Chapter 1

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC PROPETIES

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE-LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

In 1913, H.G.J. Moseley showed by X-ray analysis that atomic number is more fundamental property of
an element weight. Therefore, he slightly modified Mendeleevs periodic law and replaced the word
atomic by atomic number (proton number).

It states that physical and chemical properties of all elements are periodic function of their atomic
numbers.

Modern Periodic Law

It states that physical and chemical properties of all elements are periodic function of their atomic
numbers.
1. The modern periodic table is divided into two main categories:

(i) Vertical columns called Groups and

(ii) Horizontal columns called Periods.

2. There are 18 vertical columns or groups. These are further sub-divided into A and B (groups I to VII),
VIII group and zero group.

3. Member of the same group have similar electronic configuration of the valence shell and thus show
same valency.

4. Elements of groups IA to VIIA are called groups of typical elements, representative elements or
normal elements.

5. Groups IA and IIA are strongly metallic and are called group of 'alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals'.

6. Groups IB to VII B and VIII lie in the middle of the table between IIA and IIIA groups and are called
groups of transition elements. They consist of metals.
7. The Zero group consists of 'Noble gases'.

8. There are 7 horizontal rows in the periodic table. These are called the periods.

9. In a period, the number of valence shell remains the same for all elements. However, the number of
electrons in the valence shell increases from left to right .

10. The number of elements present in each period is given in the following table.

Period Valence shell Type of Period Number of elements Atomic Number of elements

1st Period n=1 Short period 2 Atomic number 1 and 2

2nd Period n=2 Short period 8 Atomic number 3 to 10

3rd Period n=3 Long period 8 Atomic number 11 to 18

4th Period n= 4 Long period 18 Atomic number 19 to 36

5th Period n=5 Long period 18 Atomic number 37 to 54

*6th Period n=6 Long period 32 Atomic number 55 to 86

*7th Period n=7 Incomplete 23 Atomic number 87 to 109

11. The 6 th period consists of elements that have atomic numbers 58 to 71. They are called Lanthanides.
The 7th period consists of elements that have atomic numbers 90 to 105. They are called Actinides. Both
of them are called inner transition elements.

12. The 7 th period is an incomplete period as it has only 23 elements.

13. Lanthanides and actinides are not accommodated in the main body of the periodic table but are
placed separately at the bottom of the table.

14. The position of hydrogen is not certain. Thus it can be placed in both group IA and group VIIA.

15. Group VIIA elements are called halogens or salt producers. Representative periodic table for eight
groups up to calcium (atomic number 20) with their electronic configuration is given in the table.
Representative periodic table for elements with atomic number from 1 to 20 with their electronic
configuration

Group -->

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 0

Period

1H 2He
Period 1
1 2

3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne

Period 2
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8

11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar

Period 3
2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

19K 20Ca
Period 4
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2

The recurrence of similar properties of the elements when they are arranged in the order of increasing
atomic number, after certain regular intervals, is called periodicity.

Cause of periodicity of elements

The modern periodic table is based on the electronic configuration of the elements. The properties of an
element are determined largely by the electrons in its outermost or valence shell. Valence electrons
interact with other atoms and take part in all chemical reactions, while inner shell electrons have little
influence on the properties of elements.

When elements are placed in the order of their increasing atomic number, the elements having the
same number of valence shell electron is repeated in such a way, so as to fall under the same group.
Since, the electronic configuration of the valence shell electrons is same they show similar properties.
Variation of Properties

The periodic trends of the following properties will be studied here.

* Atomic size
* Metallic and Non-metallic character
* Ionization potential

Atomic size

The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of an atom is called the atomic radius
of that atom (Fig. 2.1).

Electrons in the same period progressively increase from left to right, as the atomic number increases,
e.g., in the 3rd period, from sodium (Z = 11) to chlorine (Z = 17). It would be expected that as the number
of protons, electrons and neutrons increase, the size of the atom increases. Contrary to expectations, in
spite of the increased atomic number, the size of the atom gradually decreases from left to right (Fig.
2.2).

The distance from the nucleus to the outermost shell depends on the electrostatic attraction (nuclear
charge) that the nucleus exerts on the electrons of the outer shell. More the nuclear charge closer are
the shell and electrons, hence smaller is the atomic radius of an atom.

With the increase in the atomic number (increased number of protons, electrons and neutrons) in the
3rd period, the net positive charge of the nucleus gradually increases. This increased positive charge
exerts a greater attraction on the shells and attract the electrons in the shells a little closer to the
nucleus. Hence, sodium has the largest atom and chlorine the smallest. This is true of other periods as
well.

Conversely, elements in the same group increase in size downward. For e.g., in group IA, starting from
lithium to sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium, the atomic size increases because there is a
gradual increase in the number of shells (Fig. 2.3).

Number of Shells in a Group Increase

Group IA Electronic Number of Group IIA Electronic Number of
Elements Configurations Shells Elements Configurations Shells

Hydrogen 1 1 Beryllium 2,2 2

Lithium 2,1 2 Magnesium 2,8,2 3

Sodium 2,8,1 3 Calcium 2,8,8,2 4

Potassium 2,8,8,1 4 Strontium 2,8,18,8,2 5

Rubidium 2,8,18,8,1 5 Barium 2,8,18,18,8,2 6

Cesium 2,8,18,18,8,1 6 Radium 2,8,18,32,18,8,2 7

Francium 2,8,18,32,18,8,1 7
Remember :

In the case of noble (inert) gases i.e., in the Zero group there are exceptions and the atomic size of the
elements may be greater than the other atoms of the period.

Metallic and Non-metallic character

The tendency of an element to lose electrons and form positive ions (cations) is called
electropositive or metallic character. For e.g., alkali metals are the most electropositive elements.

"The tendency of an element to accept electrons to form an anion is called its non-metallic or
electronegative character. For e.g., chlorine, oxygen and phosphorous show greater
electronegative or non-metallic character."

In each period, metallic character of elements decreases as we move to the right. Elements to the
left have a pronounced metallic character while those to the right have a non-metallic character.
Conversely, non-metallic character increases from left to right.

In the third period, sodium on the extreme left is most metallic. The metallic character decreases
towards magnesium and aluminium, which are to the right. Silicon is midway between metals
and non-metals. From phosphorus to sulphur to chlorine, non-metallic character gradually
increases, chlorine being the most non-metallic in behaviour. In the VIIIA or zero group, argon
does not exhibit either metallic or non-metallic character.

Why does the metallic character decrease from left to right across the period, in the
periodic table?

The elements to the left of the periodic table have a tendency of losing electrons easily as
compared to those to the right. As we move from left to right of the period, the electrons of the
outer shell experience greater pull of the nucleus. This greater force of attraction is because the
nuclear charge increases and the size of the atom decreases from left to right. Thus, electrons of
the elements to the right of the table do not lose electrons easily so are non-metallic in nature.

Metals usually have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the outermost shell and ionize by giving out these
electrons. Thus they gain positive charges equal to the number of electrons lost. Germanium, tin
and lead with four electrons each in the valence shell are also included among the metals.

Non-metals usually have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell and ionize by accepting
electrons. Thus they gain a negative charge equal to the number of electrons gained. Although
carbon and silicon have four electrons each in the valence shell, they are included in the non-
metals. Boron is an exception; it has three electrons in the outermost shell but is still included
among non-metals.
 Why does metallic character increase down the group?

As we move down the group the number of shells increases. This causes the effective nuclear
charge to decrease due to the outer shells being further away: in effect the atomic size increases.
The electrons of the outermost shell experience less nuclear attraction and so can lose electrons
easily thus showing increased metallic character.

Ionization potential

Ionization potential (or ionization energy) is the amount of energy required to remove one or
more electrons from the outermost shell of an isolated atom in the gaseous state.

Atom(g) + IE Positive ion(g) + electron(g)

Ionization energy is also called as ionization potential because it is measured as the minimum
potential required to remove the most loosely held electron from the rest of the atom. It is
measured in the units of electron volts (eV) per atom or kilo joules per mole of atoms (kJ mol-1)

Thus, the ionization energy gives the ease with which the electron can be removed from an atom.
The smaller the value of the ionization energy, the easier it is to remove the electron from the
atom.

An electron is held in an atom by the electrostatic force of the positively charged protons in the
nucleus and the negative charge of the electrons. By supplying enough energy, it is possible to
remove an electron from an atom. The element is first brought into the vapour state. Then the
electron is removed by supplying energy equivalent to the ionization potential.

In referring to the Periodic table of ionisation potentials (in electron volts) shown below, the
following conclusions may be arrived at:

Periodic table of ionisation potentials

a) Metals usually have low ionization potential whereas non-metals have high ionization
potential. Metalloids have intermediate ionization potential.
b) The inert gases have very high ionization potential, due to the stability of the outer shell.
Helium has the highest ionization potential.

c) Within a group, the ionization potential generally decreases with increasing atomic number.
Increasing atomic number results in increasing atomic radii. Thus, the electrons of the outer shell
are further away than those of the previous element and can be removed easily.

d) Ionization potential does not necessarily vary uniformly from one element to another. But it is
a periodic property. It increases from group I to group VIII. But the increase is not very regular.

* Ionization potential increases across the period because of increase in nuclear charge due to
which the atomic size decreases. Thus, more energy is required to pull away the electron from
the outermost shell of the atom of smaller size.

* Ionization potential decreases down the group because of increase in the number of shells.
The effective nuclear charge decreases as atomic size increases. Thus it is easier to pull one
electron from the outermost shell of the atom.

Electron affinity

Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to an isolated
gaseous atom.

atom to hold an additional electron

Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to hold an additional electron. If the atom has more
tendency to accept an electron then the energy released will be large and consequently the
electron affinity will be high. Electron affinities can be positive or negative. It is taken as
positive when an electron is added to an atom. It is expressed as electron volts per atom (eV per
atom) or kilo joules per mole.

Electron affinity depends on:

i) Extent of nuclear charge

ii) Size of the atom

iii) Electronic configuration.

As a result of the gain in electrons, the atom gains one negative charge. In the case of halogens,
all the elements have a high electron affinity, as they need one electron to complete the octect of
their outermost shell.

Electron Affinity of the Halogens

From chlorine to iodine, which ionize by accepting one electron there is a decrease in the
electron affinity or the energy released. The lower electron affinity of fluorine when compared to
chlorine is not fully understood.

If the electron affinity is low, the electron is weakly bound; if the electron affinity is high, the
electron is strongly bonded, e.g., electron affinity of chlorine is 3.79 which is higher than that of
iodine i.e., 3.28. Hence, chlorine accepts the electrons more easily than iodine.

* Electron affinity increases from left to right across the period because of increase in nuclear
charge and decrease in atomic size. This causes the incoming electron to experience a greater
pull of the nucleus thus giving a higher electron affinity.

* Electron affinity decreases down the group because the number of shells increases i.e., the
atomic size increases and the effective nuclear charge decreases. This causes the incoming
electron not to experience much attraction of the nucleus thus giving a lower electron affinity.
 * The electron affinity of completely filled atoms is almost zero. An atom does not accept an
electron in its outermost shell if it already has a stable configuration i.e. a duplet or octet, as in
the case of inert gases.

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a molecule of a

compound. The value of electronegativity of an element describes the ability of its atom to
compete for electrons with the other atom to which it is bonded. Electronegativity is however not
the property of an isolated atom.

Electronegativity increases from left to right in each period ending at group VII.

In the 3rd period, electronegativity increases from sodium to chlorine i.e., chlorine can accept
electrons most easily in that period followed backwards by sulphur, phosphorus, silicon,
aluminium, magnesium and sodium. All the atoms of the above mentioned elements have three
shells but chlorine has the smallest atomic radii. Hence chlorine experiences more positive
charge from the nucleus than all other atoms in that period. So, if one electron is available,
chlorine can attract it most easily.

Types of Electronegativity

* When the molecule is formed by transfer of electrons (ionic bonding) the transfer takes place
from electropositive atom to electronegative atom (Fig. 2.4). In the example below, Na is
electropositive and Cl is electronegative.

* If the molecule is formed by sharing of electrons (covalent bond) the bonded pair of
electrons shift towards more electronegative atom resulting in the formation of polar molecule.
In the example below, chlorine atom is more electronegative as compared to hydrogen atom,
resulting in a covalent bond where the shared pair of electron shifts towards the more
electronegative atom. This results in polar molecules (Fig. 2.5).

The electron pair is more closer to the chlorine atom and so the molecule gets polarized i.e., the
chlorine atom gets a negative charge while the hydrogen atom gets a positive charge.

Remember :

* Fluorine is the most electronegative element.

A summary of periodic properties and their variation in groups and periods is given below
Merits of long form of periodic tables

1. The classification of elements is based on the atomic number, which is a more fundamental
property.
2. The reason for placing isotopes at one place is justified as the classification is on the basis of
atomic number.

Demerits of long form of periodic tables

1. The position of hydrogen is still not settled since it shows properties of both alkali metals as
well as halogens.

2. Lanthanides and actinides are not accommodated in the main body of the periodic table