FEBRUARY, 2010.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0. INTRODUCTION

2.0.WIND BRACING IN MULTI STOREY STRUCTURES

2.1.TYPES

2.1.1. VERTICAL BRACING

2.1.2. HORIZONTAL BRACING

2.1.3. RAFTER BRACING

3.0. BRACING SECTIONS

4.0. END CONNECTIONS

5.0. GUSSETS

6.0. BOLTING

7.0.CONCLUSION

8.0.REFERENCES

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1.0.INTRODUCTION

All buildings must be designed to resist wind load. Unlike snow and other vertical loads, wind

load is unique in that it acts horizontally and in any direction. Therefore a building must be able

to resist loads acting parallel and blows against the end wall causes the roof to want to move in

the direction of the wind, but perpendicular to any wall of a building. The design wind load on a

structure is based on the local wind speed. All structures must be designed to transfer wind load

from where it is applied to the ground. For example, in a simple one-story house, as shown in

FIGURE 1, wind that the movement of the roof is resisted by the wall bracing in the side walls.

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2.0. WIND BRACING IN MULTI STOREY SRUCTURES
2.1.0. TYPES
2.1.1. Vertical bracing

Vertical bracing to columns provides lateral stability to a structure and resistance to wind

loading. The bracing is thus subject to horizontal loading acting in either the left-to-right or right-

to-left direction. The most commonly used configurations are illustrated in the diagrams below.

Those shown in details (a) to (c) can be used in multi-storey buildings, with the floor beams

being located at each panel height of the system. They could also be used, along with the

configurations shown in details (d) and (e), for tall columns in single-storey buildings. In this

case the beams indicated in details (a) to (c) would be replaced by horizontal struts.

In type (a) the diagonals could be designed to act either in tension only or in combined tension

compression; in the latter case the horizontal members would carry no load. The tension-only

system is very efficient since the diagonals can be designed to minimum size and with a large

slenderness ratio. It is especially applicable to bracing systems with large panel sizes, i.e. in

height or width or both.

In detail (b) the diagonals act in tension and compression and thus need to be stiffer; the

horizontal beams do not carry any bracing load. Note that at ground level the full horizontal load

is resisted by a single column foundation, which is a less favourable situation than when it is

shared between two column bases. It is nevertheless an efficient system, provided the lengths of

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the diagonals are not excessive, since a minimum number of members and connections are

involved.

The inverted-V or chevron bracing in detail (c) is a tension compression system with shorter

diagonal members and each horizontal member acting half in tension and half in compression. It

is thus an efficient system, but if applied to a multi-storey building the bracings act as props at

mid-length of each beam which would result in a lighter beam section, but a much heavier

bracing section.

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The system shown in (e) is similar to the tension compression bracing shown in (a), but with the

horizontals omitted. For single-storey buildings any of the layouts shown in details (a) to (e) can

be used, in one or more panel heights. The bracing shown in detail (f) is equivalent to a single

panel of the (c) type, but is used where the aim is to separate the overhead beam from the bracing

itself, as in a crane gantry. In this case the bracing resists horizontal loading only and does not

pick up any load from the beam.

The configurations shown in (g) and (h) may be used for single-storey buildings where greater

clearance between the columns is required. They are obviously less economical than any of the

others and are only used when called for. The (g) type may also be used in multi-storey buildings

in special cases where clearance is required. Sub-bracings, as shown dotted, may be added to

reduce the effective length of the bracing members in the plane of the frame

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2.1.2. Horizontal bracing

Horizontal bracing to floors, when required as temporary bracing prior to the casting of concrete

slabs, should be kept as light and simple as possible. It is often left in place after completion of

the floor, thus saving the expense of removing it. Eccentricities at node points are usually not

serious and are permissible wherever they allow simpler end connections to be used. The

simplest form of bracing would usually be single-angle cross-bracing acting in tension only.

Temporary bracing should be clearly noted as such on the design drawings so that the detail

draughtsman can treat it accordingly.

The figure below shows a few possible floor bracing layouts and is presented for the purpose of

discussing the pros and cons of various configurations. The comments below apply in principle

to both permanent and temporary bracing. In all cases it is assumed that the plane of the bracing

is some distance below the top flange level of the beams so as to avoid interference by the

bracing with the floor slab or deck. If the beams are all of the same depth the bracing plane could

be located at the underside of the beams, with the bracing gussets bolted directly to the bottom

flanges; this would save the use of cleat for connecting the gussets to the beams.

