RESUME

[WAYNE TOMASI] ADVANCED ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

SISTEM TELEKOMUNIKASI ANALOG DAN DIGITAL

Nama : Hafizh Iqomatul Islam

NIM : 1304405073
Dosen : IGAK Diafari Djuni, ST., MT.

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK ELEKTRO DAN KOMPUTER

FAKULTAS TEKNIK
UNIVERSITAS UDAYANA
2017
 INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE, BAUD,
AND M-ARY ENCODING

1.1 Information Capacity, Bits, Bit Rate.

Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of
bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communications systems.
Information theory can be used to determine the information capacity of a data
communications system. Information capacity is a measure of how much
information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function
of bandwidth and transmission time.
Information capacity represents the number of independent symbols that
can be carried through a system in a given unit of time. The most basic digital
symbol used to represent information is the binary digit, or bit. Therefore, it is often
convenient to express the information capacity of a system as a bit rate. Bit rate is
simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per
second (bps).
In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone
Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the
information capacity of a communications channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise
ratio.

where,
I = Information Capacity (bps)
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
S/N = Signal-to-noise power ratio (unitless)

1.2 M-ary Encoding.

M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit
that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a
given number of binary variables. It is often advantageous to encode at a level
higher than binary (sometimes referred to as beyond binary or higher-than-binary
encoding) where there are more than two conditions possible. The number of bits
necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed mathematically as

where,
N = Number of bits necessary
M = Number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits

1.3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

Baud is a term that is often misunderstood and commonly confused with bit
rate (bps). Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which
is usually binary. Baud is expressed as

where,
baud = Symbol rate (baud per second)
ts = Time of one signaling element (seconds)

However, a baud may represent more than one information bit. Thus, the
baud of a data communications system may be considerably less than the bit rate.
The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is
called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes the minimum Nyquist
frequency. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity
is

where,
fb = Channel capacity (bps)
B = Minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = Number of discrete signal or voltage levels

If information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted to signals with
more than two levels, transmission rates in excess of 2B are possible, as will be seen
in subsequent sections of this chapter. In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of
change, it also equals the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded into one
signaling element. Thus,
 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING

The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK),

where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog
carrier.

From the figure, it can be seen that for every change in the input binary data
stream, there is one change in the ASK waveform, and the time of one bit (tb) equals
the time of one analog signaling element (ts). With ASK, the bit rate is also equal to
the minimum Nyquist bandwidth

Example :
Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass a 10 kbps binary
signal using amplitude shift keying.
Solution :
For ASK, N = 1, and the baud and minimum bandwidth are determined from
equations aboce, respectively:

The use of amplitude-modulated analog carriers to transport digital

information is a relatively low-quality, low-cost type of digital modulation and,
therefore, is seldom used except for very lowspeed telemetry circuits.
 FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low-performance

type of digital modulation. FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation
similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a
binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a
continuously changing analog waveform. FSK is sometimes called binary FSK
(BFSK). The general expression for FSK when a 0 is a logic input is

Frequency deviation is illustrated in Figure 3 and expressed mathematically as

where,
f = Frequency deviation (hertz)
| | = Absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (hertz)

3.1 FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

Example :
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud
for a binary FSK signal with a mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51
kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
Solution :
a. The peak frequency deviation is

b. The minimum bandwidth is

c. For FSK, N = 1, and the baud is

3.2 FSK Transmitter

In a binary FSK modulator, f is the peak frequency deviation of the carrier
and is equal to the difference between the carrier rest frequency and either the mark
or the space frequency (or half the difference between the carrier rest frequency)
and either the mark or the space frequency (or half the difference between the mark
and space frequencies).
With the sweep mode of modulation, the frequency deviation is expressed
mathematically as

where, f = Peak frequency deviation (hertz)

vm (t) = Peak binary modulating-signal voltage (volts)
1 = Deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt).

3.3 FSK Receiver

The respective filter passes only the mark or only the space frequency on to
its respective envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in turn, indicate the total
power in each passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the two
powers.
Binary FSK has a poorer error performance than PSK or QAM and,
consequently, is seldom used for high-performance digital radio systems.
3.4 Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying
Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CP-FSK) is binary FSK except
the mark and space frequencies are synchronized with the input binary bit rate. CP-
FSK has a better bit-error performance than conventional binary FSK for a given
signal-to-noise ratio. The disadvantage of CP-FSK is that it requires
synchronization circuits and is, therefore, more expensive to implement.

PHASE-SHIFT KEYING

Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-

amplitude digital modulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar
to conventional phase modulation except with PSK the input is a binary digital
signal and there are a limited number of output phases possible.

4.1 Binary Phase-Shift Keying

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N =
1 and M = 2. Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (21 = 2) are possible for the carrier.
One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0. As the input
digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the
output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180.

4.2 Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying

Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes
called, is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation.
QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M = 4 (hence, the name
quaternary meaning 4). With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single
carrier frequency. Because there are four output phases, there must be four different
input conditions. Because the digital input to a QPSK modulator is a binary (base
2) signal.
4.3 8-PSK
With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing eight
different output phases. With 8-PSK, N = 3, M = 8, and there are eight possible
output phases. To encode eight different phases, the incoming bits are encoded in
groups of three, called tribits (23 = 8).

