Landschaftskologie und Umweltforschung 38 p.

130-141 Braunschweig 2002

Challenges and options of pesticide use: In the context of Nepal

B.R. PALIKHE
Plant Protection Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Harihar Bhawan, G.P.O Box 1818,
Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal

Abstract

Pressure of growing population and lesser options have put enormous burden to meet food
needs. Food security is a major concern and challenge in Nepal, where the diverse agro-
climatic conditions necessitate different approaches to cultivation and crop protection. It is
estimated that Nepal losses around 35% of its crop due to pests and storage. The widespread
use and disposal of pesticides by farmers and the general public provide many possible
sources of pesticides in the environment. The indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has
resulted in several problems such as pest resistance to pesticides, resurgence of pests, toxic
residues in food, water, air and soil, elimination of natural enemies and disruption of
ecosystem. In the Nepalese context, one of the issues is misuse and abuse of pesticides in the
commercial farmers. Most farmers' do not understand the nature of pesticides as insecticides
and fungicides as medicines rather than poisons. Due to ignorance, many accidental
poisonings occur annually. The implementation of awareness program on pesticide safe use
practices poses challenges and constraints. However, there is a need to uplift the awareness
level of the farmers. There is a trans-boundary issue, illegal import of pesticides and banned
pesticides over Nepal's boarder are found into local markets. Nepal has a pesticide disposal
problem. The best option for the sector is to adopt an optimal crop protection strategy. There
are great chances to find several plant species, which grow naturally in abundance and may
provide quite effective safe and economical bio-pesticides.

Introduction

Nepal's agriculture sector is the largest contributor engaging 90% of its total population. The
share of agriculture in the national GDP is 42%. Pesticides in agricultural sector were
introduced in Nepal in the early sixties. Since then their use in the sector has increased rapidly
in the pretext of improving crop yields. Unfortunately throughout the world, overuse and
misuse of chemical pesticides in agriculture cause environmental and health damage and
Nepal is no exception. Infants and children may be more vulnerable to pesticide exposure.

The country is still struggling to be self- sufficient in food supply for her people. The state is
worsened by the fact that 35% of the produce goes to waste in pre and post harvest operations
due to insect pest attacks in the field and storage. If only these loses could be reduced, there
would be a considerable increase in availability of food, which could contribute significantly
to food security.

In the field of environmental protection, the risk of pollution caused by pesticides is a critical
problem in many countries. It is especially a major challenge to developing countries and
countries with economics in transition.

Pesticide management and registration system

To promote environmentally sound management of chemicals, Nepal has got a pesticide

registration scheme. The Pesticide Act, 1991 and the Pesticide Rule, 1993 cover measures to
regulate import, manufacture, sale, storage, transport, distribution and use of pesticides. It is
mandatory that any pesticide before distribution and importation should be first registered in
accordance with the registration procedure adopted by the Pesticide Board. Pesticides other
than notified ones are not to be imported, exported, produced, used or distributed. The
regulations also prohibit the sale of any pesticide, which is imported for scientific or research
purposes. HMG/N (His Majestys Government of Nepal) shall, on the recommendation of the
Board, publish the names of the registered pesticides in the Nepal Gazette. The licensing
control of hazardous chemicals prevents unauthorized persons from handling such chemicals.
Reseller License and Importer License issued are valid for two years and 5 years respectively.
The Board may cancel a license if the terms and conditions of that license are not followed.
The powers of Pesticide Inspectors are set out in the Pesticide Act/Regulations, which gives
power to the Board to prepare and enforce any guidelines on the matters relating to pesticides
for the effective implementation of the Act. Any control system, no matter how well crafted,
will not be effective without rigorous enforcement.
Prioritised challenges

There are many challenges associated with the use of pesticides, including those categorised
as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Collectively with the non-POPs pesticides, many of
which also share similar problems. However, depending upon the socio-economic situation,
the levels of industrialization and literacy and geographical features the challenges would
vary from one country to another.

Aggressive marketing strategies

Dealers take up intensive and aggressive marketing strategies to sell their products with the
perception that there are no other alternatives for farmers except the use of chemical
pesticides.

Misuse of pesticides

Regular misuse of pesticides, especially the broad spectrum used most in Nepal, cause pests
to adopt and become resistant to the pesticides. Most pesticides are then required at higher
doses to achieve the same level of control, though often these are not as effective. The high
dosage is very critical with pesticides. Many cases have been recorded in tomato cultivation.
Underdosing to save money will result in no control as a threshold dosage must be reached for
any mortality to occur.

It is a known fact that farmers do not follow the preharvest waiting period. They apply
pesticides near harvest time, some even dipping vegetables in pesticides before selling. Others
treat food grain with pesticides against storage pests. Many misuses have been reported by
Giri (1992), Baker and Gyawali (1994), Dahal (1995) generally from farmers who do not
realize the extent to which pesticides are poisonous and hazardous to humans and the nature.
The concept of chronic poisoning and health risks is not fully understood by farmers,
distributors and importers.

Studies have shown that over 60% farmers using pesticides for over five years wait less than
two weeks after spraying pesticides before harvesting the crop. The negative health effects of
pesticides, therefore is a serious problem requiring efforts to reduce pesticide misuse in Nepal.
The environmental costs of pesticide misuse are potentially huge. Endosulphan is a broad
spectrum and has been restricted in many countries to non-aquatic habitats as it is highly toxic
to fish. Farmers place pesticides into rivers and streams in order to catch fish.

Pattern of use

Farmers do not always know the active ingredient. Sometimes out dated pesticides are sold to
farmers. Farmers use a mixture of chemicals together therefore when incidents occur it is
difficult to specify the responsible chemical. Protective clothes are not available or not
suitable for hot climate.

Use of highly toxic pesticides

Many pesticides used by farmers were highly toxic posing health threats to users, livestocks,
as well as the environment.

Pesticide residues on food

There are numerous reports of excessive pesticide residues in food in Nepal. Annual Bulletins
from the Central Food Research Laboratory (CFRL) routinely detected residues from their
sampling program. From 1981 to 1986, the residues of organochlorine and organophosphate
insecticides were a more serious problem in cereal grains, legumes and vegetables but have
declined in recent times. Residues surpassing legal limits set by HMG/N by the Food
Standardization Committee were reported existing in the Annual Bulletins from 1992/1993
through 1995/96 such as tea (Malathion, DDT, BHC), grapes (methyl parathion), rice (BHC),
chickpea (DDT) and organophosphates on vegetables (greens, potato, cabbage, chickpea and
pumpkin).

Pesticides as medicines

Due to public perception, a large number of farmers still recognise pesticides as medicine, a
notion implanted in the mind of the farmers.
Resistance

There are two problems in vector control i.e. insecticide resistance and exophilic and or
exophagic vector behavior. Resistance to DDT was first reported in the 1960s. This resistance
spread rapidly demanding the use of alternate insecticides. The re-emergence of vector borne
diseases is likely to substantially increase the use of redial insecticide. The continued
dependence on insecticides may result in high levels of pollution of the bio-diversity with
adverse impact on health of the people. The challenge lies in initiating timely preventive
action in the introduction of alternative methods of disease vector control and selective and
absolutely essential use insecticides. Malathion spraying has also become problematical
because of high refusals due to pungent order, high cost and vector resistance. Resistance is a
big problem in both agriculture and public health.

Resurgence

Resurgence occurs because natural enemies of insect pests are more likely to receive toxic
levels, as they are more mobile and can pick up residues on the plant surface.

Pollution

Persistent pesticides create problems to environment. They pollute air, soil and water and they
are harmful to ecology of living organisms. In Nepal problems include pollution generated
during improper handling, storage, transport and accidents and environmental contamination
due to unsound disposal methods. Water pollution is the most serious environmental quality
issue in Nepal. Studies have shown that 52% of the respondents had no knowledge of the
environmental effects of chemical.

Alternatives

Unaware of PIC & POPs pesticides;

Not readily available;
A comprehensive study is required on the existing alternatives;
Alternatives to banned/restricted pesticides are very expensive - the ratio may be as
big as 1:4 DDT is observed to be the cheapest insecticide. The other substitute namely
malathion is four times more expensive & certain mosquitoes (A. culcifacies) have
 developed resistance against malathion. But the malathion is much more safer
pesticide as comparing to DDT. There are problems associated with PIC and POPs
pesticides as well as alternative pesticides.

Illegal transboundary movement

The use of banned or restricted pesticide cannot be prevented effectively because of illegal
trans-boundary movement of pesticides. There is little or no information on such illegal
movements regarding the name, quantities of chemicals sold.

