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DESIGN OF BRIDGES
(ByR.Geetha Divisional Engineer (H) Designs, Chennai.)
BRIDGES:
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way beneath. This
may be for a road, railway, river channels etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES:
1. According to function:
River bridge:
i. High level bridge
ii. Submersible bridge
Road over bridge
Road under bridge
Fly over
Foot over bridge
2. According to materials of construction:
RCC bridge
Prestress bridge
Steel bridge
Composite bridge
3. According to type of superstructure:
Slab bridge
T-beam cum Slab bridge
Box girder
Arch bridge
Suspension bridge
Segmental bridge
4. According to angle of crossing:
Square bridge
Skew bridge
INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGES:
2.1 Surveying
2.2 Alignment selection
2.3 Alignment proposal
2.4 Alignment Approval
2.5 Site plan
2.6 Sub soil exploration
2.7 Collection of Field particulars
2.8 Preparation of Drawings
2.9 Specification report
2.1 Surveying
a. Reconnaissance survey:
Reconnaissance survey is the first step to examine the general nature of the area for the
purpose of determining the most feasible route, for further detailed investigations.
In difficult hilly and forest terrain, assistance of Global Positioning System (GPS) which
utilize the satellites orbiting around the Earth is necessary.
Satellite remote sensing photographs such as, Google maps, help to identify factors which
call for rejection or modification of any of the alignment.
b. Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey is usually carried out by total station instrument for the purpose of
collecting all the physical features affecting the proposed location of a new highway or
improvements to an existing highway.
Alignment proposal prepared as above should be submitted to the Alignment committee for
approval. The alignment committee comprises of at least three Superintending Engineers
including Superintending Engineer (H) concerned and Divisional Engineer (H), concerned
Investigation Division.
The committee after inspecting the site and considering the merits and demerits of each
alignment, give approval for one feasible economic alignment.
Preliminary sub soil exploration is to be conducted to determine the type of foundation and
span requirements.
Even though various methods of boring are available, rotary drilling is commonly used.
1. The maximum interval between adjacent bores shall be judiciously fixed at regular intervals
covering the whole of the proposed length of the bridge. The subsoil strata profile then shall
be observed. If there is a substantial variation between any two adjacent bores, then extra
bores are required at midpoint of those two bores. However, confirmatory bores shall be
conducted at every pier/ abutment/ retaining wall location to assess exactly the sub soil
particulars under the sub structure
2. Once the number of bores has been decided, the location of bores with respect to chainage
shall be marked along the centre line of alignment. Due to site constraints, if it is not
possible to locate at the centre of the alignment, the location may be slightly shifted to left
hand side or right hand side.
3. Borings should push through every suitable/ unsuitable/ ambiguous stratum and also
sufficiently be deep enough into the stable/ suitable strata.
i) SPT is conducted in all types of soil deposits met within the bore hole, to find the variation in
the soil by correlating with the number of blows required for unit penetration of a standard
penetrometer.
ii) The starting depth of performing SPT shall be either 1m or 1.5m depth below ground level.
The specification for equipments and other accessories, procedure for conducting the test,
presentation of test results and collection of disturbed soil samples etc., shall conform to IS:
2131.
iii) This test is conducted by driving a standard split spoon sampler in the borehole by means of
63.5kg hammer having a freefall of 75cm. The sampler is driven using the hammer for 45cm
penetration. While driving, the number of blows for every 15cm penetration will be
recorded. The SPT Values is number of blows for the last 30cm drive.
iv) Test has to be discontinued when the blow count is equal to 100 and the penetration shall be
recorded. Refusal shall be considered to be met with, when the blow count is equal to 100.
At the location where the test is discontinued, the penetration and the corresponding number
of blows shall be reported.
v) Sufficient quantity of soil samples shall be collected from the split spoon sampler for
identification and laboratory testing. The samples have to be visually classified and recorded
at the site and shall be properly preserved and labeled for future identification and testing.
Rock core samples shall be collected continuously. Further, the length of the core in a
single run shall be reported. That is, the break up details of the length of core shall be
reported for the entire length.
After approval of the alignment by the alignment committee and sub soil exploration of the
work, the collection of field particulars shall be done.
II. Field particulars for road over/under bridges Fly over and bypass
a.ROB/RUB
Based on the Highway GAD, the Railway GAD is prepared and got Approved by CBE
(Chief Bridge Engineer, Railways) and concurred by concerned Chief Engineer, Highways.
b.Flyover
A bypass is a road that avoids or bypasses a built up area, town, or village, to let through traffic
flow without interference from local traffic, to reduce congestion in built up area and to improve road
safety.
The following particulars are to be observed
2. For ROB
Drawing showing proposed and existing longitudinal profile, railway portion, Highway
portion, summit curve and valley curve and location of railway piers. A datum with
chainage, existing and proposed level shall be marked.