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The layout shown in detail (a) appears simple and has the advantage that the members can be

tension-only single angles. It has the drawback, however, that the nodes coincide with the

column positions, while the gussets tend to be awkward in shape, as in detail (e) of the figure,

and have to be checked for compressive force transfer. In the layout in (b) all the bracing ends

are clear of the columns, resulting in much simpler beam connections, as shown in detail (f). The

bracings must be designed for tension compression, but because of their short length do not

require a heavy section.

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The bracing shown dotted is optional; it does not carry load.

In the (c) layout the bracing-column interference is minimised, the number of gussets is reduced

as compared with (b) and the members are again in tension compression, but have a greater

length.

Where there are no intermediate columns within the bracing system the layout shown in detail

(d) can be used. Here there is no column interference and the diagonal in the centre panel can be

designed as tension compression or, with the member shown as dotted added, in tension only.

2.1.3. Rafter bracing

Rafter bracing used in industrial buildings to resist wind loading is located across the width of

the roof, usually at the gables, but sometimes within intermediate bays. It may also be required

along the length of the roof, adjacent to the eaves, to provide lateral support to intermediate side

columns.

Under wind uplift loading the purlins are often highly stressed in bending, with their bottom

flanges having to resist lateral-torsional buckling caused by the negative moment. They therefore

have little or no reserve of strength left to enable them to participate in the roof bracing system.

For this reason the bracing is often designed as a self-contained system comprising tension and

compression members, and not relying on any assistance from the purlins. An efficient section

for the struts is a circular hollow section (CHS), whilst a single angle is suitable for the ties in an

X-braced system. In a configuration where all of the members are subject to tension compression

the CHS would be the best section.

The figure below shows three layouts of rafter bracing. In detail (a) the X-braced system is used

with angle diagonals and CHS 'verticals', the latter usually coinciding with alternate purlin

positions for the sake of good appearance. In detail (b) the diagonals are tension compression

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CHS members, with the nodes again coinciding with the purlins positions. In this layout the

diagonals pass underneath alternate purlins and the bracing plane has to be dropped below the

top of the I-section rafter as shown in detail (d).

Alternatively, and especially if the rafter is an angle or tee section (as in a truss), the purlins

could be raised, as shown in detail (e), and the bracing connected to the top of the rafter.

In smaller buildings, where the ratio of bay length to purlin spacing is lower, the arrangement

shown in detail (c) of the figure will be found to be simple and efficient. Here the panel lengths

are equal to the purlin spacings, so there is no interference with the purlins and the CHS

diagonals can be gusseted to the top of the rafter, resulting in a cheaper connection.

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3.0. Bracing sections

As stated earlier, CHS sections are often used for strut bracings in buildings and single angles for

ties. For large structures and especially industrial applications such as buildings for plants,

towers, mine headgears, conveyor trestles, etc, the bracing may have to take a different form.

The figure below shows a number of sections commonly used, ranging from light simple ties to

heavy compound struts.

The double angles shown in details (b) to (d) are used for both ties and struts and are efficient as

regards their end connections because the bolts are in double shear. They may be used in indoor

locations in non-corrosive environments; if used in corrosive situations they should be

galvanised or treated in some other form because of the difficulty during subsequent

maintenance of painting between the angles.

As mentioned before, the starred-angle strut shown in detail (e) is not as cost effective as it might

appear because of the stringent code requirements, and also because of the wide gussets required

at the ends. It is, however, popular section in heavy structures with large bracing lengths and

forces.

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The CHS bracing shown in detail (f) is very efficient structurally when used as a single strut. It

should preferably not be used in the X-configuration because of the difficulty in providing a

suitable gusset at the intersection of the X.

When compared with a starred-angle section as used in long or heavily loaded compression

members the CHS shows up well. The higher cost per unit mass and the welded T-connections at

the ends are offset by the much higher mass per metre and the battens of the starred angle.

The twin-angle section shown in detail (g) is suitable as a strut. When used as a tie the battens or

lacings could be omitted unless the slenderness ratio is very high.

The I-section in detail (h), or alternatively an H-section, is efficient when used in systems where

a member with a depth perpendicular to the bracing plane is required; double plane gussets are

used, attached to the flanges.