False advertisement

It should be unlawful to advertise false, misleading and deceptive information and not to
claim that any pesticide is safe, non-poisonous, non-injurious, or harmless.

Public awareness

Many farmers/workers are unaware of some of the properties of pesticides, in what conditions
they present danger and how to protect oneself from poisoning, The general belief seems to be
that if one doesnot die immediately then pesticides present no harm. There is widespread
ignorance of the existence of chronic pesticide poisoning. Concept of pesticide
resistance/resurgence are not understood by farmers. Importers/Resellers/Farmer refer to
pesticides as medicines rather than poisons.

Adulterated or substandard products

Adulterated or substandard products cannot be used. These unusable pesticides are all
classified as potential waste by FAO. Lower concentrations will result in lower efficacy and
thus waste of resources. Higher concentrations increase hazard and phytotoxicity. The most
common practice is sale of diluted pesticides at concentrations below the stated amount. The
result is non-control of target pests leading to resistance. Adulteration is more difficult to
detect without chemical analysis but there are reports of more expensive chemicals being
substituted by cheaper products.
Disposal of obsolete pesticides

Nepal's most prominent problem is its stockpiles of obsolete pesticides. The problem of
obsolete pesticide stocks is caused by purchasing more pesticides than are needed. If these
stocks are not used within 2 years they gradually become unusable due to deterioration in
storage. Any pesticide stockpiles are potentially hazardous. There is also a risk of severe
environmental impacts in the event of a flood, fire, earthquake & other natural disaster. It is
estimated that 74 tons of obsolete pesticides are stored in Nepal at the moment. This amount
of pesticide waste generated in Nepal over the last 3-4 decades is not enough for the cost
savings.

Risk-benefit analysis

There is a need for a thorough risk benefit analysis prior to registration of pesticides at
national level. Registration Office is now looking into this. Such studies would have to take
into consideration in both agriculture and health field. Lack of capacity is the serious problem
in this regard.

Local data

Local data are not available simply because not much research works have been done on toxic
chemical pesticides.

Experts

Nepal does not have competence and sufficient experts in the field of pesticides
toxicology/research.

IPM products

Very few IPM products such as pheromone traps and other bio-environmental safe
alternatives are available in the country at higher rates as these products are not classified as
agricultural products.
Post registration

Without a strong post registration surveillance, the legislation process would be rendered
inconsequential. The registrar's office is slowly looking into all this due to manpower
problem.

Product stewardship principles

The government needs to pledge "from cradle to grave product stewardship". Chemical
manufacturers and importers should be made responsible for cradle to grave cycle of their
products especially toxic chemical pesticides.

Cooperation

General lack of adequate co-operation among stakeholders in chemical management including

PIC procedure.

Infrastructural challenges

Lack of laboratory facilities to

Pesticide quality residue analysis
Toxicological analysis
Inadequate institutional development to handle all matters of pesticides like toxicological
aspects. Laboratory facilities are required to accomplish such tasks.

Challenges to implement the PIC

The implementation of PIC poses challenges and constraints in Nepal.

Decision Guidance Document (DGDs) which is very technical.
Local Data not available because not much research has been done on PIC chemicals
Lack of adequate knowledge on Risk Assessment.
Low awareness among stakeholders on chemical management issues and PIC
procedure.
In the Asian region agriculture is an important part of the economy. Where nations are not
separated by natural boundaries, there has traditionally been a free trade of various
commodities including pesticides and other agro-chemicals. It may be possible that there are
cases where chemicals covered under PIC which have been banned or severely restricted are
being exported to the country without complying with PIC procedures.

International agreements

International agreements related to the management of hazardous chemicals include

The Stockholm Convention, 2001
Rotterdam Convention on PIC, 1998
FAO Code of Conduct on Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 1985
London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International
Trade, 1987.
Implementation of these international agreements is hampered by factors such as expertise &
inadequate infrastructure.

Options

The possible options on alternatives to eliminate or reduce their use or dependence are
suggested as follows.