4.4 16-PSK
16-PSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 16; there are 16 different
output phases possible. With 16-PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are combined,
producing 16 different output phases. With 16-PSK, N = 4 and M = 16. Therefore,
the minimum bandwidth and baud equal one-fourth the bit rate ( fb/4).

QUDRATURE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation

similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and
the phase of the transmitted carrier.

5.1 8-QAM
8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 8. Unlike 8-PSK, the
output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant-amplitude signal.

5.2 16-QAM
As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M = 16. The input
data are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16). As with 8-QAM, both the phase and
the amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied.
 BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY

Bandwidth efficiency (sometimes called information density or spectral

efficiency) is often used to compare the performance of one digital modulation
technique to another. Bandwidth efficiency is generally normalized to a 1-Hz
bandwidth and, thus, indicates the number of bits that can be propagated through a
transmission medium for each hertz of bandwidth.
Example :
For an 8-PSK system, operating with an information bit rate of 24 kbps, determine
(a) baud, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) bandwidth efficiency.
Solution :
a. Baud is determined by

b. Bandwidth is determined by

c. Bandwidth efficiency is calculated from

 CARRIER RECOVERY

Carrier recovery is the process of extracting a phase-coherent reference

carrier from a receiver signal. This is sometimes called phase referencing.

7.1 Squaring Loop

A common method of achieving carrier recovery for BPSK is the squaring
loop. The received BPSK waveform is filtered and then squared.

7.2 Costas Loop

A second method of carrier recovery is the Costas, or quadrature. The Costas
loop produces the same results as a squaring circuit followed by an ordinary PLL
in place of the BPF.

7.3 Remodulator
A third method of achieving recovery of a phase and frequency coherent
carrier is the remodulator. The remodulator produces a loop error voltage that is
proportional to twice the phase error between the incoming signal and the VCO
signal.
 CLOCK RECOVERY

As with any digital system, digital radio requires precise timing or clock
synchronization between the transmit and the receive circuitry. It is necessary to
regenerate clocks at the receiver that are synchronous with those at the transmitter.
The frequency of the clock that is recovered with this method is equal to the
received data rate (fb).

DIFFERENTIAL PHASE-SHIFT KEYING

Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) is an alternative form of digital

modulation where the binary input information is contained in the difference
between two successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase.

9.1 Differential BPSK

A. DBPSK transmitter.
 For the first data bit, there is no preceding bit with which to compare it.
Therefore, an initial reference bit is assumed.

B. DBPSK Receiver
The received signal is delayed by one bit time, then compared with the next
signaling element in the balanced modulator. If they are the same, a logic 1
(+voltage) is generated. If they are different, a logic 0 (- voltage) is generated. The
primary advantage of DBPSK is the simplicity with which it can be implemented.
With DBPSK, no carrier recovery circuit is needed.

TRELLIS CODE MODULATION

As might be expected, higher encoding schemes require higher signal-to-

noise ratios. Using the Shannon limit for information capacity, a data transmission
rate of 28.8 kbps through a 3200-Hz bandwidth requires a signal-to-noise ratio of

Trellis code modulation is sometimes thought of as a magical method of

increasing transmission bit rates over communications systems using QAMor
PSKwith fixed bandwidths.
 The maximum data rate achievable using a given bandwidth can be
determined by rearranging

PROBABILITY OF ERROR AND BIT ERROR RATE

Probability of error P(e) and bit error rate (BER) are often used
interchangeably, although in practice they do have slightly different meanings. P(e)
is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error rate for a given system.
For example, if a system has a P(e)of 10-5, this means that mathematically you can
expect one bit error in every 100,000 bits transmitted (1/10-5 = 1/100,000). If a
system has a BER of 10-5, this means that in past performance there was one bit
error for every 100,000 bits transmitted. Carrier power can be stated in watts or
dBm, where

Thermal noise power is expressed mathematically as

where,
N = Thermal noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmanns proportionality constant (1.38 x 10-23 joules per kelvin)
T = Temperature (kelvin: 0 K = -273 C, room temperature = 290 K)
B = Bandwidth (hertz)
 ERROR PERFORMANCE

12.1 PSK Error Performance

The bit error performance for the various multiphase digital modulation
systems is directly related to the distance between points on a signal state-space
diagram. The phase relationship between signaling elements for BPSK is the
optimum signaling format, referred to as antipodal signaling, and occurs only when
two binary signal levels are allowed and when one signal is the exact negative of
the other.

12.2 QAM Error Performance

For a large number of signal points, QAM outperforms PSK. This is because
the distance between signaling points in a PSK system is smaller than the distance
between points in a comparable QAM system.

12.3 FSK Error Performance

The error probability for FSK systems is evaluated in a somewhat different
manner than PSK and QAM. There are essentially only two types of FSK systems:
noncoherent (asynchronous) and coherent (synchronous). With noncoherent FSK,
the transmitter and receiver are not frequency or phase synchronized. With coherent
FSK, local receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase lock with the
transmitted signals.
The probability of error for noncoherent FSK is
The probability of error for coherent FSK is

The differences error rates between PSK, QAM, and FSK modulation system.