3. For RUB
Drawing showing proposed and existing longitudinal profile, railway portion, Highway
portion, valley curve and service road levels. A datum with chainage, existing and
proposed level shall be marked.
Sill level
Sill level of the river at the proposed site is generally taken as 0.3m below the lowest bed level
of levels at taken cross section of site, provided there is no much variation in the bed profile. Also it
must be ensured that the proposed sill level is in tune with the finalized bed slope. The sill level is an
important factor for deciding the depth of flow thereby the linear water way.
Bed slope
Bed slope is arrived by plotting the various levels taken at centre of cross sections and slope
line is drawn connecting the maximum points closer to the slope line.
MFL
MFL is the (maximum flood level) highest flood ever recorded in the 50 years return cycle
furnished by the PWD authorities and also ascertained by intelligent local observation at site in
addition to local enquiry.
Design Discharge
Design discharge for which the linear waterway of the bridge is to be designed shall be based
on maximum flood discharge of 50 years returns cycle. In case the requisite is not available, the design
discharge shall be the maximum estimated discharge determined by any rational method.
Discharge may be ascertained for the proposed bridge site by the following three methods at
least
Discharge by catchment area method may be adopted, if catchment area map for that particular
river course is available with PWD (for calculation refer IRC: 5-2015).
b. Area-Velocity Method
The calculation of the discharge involves minimum 7 cross sections across the river with
reference to MFL. The cross sections are to be plotted and the cross section area (A) in sq.m and
the wetted perimeter (P) in m are to be ascertained.
The hydraulic mean depth R = A/P in m
Similarly Velocity can be obtained from the following.
i. Mannings Formula
Velocity, V = 1/n R2/3S1/2 in m/sec
R Hydraulic Mean Depth
S Bed Slope
n Rugosity coefficient
Rugosity coefficient can be obtained from the table 5.1 of IRC.SP:13 2004.
V = CRS
Where C is Kutters Constant,
C = (23+0.00155/s +1/n) / [1+ (23 + 0.00155/S)n/R]
Discharge Q = A.V
The discharge may be calculated adopting cross sectional area from all the 7 cross sections.
The maximum discharge among the discharges falling within the 10% variation of the average
discharge may be taken as discharge by Area-Velocity method.
Maximum Discharge value obtained from the above three methods shall be taken as
design discharge
The linear waterway required for a bridge depends on the discharge, nature of the channel, bed
width, MFL Spread, etc.
While deciding the linear water way, the following points are to be considered:
1. Linear water way of the existing bridges (Highway bridge/ Railway bridge) located within
1.60km either on the U/S or D/S, if any.
2. 90% of the MFL spread at the site, immediate U/S and immediate D/S.
3. Linear water way required by PWD and details should be obtained from concerned EE, PWD.
4. Theoretical linear water way required as per design discharge.
5. Bed width of river should be considered where defined and undisturbed bund is available.
Once the Linear Water Way (LWW) is decided, suitable span and no. of spans may be decided
depending upon the type of foundation.
Scour
Scour criteria plays vital role in deciding the depth of foundation. Similarly the silt factor plays
vital role in deciding scour depth.
The silt factor (ksf) is to be ascertained for the representative sample of the bed materials
obtained upto the maximum anticipated deepest scour
ksf Silt factor = 1.76dm
dm weighted mean dia of the bed material up to anticipated deepest scour (mm)
The Value of ksf for soil can be taken from of IRC: 78 2014
For Silt factor in respect of clay, IRC: 78-2014 may be referred and calculated accordingly.
The design discharge is increased by certain percentage according to the catchment area as per
IRC 78-2014 to have adequate margin of safety and adopted for foundation design.
B. Road over bridge / Road under bridge:
The following points are to be kept in mind while formulating the proposal
The train vehicle unit shall be more than 1 lakh. In general the vertical clearance from the
highest rail level to the bottom of deck 6.525m for ROB. The vertical clearance of RUB is 5.5m.This
may be reduced in case of limited use subway. The falling/raising ramp of approaches shall not be
steeper than 3.5%. Service roads are to be provided on both sides of ROB/RUB for a width of 5.5m.
Staircases should be provided for pedestrian movement. In case of RUB, service bridges shall be
provided for easy access of vehicles from one side to other at grade. Extra width and super elevation to
be provided in a carriage way at horizontal curves as per IRC: 38-1988.
BRIDGE COMPONENTS:
Foundation:
Bed protection is a protective work to avoid scour and to protect the shallow foundation if the
velocity through the vent and discharge /metre at site is less than the permissible limit of 2.0m/sec and
3.0cumec respectively as per IRC 89-1997.
It may be of rigid or flexible apron constructed to a suitable length both on upstream and
downstream side with curtain walls.