4.0. End Connections

Where bracings are connect to a beam or a column, as shown in figure below, it is usually not

necessary for the member axes to meet at a common point as shown in detail (a). A more

compact gusset can be achieved if the axes meet at the column-beam flange intersections, as

shown in (b). Because the eccentricity is in the plane of the column and beam webs the eccentric

moment produced can usually be absorbed easily by the bending strength of the column and or

beam about their x-axes. The gusset welds and the bolts are in pure shear and would not need to

be checked for shear tension as would be required for detail (a).

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Detail (c) shows a bracing connected to the column only. This results in even greater simplicity

since far fewer bolts are required. Furthermore, the beam requires no holing and can thus be

detailed as a standard beam. The end plate on the gusset is, however, subject to prying action and

would need to be of adequate thickness. The bolts would also need to have sufficient tensile

strength and might have to be high-strength.

For bracings with lesser load the detail shown in (d), in which a simple, compact gusset is used,

represents an extremely economical solution. The plate is shop-welded to the column and needs

to be located accurately. This can be done by marking the plate as shown and providing a

corresponding mark on the column flange; these marks would be included on the detail drawing.

In cases where the beam forms part of the bracing system and acts as a tie or a strut the

horizontal component of the force in the inclined bracing member needs to be transmitted into it.

In details (a) and (b) this is done via the beam flange, but in details (c) and (d) the force is

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transmitted from the bracing to the column and then from the column into the beam end. Where

the resulting force in the beam is tensile the end plate and its bolts need to be checked for this

force, in addition to the end shear in the beam being tested.

As has been stated, the effect of the eccentricity in connections (b), (c) and (d) is usually not

significant, but should be checked nevertheless, especially in cases (c) and (d) where it is more

pronounced.

When a gusset as shown in detail (c) is used the line of action of the bracing force should pass

through the mid-depth of the flange of the cleat as shown. Details (e) and (f) show connections

where this is not so; although the bracings have been brought closer to the beam flange and the

bracing-beam-column eccentricity has thus reduced, the eccentricity on the flange bolts and the

welding will cause a serious overstress at points X because of the concentration of force at these

points.

5.0. Gussets

The setting-out by the detail draughtsman of gussets with welded plates that are bolted to beam

and column flanges can in certain instances be simplified and their production speeded up by

slightly displacing the setting-out points (SOP's) as shown.

Detail (a) shows the conventional position of the SOP on the beam-column flange intersection

and details (b) the displaced position on the corner of the gusset plate itself.

This applies also to floor bracing where the bracings are connected to the webs of the beams. The

displacement is insignificant, but the setting out is made much easier. It is of course necessary

for the draughtsman to allow for the true position of the SOP's when detailing the bracing

members.

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The same principle can be applied to many other cases, e.g. the welded-T cleat shown in details

(c) and (d) of the figure.

6.0. Bolting

In the great majority of cases the type of bolt used in site connections of bracings would be the

Grade 4.8 ordinary bolt because of its cheapness. This would include rafter, eaves and truss tie

bracing, floor bracing in general and the vertical bracing to buildings of moderate height. Tall

buildings would be subject to lateral displacement owing to bolt slip under wind load, which

might be reversed under opposite wind conditions. In this case

Grade 8.8S HSFG bolts should be used, as they should be in bracing in all situations where

dynamic loading and or vibration are present.

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An exception to the general use of Grade 4.8 bolts might be in very heavily loaded bracing where

the number of bolts could be reduced significantly by using Grade 8.8 bolts in shear bearing.

This results in a reduction in bolt costs, drilling time and gusset size.

7.0. CONCLUSION

The wind loading is the most important factor that determines the design of tall buildings

over 10 storeys, where storey height approximately lies between 2.7 3.0 m. Buildings of up

to 10 storeys, designed for gravity loading can accommodate wind loading without any

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 additional steel for lateral system. Usually, buildings taller than 10 storeys would generally

require additional steel for lateral system. This is due to the fact that wind loading on a tall

building acts over a very large building surface, with greater intensity at the greater heights

and with a larger moment arm about the base. So, the additional steel required for wind

resistance increases non-linearly with height

8.0.REFERENCES

- Structures and Fabric Part 2 ---Jack Stroud Foster , Raymond Harington

- GoogleWikipedia [the free encyclopedia]

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