C DC =0 ,
(4.82), C=, L, (DC) , L=0 [. (4.88)].
, , 4.27, DC
, (DC)
, , (DC)
.
4.27. DC S(t)=V, () , () -
, , .
4.3.4.1
, , -
/ , (..
), .
(-
) , .
, ( ) , . :
(4.93)
, :
X = XC + XL

, :
(4.94)
, A, B,
(t) i(t), :
(4.95)
i(t) (t) , , -
V.
, (4.93) (4.94)

1, 2, , n 1, 2, , n
, . , , 1.1
4.1.
4.1
4.3.4.2
Ohm ,
3.6.3, -

.
, 4.28() Vs , ,
1 2, (=, C ), :
(4.96)
., -
(3.26) 3.27().
, 4.28() s , ,
C , , (3.27) 3.27(),
:
(4.97)
4.28. () C () C .
, , (4.96) (4.97)
, ,
.
, S(t) RC ,
, ,
4.29, AC :
(4.98)

(4.99)
4.29. () () C .
,
, , R=R C =1/C, R(t) :
(4.100)
, , C :
(4.101)
(4.100) (4.101) , ,
, (4.52) (4.55),
.
, :
(4.102)
, R C R(t) C(t)
S(t) :
(4.103)

(4.104)
(4.53) (4.56), .
, (4.102),
, . , RC
-
()
.
, (4.102) (4.53) =R,
(4.100) (4.101) , , -
(4.84) s
Vs , ,
iS(t)=iR(t), R, R(t), .
4.3.4.3
, R L , :
(4.105)

(4.106)
, = R+ZL :
(4.107)
R L R(t) L(t) S(t) :
(4.108)

(4.109)
s=IL,
Vs .
, , (,
, ) , ,
, .
4.4
-
, ,
, , -
3.
, 3.5,
DC
AC , , , , =0 0,
DC AC .
, , -
. , -
, . -
,
18
, , , -
.
,
,
. ,
,
,
, .
, Fourier -
18 s=+j, -
Laplace , ()
, =0.
19, , -
, AC
, ,
, 20,
.
4.4.1

, . -
,
.
, (j), -
(transfer function)
. (j) =() -
21
, , .
,
(),
, . ,
.
, (j) ,
, , () (j)
, (j),
() , .
4.4.1.1
, 4.30, 1, 2, 3
4. () , , () , ,
,
s(t).
4.30. .
.. s(t)=Vsmcost , ,
, (t) (t) , s(t) -
4.3.4.2 AC .
, AC ,
2 3 4,
. , 4.31(),
2, :
19 2.5.
20, , , ,
.
21 H(j) (s),
s=+j, =0, , (), .
(4.110)
4.31. 4.30 () () .
, (1, 2) s(t), (t)

1 2:
(4.111)
M , 4.31() , (t)
22
4, (3, 4) (t), .:
(4.112)
, (4.111):
(4.113)
2 (4.110).
, , (t) (t) ,
s(t) :
s(t) =Vsmcost = Re[Vs] = Re[Vsmejt]
, Vsm , . Vs, Vsm =Vsmej0.
, (4.110) (4.111) , , :
(4.114)
, , VAB V
VABm Vm :
(4.115)
, , :

(4.116)
, (4.114), 1 VAB
Vs, 2, V V ( Vs).
22 4.31() Thevenin
() 4.30, . 2.
, () 4.30 -
, :
(4.117)
:
(4.118)
VABm Vsm (t) s(t), ,
1 , .:
(4.119)
, 4.29
, :
(4.120)
:
(4.121)
:
(4.122)
, (4.120), (4.121) (4.122) ()
V Vs 4.30
V .
, , ,
V Vs, :
=1+2
, , :
4.4.2
, , (j)
, () (),
, -
.
()
(f=2/) , f -
.
: -
. , () (j)

, , , (j)=()
(j) , , - .
, ()
- (. )
, , , ,
.
,

, , ,
.
4.4.2.1 - Bode
,
.
, , , -
, , -
(logf) , , 23 (Dec), .
: 100=1z (log1=0), 101=10z (log10=1), 102=100Hz (log100=2), ....
, -, .
, , , , -
decibel (dB), (1.44) (1.45),
.
, , () , , -
, ,
, Bode, -
Bode.
4.4.2.2 Bode RC
Bode ,
RC, 4.2.2. , -
[ 4.12()]

[ 4.12()] -
. , fc ,
(4.61) R C.
, R() ,
4.3.4.2 4.4.1.1 , ,
(4.100) (4.121) (4.52). , :
(4.123)
, (4.61), :
(4.124)
23 .. f1 f2.
, f2=1000f1=103f1, f2 f1, f3=200f1=0.5f2
f2.
(ct): f1
f f1=2f f1=0.5f, . , (log2f).
, f2 f3, f2
f3 , , f3 f2, f4 f3,
f4=23f3=8f3.
, dB (1.44),
dB, :
(4.125)
, R(j) R, (4.53) (4.103), ,
(4.61), :
(4.126)
, 4.2.2.4, R
, , .
, (4.55), (4.56) (4.61), :
(4.127)