Substructure:
The portion of the bridge structure below the level of bearing and above the foundation is
generally referred as substructure.
Bearings are provided in bridges to transmit the load from the superstructure to substructure in
such a manner that the bearing stresses induced in the substructure are within the permissible limit.
For the bridges with slab spans, no special bearings are usually provided. A Kraft paper is inserted
between the slab and substructure at the support. For Girder bridges, generally the following two types
of bearings are provided.
Span arrangement:
Suitable span and no of spans may be decided depending upon the type of foundation to
accommodate the linear waterway.
1. Clear span
Clear distance between the adjacent piers or clear distance between the face of
abutment and adjacent pier.
2. Effective span
Distance between the c/c of width of deck seating in case of solid slab and c/c of
bearing in case of T-Beam Bridge.
Superstructure:
The type of superstructure may be RCC solid slab for spans up to 10m, RCC T- beam for spans
from 10m to 25m and RCC box girder for spans from 25m to 45m. For longer spans, prestressed
bridges shall also be constructed.
Exposure:
Exposure condition of particular bridge location is either severe or moderate. If the bridge site is
located within 15km from the sea coast, the condition of exposure is severe and if it exceeds 15km
from sea coast, then the condition is moderate. For severe condition of exposure, approved type of
anticorrosive treatment to steel is recommended.
Expansion joints:
Expansion joint ensures the bridge movement and guarantees smooth transition of vehicles.
Road Level:
Road level is fixed by adding depth of superstructure and thickness of wearing coat to the BOD.
Approach Slab:
RCC approach slab is usually provided on either side of bridge to function as interface between
the bridge structure and approach roadway. The minimum length of approach slab is 3.5m
Wearing coat:
Wearing coat is provided over bridge deck to protect the structural concrete from the direct
wearing effects of traffic. The wearing coat may be asphaltic concrete or cement concrete.
Drainage arrangement:
Drainage spout with grating should be provided at equal intervals for proper drainage of water
from the Deck.
Seepage pipes: Adequate number of weep holes not exceeding 1m spacing in both the
direction should be provided to prevent any accumulation of water behind walls.
Filter media: Filter media to a thickness of not less than 600mm well packed over the entire
Surface behind abutment and wings to the full height shall be provided.
Carriageway:
In the approaches, beyond the bridge portion, to retain the earth, Retaining wall/
Reinforced Earth wall shall be proposed depending upon the location and subsoil condition.
DESIGN OF BRIDGES:
For designing the bridges, following loads, forces should be considered where applicable.
Dead load
Live load
Impact load
Wind load
Braking force
Frictional resistance
Horizontal force due to water current
Buoyancy
Earth pressure
Temperature effects
Seismic force
Combinations of the above
Live loads:
Live loads are those caused by vehicle which pass over the bridge and are transient in
nature. There are four types of standard loadings for which bridge are designed.
Impact effect:
Live load trains produce higher stresses than those which would be caused if the
loading vehicles were stationary. In order to take into account the increase in stresses due to
dynamic action impact allowance is made. The impact allowance is expressed as a fraction or
% of the applied live load.
Wind load:
All bridge structures shall be designed for the wind forces though the wind forces are
dynamic in nature. The forces can be approximated as equivalent static loads. These forces are
considered to act horizontally and in such a direction have to cause the maximum stresses in
the member under consideration.
Longitudinal forces:
The longitudinal forces are caused in the road bridges due to any one or more of the following:
Centrifugal Force:
a. Where a road bridge is located on a curve, the effect of centrifugal forces due
to movement of vehicles should be taken into account.
b. The centrifugal forces assumed to act at height of 1200mm above the level of
the carriageway.
c. No increase for impact effect shall be made on the stress due to centrifugal
action
Buoyancy effect:
Wherever submersion of a part or whole of the structure in water is possible, the force due
to buoyancy should be considered. In case of submersible bridges; full buoyancy should be
considered for the super structure, pier and abutment. For High level bridge, buoyancy forces
due to submerged part of the substructure and foundation should be taken into account.
Earth pressure:
Earth pressures computed according to a rational theory should be considered in the case
of structures designed to retain earth fill.
All Abutments and return walls should be designed for live load surcharge equivalent to
height of earth fill.
Seismic force:
Temperature effect:
Suitable provision should be made for stresses resulting from variation in temperature.
Cover:
The minimum cover to any reinforcement shall be 40 mm for moderate exposure and
45mm for severe exposure and 75mm in case of foundation.
Concrete grade:
The minimum concrete grades shall be M25 for moderate exposure and M30 for severe
exposure for all components except piles for which the minimum grade of concrete is M35.
Reinforcement:
CODES TO BE FOLLOWED:
IRC: 5 -2015 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN