MODERN PHYSICS

Electronic Emission

The process in which a metal surface ejects completely free electrons on absorbing some kind of
energy is called electronic emission.

Electronic emission is said to occur when electrons are energised to such a kinetic energy that they
start escaping from the surface.

Bound electrons are electrons which are close to the nucleus and are firmly held by electrostatic
force.

Free electrons are electrons revolving in the outermost orbit and held weakly by the nucleus.

This weak force is due to the following reasons

1. The electrostatic force of attraction decreases as the square of distance between the
nucleus and electrons increases.
2. The electrons in the inner orbits exert a repulsive force.

Electrons can be emitted by giving energy to the metal in the form of heat energy, light energy,
energy of ultraviolet or Xray etc.

Thermionic Emission

The emission of completely free electrons from the metal surface by the process of heating is
called thermionic emission.

Work Function

The minimum heat energy required to emit an electron from the surface of a metal, is called work
function or threshold energy.

It can also be defined as the amount of work done when a charge of 1.6 1019 Coulombs, moves
through two points in an electric field, at a potential difference of 1 V.

1 eV = 1.6 1019 C 1 V

1 eV = 1.6 1019 J
Factors on which rate of emission of thermions depend

i. Nature of surface
ii. Temperature of surface
iii. Surface area of material

Characteristics of thermion emitter

i. Low work function

ii. High melting point

Common thermion emitter

i. Tungsten
ii. Thoriated tungsten
iii. Alkali metal oxides

Diode Valve

Electronic valve is a device which will allow the electrons in a circuit to move in a single direction.

There are two kinds of valves

1. Directly heated diode valve

A filament of tungsten is connected to two pins FF which are connected to LT and is surrounded by
an anode cylinder, which is connected to another pin P. The whole arrangement is enclosed in a
glass shell, which is completely evacuated.

The space around the filament is filled with free thermions. This space is called space charge. Here
F can be called cathode as it emits electrons. P is the anode and circle is the glass bulb.
It is symbolically represented as

2. Indirectly heated diode valve

It has the same working as directly heated diode valve except the filament is surrounded by
another aluminium cylinder, which is coated with oxides of alkali metals.

It is symbolically represented as

Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode ray Tube is used to covert electrical signals to visual signals.

It is used for
 1. Investigating features of a wave motion.
2. Investigating changes in potential difference of alternating currents.
3. Study various kinds of wave forms.

An oscilloscope is shown in figure below

An oscilloscope essentially consists of the following parts

1. Electron Gun

It consists of a filament F of tungsten, which is connected to a battery. The filament is maintained

at the desired temperature. A barium coated cathode plate is placed in front of the filament which
generates thermions. The number of thermions depends upon the temperature of the filament.
The double anode cylinders accelerate these into fine beam of ions.

2. Deflecting Plates

A pair of vertical deflecting plates is placed along the path of the electron beam.

3. Fluorescent Screen

It is a thick glass plate coated with barium platinocyanide. When electron beam scans the screen it
glows with a bluish white glow.

Nuclear Structure
The nucleus of any atom of an element has two types of fundamental particles:

1. Protons
2. Neutrons
They are collectively called nucleons.

The proton is a positively charged particle having charge = 1.6 10-19.

The neutron is an electrically neutral particle.

An element is represented by ZXA

Where, Z atomic number (number of protons)

A mass number (number of protons + number of neutrons)

The atomic number controls the physical and chemical properties of atoms.

Discovery of Radioactivity

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the phenomena due to which certain elements give out highly penetrating
radiations spontaneously.

The discovery of radioactivity started with Professor Henri Becquerel, who found that crystals
of potassium uranylsulphate emit invisible radiations.

In his experiment, he observed that the rate of emission of radiations remains unaffected with any
physical or chemical change. By this he concluded that these radiations are coming from the
nucleus.

Later Professor Schmidt discovered Thorium and scientist Marie Curie with her husband discovered
Polonium and Radium.

Rutherford's Study on Bacquerel Rays

Bacquerel Rays

Bacquerel rays are radiations given out by radioactive elements.

Properties:

They are gas ionizers.

They affect photographic plate.
They can penetrate through matter.
 They are affected by electric and magnetic fields.

Rutherfords Experiment

In this experiment, a lead cube was placed in a glass vessel and across its sides were placed two
copper plates, connected to a very high d.c. potential. A photographic plate was placed over the
cavity. The glass vessel was evacuated and then lead plug was removed.

It was found that the photographic plate developed the following pattern.

Alpha particles: By looking at the pattern, it was observed that the particles deflected towards
the negative plate and having a dark spot are positive particles and are heavier than others.

Beta particles: The particles deflected towards the positive plate and having a lighter spot are
negative particles and are of medium mass.

Gama particles: The particles which were not deflected towards the any plate and having a very
light spot are neutral particles and are of zero mass.

Laws of Radioactive Emission

Rutherford and Soddys law of Alpha Emission

Emission of an Alpha particle decreases the mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2.
Example:

1. 92U
238 90Th
234 + 2He4
2. 88Ra
226 86Rn
222 + 2He4
3. 86Rn
222 84Po
218 + 2He4

2. Rutherford and Soddys law of Beta Emission

Emission of a Beta particle does not affect the mass number and increases the atomic number by
1. In a beta emission a neutron breaks into an electron and a proton the proton remains in the
nucleus whereas the electron gets released.

Example:

1. 11Na
24 12Mg
24 + -1e
0

2. 6C
14 7N14 + -1e
0

3. 15P
32 16S
32 + -1e
0

3. Gamma Emission

Gamma Emission is due to the excess energy of the parent nuclide. This emission does not affect
mass number and atomic number.

Geiger Counter

Construction and Working:

It consists of a metal cylinder and metallic wire along its axis, which contains argon gas and traces
of chlorine. Gas is kept at 50 mm to 100 mm of mercury and a potential difference less than what
is necessary to produce the discharge in the gas is applied. Alpha particles are allowed to enter
through the thin glass or mica window. These particles produce ionization of the gas molecules.
The electric field accelerates these ions and thus produces more and more ions.
However, the current decays rapidly because of small time constant of the circuit. Thus, there is a
momentary surge of potential across R. This surge is advanced to the counter. Hence more the
charged particles more will be the counting rate.