(4.128)

(4.129)
, , C
.
, , f=fc, :
[ (4.124) (4.127)]:
HR(fc)=1/2 HC(fc)=1/2
(4.130)
. fc, (1/2)=0.707
, .
[ (4.125) (4.128)]:
A = 3dB
. , -
. ,
3 dB.
, (4.125) (4.128) ,
f fc.
, f>>fc, :
(4.131)
, (4.125) :
f <<fc dB
f = fc = 3 dB
f >>fc 0 dB
(4.132)
, f<<fc, :
(4.133)
(4.128) :
f <<fc 0 dB
f = fc = 3 dB
f >>fc dB
(4.134)
(4.126) (4.129), ,
R C.
, R, :
f << fc f0 R /2
f =fc R = /4
f >>fc f R 0
(4.135)
C:
f << fc f0 C 0
f =fc C = /4 (4.136)
f >>fc f C /2
(4.136)
( ) dB R C, , ,
(4.132), (4.134) (4.135), (4.136), Bode
, -
.
4.32
RC, . -
f=fc , =0
dB. x f=fc f>>fc,
f<<fc, , , , 20 dB -
f0 f.
4.32. Bode () () RC -
fc. fc.
, 4.33 , R ,
, C , . ,
, 0 fc/10 fc/10
10fc 10fc +. ,
fc/10 10fc 45/Dec, , , ,
.
4.33. Bode () () RC
fc. R C -
fc/10 10fc.
4.5
, (j)
24 , .
() . , (j) -
, (, , )
.
,
1.13, , , , , ,
4.34, (1.42) :
(4.137)
(j) (j) , . x(t)X(j)
y(t)Y(j) x(t)=Re[X(j)] y(t)=Re[Y(j)].
4.34.
.
, , , -
3.6.4, (j) ,
, , , -
() , ,
- .
, (j), . 2(), -
, (4.130)
fc.
4.5.1
, H(j) ,
, -
. , H(j) ,
. , :
(4.138)
25, ( ),
(j).
, :
24 -
Laplace,
,
s=+j, (j) (s).
25 (1.42), -
, (t).
(4.139)
(j) , (),
:
(4.140)
,
(4.141)
, , ,
, , (4.138), -
(j) D(j).
, (j), -
(j), . :
(4.142)
z1, z2, , zn p1, p2, , pm, n m -
(j) D(j) -
, , , .
z1, z2, , zn H(j), (j) , H(j) -
, p1, p2, , pm H(j), (j) . ,
nm 1.
26
, (j), , H(s),
.
=0 =. -
,
zn =1/n pm =1/m.
, , :
,

, , , ,

,
, -
,
, , . ( )
, , . -
().
, (4.142), (j
zn) (jpm) , , ,
, :
(4.143)
(4.142) :
(4.144)
:
26,

, , ,
.
(4.145)
:
(4.146)
(4.139) (4.141).
, , , zn, , pm, zn
pm
:
zn =zn pm= pm

(4.147)
zn =zn pm=pm
, () ()
, (4.145) (4.146) , -
, n Dm D , , -
n m
, :

(4.148)
4.5.1.1 : RC
, , RC ,
R. , :
(4.149)
VR, Vs , , () R
ZR, ZC, R C.
(4.151) :
(4.150)
, (4.142), R(j) -
1 (j) , , .
() z1=0, . z1 =z =0, , p1=j(1/
1
RC), . p1=p =(1/RC), , (4.143), (4.150) :
1
(4.151)
:
(4.152)
(4.153)
(4.152) (4.153), , (4.52)
(4.53), , , VR R
Vs R R .
(4.124) (4.126), , , fc=c/2.
(4.152) , , H()
z =0 , , . >z ,
1 1
p , .
1
()
p , : p = (1/RC). , p -
1 1 1
, (4.61), fc RC, , ,
, p =c=(1/RC).
1
, (4.152) (4.153)
p =c, :
1
(4.154)
. HR(j) (4.150), -
Bode 4.32 4.33.
, :
R() R() (4.154) (4.145)
(4.146), 1, D1 , D ,
1 1
(4.148), ,
- (RL) ,
L fc=R/2L.
4.5.2
H ,
(j), , , -
, . :
H(j) -
()
, , (AC) .
(j) -

, Kirchhoff . ,
, (j)
, , , ,
.
(j) n m
(j), , n m ,
.
zn0 pm0 -
, ,
, c fc,
, T =1/c.
n m -
, . , ,
, . -
.
c :
(c)=1/2 , , 2(c)=1/2 (c: ),

.
4.5.2.1
, -
2.7, ( ) , ,
,
. ( ) (bounded input bounded output)

.
(j) ,
, , ()
[0,).