The IPM option (IPM already on the ground)

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Agenda 21

emphasises IPM as the best tool for 21st century Plant Protection Services. It states that IPM
should be the guiding principle for pest control and that it is the best option for the future as it
guarantees yield, reduces costs, is environmental friendly and contributes to the sustainability
of agriculture.
Because of the serious and adverse effects of pesticides, various efforts have been made to
develop alternative approach aiming at eliminating or reducing their use or dependence. In
practice, several models exists and have been advocated:

Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Crop Management (ICM) Which emphasise "Judicious" as opposed to
"Indiscriminate" use of pesticides
 Low external Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA)
Organic Agriculture (OA)
Use of environmental friendly safer pesticides with low toxicity

Realizing its potentiality, HMG/Nepal has already given priority to create public mass
awareness and implemented effective IPM program through IPM Farmer Field School (FFS)
for proper, sound and judicious management of pesticides. Today, IPM is considered as
"National Pest Control Strategies" in Nepal. Presently, IPM provides the best option for rice
and vegetables (Tomato, cauliflower, potato) and is more widely adopted. IPM has been
widely accepted as the alternative to pesticide application, although IPM doesnot exclude the
use of pesticides. It advocates the judicious and prudent use of such chemicals. A novel
approach to meet this challenge, FFS had emerged in southeast Asia.

The IVM option

Vector control interventions that can be incorporated in an integrated approach include :

Environmental Management
Environmental Modification (Irrigation schemes, Drainage Management & Road
Construction of housing development)
Environmental Manipulation (recurrent activities to reduce environmental receptivity
often linked to operation and maintenance work)
Zooprophylaxis (the use of cattle to divert zoophilic vector species away from biting
humans)
Personal Protection (Mosquito nets, use of repellents)

Biological Control
Use of predators/parasites (the use of larvivorous fish is the most common approach
and can be linked to fish culture for income generation.
Use of bacterial toxins (Bacillus thuringiensis)
The aim of the application of biological and environmental management methods is to
eliminate mosquito breeding. IVM strategies that use no insecticide at all can be
cheaper than spraying houses with DDT.
Chemical Control
Latest development is use of bed nets treated with synthetic pyrethroid, which is non-toxic
and biodegradable and does not accumulate in nature as DDT.

Citizen Awareness
An increasing number of farmers producing organic vegetables is an indication of the
expanding scope for IPM and citizen support.

Botanical Insecticides
Nepal is very rich in flora and there is a great scope for the development and use of botanical
pesticides. In recent years, neem (Azadirachta indica) is getting popularity as a source of
botanical pesticides which is highly eco-friendly. A number of world companies are engaged
in processing neem seeds for extracting azadirachtin, a lamanoid, which is valued as an
antifeedent chemical against a variety of insect pests.

There is also a variety of natural botanical pesticides available to farmers. In the past,
Nepalese farmers used these traditional methods of pest control and are still using them in
hilly areas. Botanical pesticides are easy to grow and use and their costs are often minimal or
free. Most botanical plants have low toxicity as compared to chemicals and their residues do
not pollute the environment. The most common pesticidal value of Nepal's indigenous plants
include Allium sativum (insect repellent), a leaf extract of Artemisia vulgaris (for caterpillars
& stored grain pests), Urtica dioica (stems and leaves for red ants and cutworms),
Zanthoxylum armatum's fruit (insect repellent for : stored grain pests), Acorus calamus (insect
repellent & contact poison) & Chenopodium botrys (insect repellent).

Prior Informed Consent

The PIC procedure provides important support to countries that do not have adequate
legislation to regulate and control import of chemicals. The procedure is also very useful in
that it provides for information exchange on specified chemicals which will assist the
government in making decisions. Chemicals should not be exported without the explicit
consent of the importing country.
Basel Convention
Products, the use of which is no longer permitted (banned, deregistered), are candidates for
disposal. Banned or deregistered products may be still usable in other countries where use is
still permitted. But due to the Basel Convention guidelines, the exporting country has to
receive permission from the importing country.

HMG/N has already ratified the Basel Convention on the control of the transboundary
movements of hazardous wastes and their control.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Farmers need to know what is the information printed on a pesticide label. Instructions written
on the label or an accompanying leaflet need to be followed to obtain the recommended
dosage. Farmers need to be reminded that pesticides are not the only control measures for pest
problems. The strengths of both Government and NGOs entities should be utilized in this
large endeavor. The government should foster IPM and remove taxes from IPM products.
This recommendation is in line with recent changes in government policy where IPM methods
are to be preferred over pesticide usage. There is a need for co-ordination and cooperation
among and between countries within the same region. UNEP and FAO could play the role as
a facilitator.