.
, -
. ,

27.
, (absolutely or unconditionally stable)

, pm H(s=-
+j),
. , H(j), ,
pm .
4.6 C
, 1.3.3.2, R, iR(t)=Rcos(t+),
:
27
. , ,
, : () , H(s=+j)
, , , ()
(conditionally stable), H(s) , () (unstable),
H(s)
(4.155)
R(t)=VRcos(t+) , R.
, , R , ,
. , p(t)
t, , , , R,
pmax:
pmax=VRIR
(4.156)
, Pav, , t, () -
[. (2.22)], .:
(4.157)
,
(t) iZ(t) , (4.155) :
(4.158)
VZm IZm ( ),
. , :
(4.159)
, :
p(t) = [VrmsIrmscos] [VrmsIrmscos(2t+2+)]
(4.160)
, p(t)
: . ,
t, p(t) ,
( ) , , (
) . , :
(4.161)
, ( ) -
P , :
(4.162)
, p(t)
.
, , -
S=VrmsIrms ,
.
O cos , FP=P/S,
, , -
S, .
4.35 p(t) -
.
4.35. (t), i(t) p(t) P.
S, , -
. , (4.161)
S , . S=P+jQ, S
28, S = S, Q=VrmsIrmssin,
(reactive power), .
VA (voltampere)29, Q VAR (voltampere reactive).
, (4.162), P, ()
, ( =/2 FP=cos=0),
S , , , , .
S=Q, [ S=(P2+Q2)1/2]. 4.36(),
p(t) =/2 , , =0 S=Q, 4.36() , =0
P=Pmax=S. , =0,
, p(t) ,
. , P=S, p(t) .
4.36. p(t) () =0 [-
] () P=S [ ].
-
, -
. , 4.37 , ,
, , in, Z=R+jX
s(t)=Re[Vs]=Re[Vsmejt] s=Rs+jXs, VZ
Z :
28 S : S=VZIZ, IZ*
iZ(t).
29 C 1Watt(RMS)=1Volt(RMS)1Ampere(RMS). ,
,
, , .
(=0).
(4.163)
4.37. s .
..
( ) s+ 30. , , -
, ,
, R .
, (4.163), :
(4.164)
s
31
, .:
(4.165)
, s
Thevenin .
4.7
(j) (4.142) , -
, ,
, .. , .
, H(j), k (j), k 1 -
, :
(4.166)
k=max(n,m).
, (4.166) (j) ,
k k 1 H1(j),, Hk(j),
, :
(4.167)
,
.
, k k 1
,
, .
30 Zs Rs, s
, , ,
.
31 1.5.5.2, PZ/R=0
PZ/X=0.
, .
, , ,
-
2 , , , 2
. , , ,
, ,
.
, , ,
-
3.11 .
, (4.166) H(j)
1(j),, k(j), ,
32 .
, 4.38, H1(j), 2(j) H3(j)
, s (
) , ,
(3.101) (3.102), .:
(4.168)
4.38. .
, 4.30 ,
( ) , [ (4.120)]
:
2(j) , 4.31(),
1(j) [ 4.31()].
, ,
1 2 , , .. , -
2 4 .
, 4.39, -
33, H(j)=/s ,
2(j),
3(j) , : 1=sf. :
, :
(4.169)
, : H2(j)H1(j)=HF(j) :
3(j)=(j).
32 2.18 2.22 2.8.1.

33 ,
, 4.5.
4.39. .

,
3.11, , , (4.169)
.
, , , s Xf, -
, , , Yo, , (4.169)
-
. , (j)
34. :
, (j)
F(j) f
Xs,
, f Xs (j)
|F(j)| .
, -
(4.169) , . :
(4.170)
, (4.169), (j) ,
(j) , ,
. , ( )
() ,
,
, .
, ,
(4.170) Barkhausen
. , .
, , ()
(4.170) , . .
4.8
, , ,
. ,

, . ,
() , ,
.
, , RLC -
34 , , ..
. ,
,
, ,
. -
, (4.169)
.
.
4.8.1 RLC
4.40 R, L C
. ,
s(t)=Vsmcos(t+)=Re[Vs], -
, sm, Z,
, .:
(4.171)
4.40. S(t) RCL .
(4.93), (4.94) (4.95), :
(4.172)

(4.173)

(4.174)
(4.172) L C,
, .:
(4.175)
:
(4.176)
RLC ,
= :
()=R ()=0
, , (4.171), :
,
(4.177)
, , sm [
(4.177)] ,
Z , . , min=()=R. , -
R, R(j)=VR/Vs=R/Z (VR=RIs)
, . R()=1.
4.8.1.1
(4.172) ,
<, L<1/C, >, L>1/C, , , 0 ,
, 0, ,
, .
sm
, . 0 . ,
(4.174), /2, . s
Vs
, , +/2, . s Vs -
, , =, =0, [ (4.177)].
4.40() = ,
4.40() Is.
4.40. () Z () Is -
: , -
.
4.8.1.2
, -
.
, ,
.
, 4.39
, . 0 , , ,
C , (4.173), -
, L . ,
,
, , ,
R. , ,
C, [ (4.6)]:
L:

=0, =, .:
(4.178)
, , :
(4.179)
Wmax , , sm, , ,
(4.177),
. , , , T=2/
, R, .:
(4.180)
s,rms Ism R.
4.8.1.3
Wmax (4.180)
4.39 - , Wmax
, , ,
.
, 4.39, is(t)
PR Wmax/,
(4.180) :
(4.181)
1 2, , 1> 2<,
(1+2)=2 , , (4.181), .
1 2 1=2/1 2=2/2,
, 4.40(), .
RLC 1 2 ,
. C L [ 4.40()].
, (4.181) (4.178) (4.179), , -
1 2 sm/2 , , :
(4.182)
, 1 2 -
, PR,

, , is(t) , ,
R. , 1 2 R(j)=VR/
Vs, R(1)=1/2 R(2)=1/2, , HI(j)=s/Vs, , ()=R,
H(1)= R/2 (2)=R/2.

(1, 2) =2fo,
, . .
1=2f1 2=2f2 , ,
B (bandwidth) :
B= f2f1 f1<fo<f2
(4.183)
4.40, RLC
, , 35 Ism, .
R,L,C .
, , Q, -
, ,
, , , .:
(4.184)
, Qser -
, . , :
(4.185)
, (4.176)
(4.185)
f1 f2 -
, , Qser, ,
(4.172), :
(4.186)
:
(4.187)
, , : f1Z1 f2Z2, (4.182),
f1 f2 f:
35 , .
()=R
, , ( )
.
(4.188)
,
(4.189)
4.8.2 RLC
, , 4.41,
RLC , , , -
, , , -
, :
()=1/()=1/R
4.41. iS(t) RCL.
, , :
(4.190)

(4.191)
:
, ()=1/()=1/R ()=0
, 4.41,
is(t)=cos(t+)=Re[Is], s(t) , ,
()=, min=1/R, Vsm
:
(4.192)
, Qpar
4.41,
RLC , , :
(4.193)
, (4.176) (4.191), :
(4.193)
4.42 =1/ Vs
4.41, <
, , >, .
4.42. () () Is -
RLC : ,
.
1=2f1 2=2f2, B=f2f1 ( f1<fo<f2) -

, f1Y1=1/Z1, f2Y2=1/Z2
(4.190) (4.193) Qpar , ,
1 2 ( 1(1)=2(2)=(-
)2=2/R).
, , :
(4.194)
,
(4.195)
4.8.3
RLC
,
,
(4.176) .
,
,
.
Q
. Q (4.184),
. , Q,
, ,
, ,
,
,
.
,
, -,
-.
, - -
, -
, , ,
.
, RLC , .
4.39, , ,
180 , Qser Vsm
s(t) . , VC , VL
, :
(4.196)
, .
, RLC , .
4.41, , , -
180 , Qpar Ism
is(t) . , IL , IC ,
:
(4.197)
, .

Kuo F.F., Network Analysis and Synthesis, J.Wiley & Sons, 2nd Ed., 1966.
Zepler E.E., and Nichols K.G., Transients in Electronic Engineering, 1971.
Van Valkenburg M.E., Network Analysis, Prentice-Hall, 3rd Ed., 1974.
., , , 1987.
. ., , , 2 ., 2006.

AC

Ohm

-3dB

Barkhausen

Bode

Barkhausen
BIBO
Bode
5.
5.1
-
,
. , ,
, -
, , ,

. , Kirchhoff
, ,

.

, , -
, (operational amplifier). , , ,
,
, ,
() .
, , -

(general purpose operational amplifier). ,
, , , -
,
, , .
5.2
5.2.1
(..) 2 ,

, .
, -
(-
, , ..),
.
.., , -
. , 40,
, .
, , .
, , ,
, , .. ,
. -
1965 1.
, , (Integrated
Circuits) , -
, 2.
, -
, . ,
, , ,
1 709 .Widlar Fairchild
Semiconductor
2 70, ,
80, , , (Large
Scale Very Large Scale Integration: LSI, VLSI).
,
. , , .. -
, .
...
..
..
, , -
. ,
, T.E.,
, ,
.
5.2.2 , ..
.. , , ,
, , , , , ,
. ,
<1mm2 ( -
) , , -
. , 5.1, ,
, , ..,
, , -
...
5.1. T.E.
, .. , -
, , -
,
, 3.
, ..
, 5.2, :
(5.1)
k (>>1) .
5.2. .. .
, 1.3.2.1 DC -
, ..
, 5.2,
.
5.3 . ,
5.3() ..
, , ,
5.3(). .. 3
, ,
.
5.3. ..: () () .
5.2.3 ..
(t) ..,
, . -
, 5.4.
, , .. , ,
.
, (VS+) (VS), .., -
, , , , -
DC ( )
...
5.4. .. () () -
.
, 5.4(), -
, . , -
.. : (VS+)
(VS) , 4
. 5.4(), .
,
3, .. .. , ..
(transconductance amplifiers),
( : current mode circuits).
4, , -
. ,
, , .
5. (..
+VCC VCC) , (
) .
.
. ..,
,
, , Kirchhoff.
, i+ i , iO, , iS+ iS , -
., , 5.5(), :
(5.2)
, , .
. , ,
, (5.2) :
(5.3)
.. , , RL T..
, iS+ iS
[. 5.5() : iL=iO, iS+=ISiL iS=ISiL].
5.5. () .. (
..) () (5.3) iL=iO, iS+=ISiL iS=ISiL.
5.3 ...
(5.1) :
(5.4)
, +
(+) (), , ,
...
(+) ()
.. ,
. , ,
(5.5)
() ( )
6
(+), .
5 ..
.
6 2.8.1 , . 180
, , .
.., , ,
, .
, .
(DC), (AC)
..
.. .
, ,
3.6.5.1
...
. , , , ,

...
5.3.1 ..
.. , -
, . =, RIN+=, RIN= R=0.
.. (5.4)
, 5.6, , ,
.
5.6. .
.. -
.., , , ..
. , -
.. 5.6,
:
.. ,
. iIN+=0 iIN=0,
,
..

,
.., ( -
),
,
, .., -
, .. ,
.
5.3.2 ..
, ,
.. . , -
, , , ..
.
, .., .. -
105 106, 1012
50 , -
... -
0 Hz (DC ) .. 100 z
. , .. DC -
, , , .. DC 7
. . 5.7, , , RIN+, RIN, RO
A DC .
5.7. .
.. ,
.. 20 dB
, , , ,
.
, ..
(-
)
( RC),

.
, , , , (voltage gain), -
() (f) ..
, . 4.4.2.2 :
5.8 , , ,
( dB) 0 fC, .. fC=100 z, ,
, 20 dB/dec fT 8
(fT)=1. T..
.
5.8. .
.. , fC (10-100 z),
7 .. DC
DC . , DC ,
, DC ,
.
8. |(jfT)|=1 |(jfC)|=A0/2.
fT -
- (Gain BandWidth: GBW) :
GBW fT= A0fC = A(f) f
(5.6)
. 0 .. 0 fC
(f) f fC<f<fT.
, R+ R, 5.7,
9
... , ..,
R ,
RCOM , 5.9(), , -
, .
5.9. ()
() ...
5.3.3 ...
, ..
, , (5.4),
. , (5.5),
, ..
, .. .
, ..
. , (differential mode)
(5.4), , , (single
mode), , .
(5.5).
5.10 .. , -
,
.
9 , , -
.. , , .
5.10. .. () (): () :
=(+), () : =+ () , =
H (5.4) :
(5.7)
d(t) .., . (+)
. d(t)
, .. -
, d, , |d(t)||d|,
.. ( ) .
, 5.2.3, ( ) ..10
VS, :
max|(t)| |VS|
(5.8)
(5.7) .., ,
()= :
|d| =|VS| /A
(5.9)
10 , , .. -
, 5.10.
-
- .. , , , ,
, d(t).
, .. d(t) |d(t)|<|d| |d|=|VS|/A,
, . (t)=d(t)A, , ,
, . |(t)|<|VS|. , {d(t), (t)}
..
, .. , , |d(t)||d|,
, , d ,
... .. -
, , , -
, . +VS+ VS .
(d-
) .. , , 5.11, ,
(1), (2) (3):
(1) (3) d .
.. |d(t)||d|, , -
.., d(t)<d d(t)>+d,
(5.9).
(5.9), (2)
...
, |d(t)|<|d| |d|0.
, .. -
x d , .. 5.11().
5.11. () .. ( ) () -
|d(t)|<|d|.
,
.. . , (5.9),
|d(t)|<|d| , , ..,
:
|+(t)|<|d| (t)=0, |(t)|<|d| +(t)=0,
:
(t)=0
(5.10)
+(t)=0
(5.10)
, , |d| =|VS| /A.
5.4
T ..
.. .. -
... , ,

... , . ..
, ,
..,
.
, 3.4.1,
, ,
11
, ..
... , - ,
.. .., ...
- ...
..,
(5.9) (5.10) ..
.
, ,
, -
,
... , ..
, , .. (5.4) (5.7)
(5.8).
, .. ,
.., , ,
d, (5.9) (5.10). , -

, .. ,
,
..
, .. ,
..
, , ,
, 3.11 4.7 3.81() 4.39.
5.12 .. .
, () -
, ,
. , , ()
, ,
.
5.12. .. () ( ) () (
).
11 , , , -
,
, , ,
( .. ) (DC)
( C) , , .
5.13 .. -
, ..
() ( ), ,
, (
).
5.13. .. () () .
, ,
(.
..) , ,
.
, .. ,
, , , ,
5.8,
,
. , .. , -
, 5.6.
, .. ,
, , .
, , :
-
, , ,
,
.
5.5 ...
, 2 ,
,
, , , ,
.
, , , -
.. , . -
, , -
.. 12
, , ,
, . ...
5.5.1
5.14 .., :

..,
.. ,
R1 R2, . ,
.
, -
() , A=/, R1 R2.
(non-inverting amplifier),
12 3.11.
180 (. ) .
5.14. .. .
, ..
VS ( ), ( )
VS+VS, ,
:
=+ =R1
, R2 R1, 13:
(5.11)
, .., . :
=d=(+) (5.12)
:
(5.13)
. d .. -
R1
R1. , , (5.13),
d ...
, (5.9), , .. -
d
.
, , .. 5.14 .
, , (),
d d= 0, , , (5.13):
.:
(5.14)
(5.14) 5.14 -
, , . ,
() , , ..
R1 R2:
(5.15)
13 .. .
, 5.14 .. , ,
, , .. d=,
, ,
:
|,max|=|VS|/A
(5.16)
, , (5.14) , , (5.15)
.. . , ,
..
5.5.1.1 ..
.. 5.14 , (5.13)
RIN() R1, , ,
(5.11). , , (5.13) :
, ,
(5.17)
,
(5.18)
, ,
.., .
, :
>>1
(5.19)
(5.18) (5.15):
-
(5.14) .., R1 R2
(5.19) , :
(5.20)
, -
. S RS, ,
5.15, :
RS<<RIN(+) S =+
R1<<RIN() R1 (5.21)
RO<<(R2+R1) = R2+R1
(5.14), >>1.
(5.19) (5.20), , -
, (5.20) (5.21),
..,
(5.14) R1 R2.
5.15. ..
, , (5.21) R2
R1 ROL=R2+R1 .., .
. , 3.8,
R1 R2, -
, ,
.. , , .
, , (. ..) , 5.15,
RL (.. ), :
RL>>R2+R1,
,
RLROL RL<ROL, (5.14) (5.15) .
5.5.1.2
, , d
.., . , (+) ..,
, () . ,
5.16,
, . , :
=
=d
d=
(5.22)
5.16. 5.14 ,
. .
, , 5.14,
5.15, 5.16, -
. , , ,
d, , ,
.., , , , .
R2 R1, ,
.
, (5.22), :

() ,
.., -
d ,
,
, . -
,
, , , , , (5.18):
, :
, , 4.7, (5.18)
..
14. , ( 5.16)
3.11 ,
.
5.5.1.3
..
, (5,14),
(5.15) A, , , -
, . Ai RINPUT ROUTPUT,
.
, , 5.17,
, (
3.9) :
i=i/i
RINPUT=/iIN
ROUTPUT=O/iO
(5.23)
5.17. -
.
, :
, iIN
14 ( ) -
.
i+ ..,
, iO=iL, -
RL ( iO=iRL), iL
,
, ,
.., -
.. , , -
:
(5.24)
RIN+ (+) .., , , =0
RO<<R1+R2, iOiL, , :
(5.25)
5.5.2
.. 5.18, :
.. ,
, . , , R1,
..,
, , () -
.. . R2.
, ,
R1 R2, , 180
, . ,
(inverting amplifier).
5.18. .. .
, .. ,
5.19, .. ,
S RS=0 ( ). , ,
.. , . i=i+ =0, , , (
) VS+VS, VS () .
, , .. , . +=0,
.. :
=d=(+)=
(5.26)
, , .. :
=
(5.27)
, , , = 0.
, =0 +=0, +=0, . R1, R2 ()
. ,
(virtual earth).
,
Kirchhoff ,
.
5.19. 5.18 .. -
S .
, 5.20,
5.19 , :
, S, -
R1, () .. ,
, 15 ..
, R2, .
5.20. 5.18 5.19

.
, , :
S==R1+ = i1R1+ = i1R1
(5.28)
, ,
16, :
=i2R2 + =i2R2
(5.29)
, , () ..,
i1 i2 :
i1=i2+i i1=i2
(5.30)
, (5.28) (5.29), (5.30), :
15 ( R2)
.. .
16,
. ,
, 5.18, . , -
.
(5.31)
. , , ( ..) , ,
5.18 , , -
, .
180 .
, (5.31) 5.18 -
, , :
(5.32)
, , (5.31)
, (5.32) ..
, . (5.27), 0, (5.28) (5.29)
.
, , ,
, , -
... ,
[ (5.27)],
, . , , <<.
, (5.31) (5.27) <<,
:
(5.33)
, , (5.31), (5.32), .. -
, (5.33) , , ..
17.
5.5.2.1
5.18 (5.32), -
.., R1, R2. , -
R2 ,
(5.31) , ,
.. , , .
, , .. (5.7) d=(+), , -
, d= () ..
( R1) , , ( R2). ,
,
, , , . () .., -
, .... , ,
R1 R2, :
|||,max| |IN,max|=|,max|/|A|
(5.34)
, , .., . |||d|,
(5.31).
, , ,
, ( ) ,
, , ,
.., , ,
.
, , ,
.. , , , -
17 , .., f , ,
(5.34), (f) .. ,
[. 5.8].
, , .:
= IN + O
(5.35)
=,
, . .
, 5.21, 5.20, -
, S=, , ,
, :

(5.36)
, :
(5.37)
5.21. () 5.20 ( ..)

() IN .
,
.. , . R1 R2,
.
5.21() .. 18 , , (5.36),
, .
, .. -
5.21(), (5.27):
==
, - .., . 0, :

(5.38)
, , (5.36), :
, , (5.31),.:
18 3.8.1.1, ..
.
5.18, -
(5.31), () ..
, . , (5.28) (5.29), -
i=i1=i2, R1
R2, =+ () ..
i, , ,
( =iR2), ..., , , :
=(1)
=
(5.39)

(5.37).
,
,
5.22, (5.27), (5.35) (5.39), :
(5.40)
, :
(5.41)
5.22. 19 (5.41).
, (5.40) (5.41)
|| ||
, , .
5.5.2.2
, , , RINPUT, , ROUTPUT, ..,
, , -
, , Ai=iO/iIN, .
, 5.23, :
(5.42)
, , , :
19 5.18 -
i=i1=i2. , 3.82,
, ,
(1-) (1/R1) (1/R2).
(5.43)
, =0, ==.
5.23. 5.18 .
, 5.23 R1, -
1 Miller ( 3.10.1) , , 20
, (5.42),
(5.32) .
,
(5.43), =0,
() ,
Miller21.
5.5.3
.. -
.. .
, -
.
, , ..
(5.4), ,
, .. ,
.
, , ,
, :
,
..,
, :
( ) .. ,
, , ,
5.16,
.., ()
, , , -
5.22.
, , ,
..,
, , (5.9) (5.10).
, , ,
. , ..,
, . () , , ,
<<.
, .., ,
20 Miller ,
(3.92) (3.93) , .. .
.
21 Miller, ,
, . ( ).
,
, ( ) -
22.

.., .. , -
, .
, (5.15) (5.32),
, , , -
( ) , , ,
,
.., . R1 R2 [. (5.17) (5.37)].
, (5.15) (5.32) >>1, -
. , ,
. (5.18) (5.41) ,
, .
, (1+), -
23.

.. -
24. ,
.
, (5.24), (5.25) (5.42), (5.43)
..,
:
, -
,
,
,
,
25.
, 5.8
, -
..
, , , , <<,
.
, 5.24, f .., .
=(f), , [1+(f)], (5.15)
(5.41) f>fA
f , ff (f)<<1.
22 . ,
... ,

.
23 (1+)>1, .
24
.
25 (5.42) ..
R1, ,
.
5.24. ( )
.. ( ) ... fA>>fA.
, ..
(), 4.3 -
() , , , 26.
,
4 .
, ..
, R1 C. -
5.25, .. , , ,
, . :
=(+)=(C)
, , , ( ) -
, .
5.25. .. .
, , , : +, . C, :
=+R
, 5.25 -
:
(5.44)
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, ( ) :
(5.45)
, ,
(5.45)
=2f.
26 , , , ,
, .
, :
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,

, ,
, .
, ..
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.
, , , -
,
, (5.44),
.
5.5.4 ...
,
.. , , -
..,
, 4.
, 5.26 .. ,
() C, -
R. .. ,
, . +=0 iIN=iCiR,
:
(5.46)
5.26. ...
5.27, C
() .., ..,
:
(5.47)
5.27. ...
5.5.4.1

(5.46) (5.47). (4.24)
(4.25), - 4.12, .. (
) .
, (5.46) (5.47) -
, (5.4) ..

.. .. -
.
T, , :
, ,
, , -
( )
.
( ) -
RC , -
, . 180, .
, Bode
..
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, -
, ,
(5.31), :
( )
( )
,
, .
, , ,
, A(f)=/.
, 5.28 ,
, , ,
, ,
. ,
(max)=(R/R1),
>>(1/CR1), (max)=(R2/R), <<(1/CR1),
: c=1/RC
5.28. .. () () , -
.
5.5.5
..
.
, .. 5.29,

/ -
(). , ,
, , ,
,
:
(5.48)
5.29. ...
5.30,
, .. -
, :
(5.49)
, , R1=R2 R3=R4, :
(5.50)
, R1=R3 R2=R4, : =21
5.30. ...
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, ,
.
5.5.6 ...
-
, ..
,
.
..,
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.
5.5.6.1
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. , ..
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.. 3.3.5.1,
...
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, -
..,
.
, ..
, , .
,
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( ) ,
.
, .. ,
, ,
, .., -
.
, , -
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,
, , (5.24) (5.25), o
, ,min=1, , RINPUT, -
, ROUTPUT0.
, , , -
, ,
=1.
(. ),
. ., (=1) ,
27.
..,
(5.14) R2=0, A=1. , R1,
5.31 :
=(+)=() =R1/(R1+0)=1
. : 0 .
5.31. ...
5.5.6.2
27 , FET.
, 5.5.2,
.. ,

() .., , , : i0.
, 5.32, , , =+R(iR), iINiR
+=0 :
=iR
(5.51)
(5.51) , ,
. , 3.6.5.3,
5.32 () , :
:
(5.52)
:
(5.53)
:
(5.54)
r=(/i) (. ..), gm=(iR/) -
RO ..28.
5.32. ...
5.5.6.3
, R2
(5.29) (5.31) :
(5.55)
, 5.18, (5.55), R1=R R2=RL
, 5.33, :
(5.56)
iL RL ,
iL. ,
28 , ROUTPUT, , , iIN=0 , ,
.. (Ari) RO<<R, (5.54) i=iR.
RL 29 (floating) , iL
, :
(5.57)
, , RL, -
, ROL
:
5.33. .
-
, , 5.34, RL
() ... :
, ,
RL, :
(5.59)
5.34. .
, 5.30, 5.35, -
iL RL
, , R1=R2=R3=R4=R, 2L=+ , :
(5.60)
29 ( )
( )
5.35. RL.
5.6 ...
5.4
(5.8)
( ..).
, 3.4.1,
:
, -
, . ( ) -
( ), , .

,
, -
, , -
.
.., ( -
-), 3.9(),
, . .
, ,
( ..),
[. 5.11()].
(bistable)
() -
.
5.6.1 ..
, , ..
, ,
, .. (5.4) ,
, (5.8).
, :
+ +=0
, ,
i+i0,
.. ,
...
, ,
, , ,
- ,
..
. , ,
, , .
, ,
..
, -
, , , , ... -
, ,
2.27 2.28,
.
5.6.2 ...
.., 5.3.3,
, ,
, (5.9) , ,
(5.4) ...
, ..
(5.4), , , :
i+i0
+, d=+
, .:
(5.61)
VS+, VS , d=(+) , , |d|>|d| [-
|d|=|VS|/].
, .. , -
, , .
5.6.2.1
5.36() .. , ,
, ,
, d, (5.61). 5.36() , , -
- ,
.
5.36. () .. () .
, -
, ()
.. , ,
d.
, () -
30 ( 5.37) ref ( 5.38), -

, .
30 2.8.6.
5.37. .. (t) -
: () (t)>0 (t)=+ () (t)<0 (t)=+.
5.38. .. (t) ref>0 -

: () (t)>ref (t)=+ () (t)< ref (t)=+.
5.6.2.2 Schmitt trigger

5.39 .., , ,
R1 R2, (+) -
.
Scmitt trigger
, , , , , ,
.. ,
(5.61). , ,
, :
.
5.39. Schmitt trigger.
, ..
:
, ,
(5.62)
,
d=+
, () , :
=[sgn(+)]|VS|
, ,
(5.63)
5.40() Schmitt trigger
(t), , 5.40(), -,
, , -
.
, (5.63), , ,
, . =+,
=d + ,
d , , ,
+=, .... , ,
, . .
5.40. () - Schmitt trigger
() - .
5.6.2.3 ...
5.41() ..
Schmitt trigger.

.., 5.41(), .
T=RC,
||=|VS| R1, R2.
5.41. () .. () .

Clayton G.B., Operational Amplifiers, Butterworth & Co., 2nd Ed. 1979.
. ., , , 2 ., 2006.

B

- (GBW)

Schmitt Trigger

/

,

-

-

- TE
Bistable
Schmitt Trigger

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.

SI watt (W) 1W=1volt1ampere 1W=1joule/1sec.

SI farad (F) 1F=1coulomb/1volt. , -

, (3.26) (3.27), (R2//RL) R2 ,RL(t) (t) (G2//GL)

3.38. 3.36, S=0 UT=VCC, S=RBVCC/RC

3.39. DC 3.36: () () VS=0.

3.7.2. Thevenin Norton

3.48. Thevenin Norton .

3.49. 3.44 Thevenin.

3.52. Thevenin 3.52.

3.53. Thevenin 3.36.

4.1. () (t) R t=0 () -

4.3. () (12) t=0 C (t)=V

4.6. i(t) L t=0.

4.7. L 4.6 t=0 t= i(t)=I.

4.9. (t) L t=0.

, (t)=V iL(0)=0 L(0)=0, ,

, . (t)=Vsin(t+), iL(0)=0 L(0)=0,

4.14. R(t) C(t) 4.11 t=0.

4.15. R(t) C(t) 4.11 () ()

4.17. C(t)=R(t) 4.16 t= (

4.18. R(t) C(t) RC

4.20. R(t) C(t) 4.19.

, (1, 2) s(t), (t)

32 2.18 2.22 2.8.1.

4.40. S(t) RCL .

(4.93), (4.94) (4.95), :

4.41. iS(t) RCL.

1=2f1 2=2f2, B=f2f1 ( f1<fo<f2) -

5.20. 5.18 5.19

5.21. () 5.20 ( ..)

5.38. .. (t) ref>0 -

5.6.2.2 Schmitt trigger

5.39. Schmitt trigger.

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