1

Flow around an Airfoil

Source: http://richard-rowland-perkins.com/professional/renewable-tech-wind-power
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An introduction to aerodynamics

(See Chapter 3.4 of Wind Energy Explained by Manwell, McGowan & Rogers)
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Airfoil aerodynamics

Just like an airplane wing, the blade of a wind

turbine is constructed from a set of airfoil
sections.

Each section may have different shapes for

strength and variable operating conditions.

The section force characteristics are very

dependent on the local shape.
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Airfoils

Souirce: http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/uiuc_lsat/lsat_5bulletin.html
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Lift
FL

Drag FD
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Pressure distribution around an
airfoil
-

Pressure along the upper surface

DH

Pressure along the lower surface

+

http://www.desktopaero.com/appliedaero/
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Cord length and cord line

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Angle of attack

Angle of attck
a
Velocity

http://www.pagendarm.de/trapp/programming/java/profiles/NACA4.html
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Lift coefficient CL

Lift coefficient, CL
U2
FL CL Cordelength Depth
2

FL
Angle of attack, a
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Pressure depends on angle of attack

The upper surface pressure gradient increases dramatically with angle of attack.
NACA 4416 profile

0.2
0.15
0.1

y/c
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/c

NACA 4416 NACA 4416

a=0o a=10o

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1

Cp
-1.5
Cp

-1.5

-2 -2

-2.5 -2.5

-3 Lower surface -3 Lower surface

-3.5 Upper surface -3.5 Upper surface

-4 -4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/c x/c

CL=0.51 CL=1.73
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Pressure distributions
The pressure distribution is very sensitive to small changes in geometry.
HOG profile NACA 4416 profile

Lower surface
Upper surface
0.2 Lower surface 0.2
0.15 Upper surface 0.15
0.1 0.1
y/c

0.05

y/c
0.05
0
0 -0.05
-0.05 -0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/c x/c

HOG profile NACA 4416

a=5o a=5o

1 1

0.5 0.5

0
0

-0.5

Cp
-0.5
Cp

-1

-1
Lower surface
-1.5
Upper surface
-1.5 Lower surface
-2
Upper surface

-2.5 -2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/c x/c

CL=0.85 CL=1.12
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Airfoil geometry
Important definitions:
Chord length is the longest distance
between leading and trailing edges
Camber line is the mean height
above the chord line
R
Thickness is the height between
upper and lower surface (symmetric
about the camber line)
Angle of attack, a, is the angle
between the velocity vector seen by
the airfoil and the chord line
Drag force is the part of the force
vector in the direction of the velocity
vector
Lift force is the part of the force
vector normal to the velocity vector
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Lift Lift
FL

2
U
FL CL Cordelength Depth
2

Where:
FL Lift force [N]
U Velocity [m]
Density [kg/m3]
CL Lift coefficient [-]
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Lift coefficient
CL

U2
FL CL Cordelength Depth
2

FL
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Drag
U
Drag FD

2
U
FD CD Cordelength Depth
2
Where:
FD Drag force [N]
U Velocity [m]
Density [kg/m3]
CD Drag coefficient [-]
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Drag coefficient
CD

FD

U2
FD CD Cordlength Depth
2
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Peripheral velocity = rW

Wind velocity = U
Relative velocity = Urel

rW

Urel

rW
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FL

FD
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U Fthrust

Fthrust

Mtorque
Mthrust
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Some effects of geometry on lift and drag

The force scales linearly with the chord length

For a given angle of attack the lift force increases with increasing camber

Since the thickness is symmetric about the camber line it has very little effect on lift as
it affects the pressure distribution symmetrically

Thick airfoils have more gradual R

stallwhich normally develops from the
trailing edge

Thick airfoils normally have more

drag than thinner airfoils with similar
shape
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Some effects of geometry on lift and drag

(cont.) Drag coefficient

Since the upper surface pressure gradient

increases with angle of attack, increasing a
means a thickening of the upper surface
boundary layer and more drag

Laminar boundary layers have less friction

than turbulent layers Standard 12% thick profile (NACA0012)

Drag increases with decreasing Reynolds

number

Surface roughness normally increases drag,

but can delay stall by causing laminar-to-
turbulent transition Low drag 12% thick profile (NACA631-012)
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Airfoil Stall
Increasing velocity
Decreasing pressure
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Airfoil Stall
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Tip losses
The whole idea of lift generation on wings relies on generating a pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces. At the wing tip the pressure difference may
not be sustained and flow leaks from the high pressure to the low pressure area.

This creates two effects:

1) A reduced lift that goes

to zero at the tip

2) A rotational flow which

requires energy that is a
loss for the torque
produced by the blade
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Tip vortex

Source: http://caebridge.com/wind-turbine-design
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The Betz limit

Maximum Power Coefficient, Cp = 59,3%
The turbine utilizes the kinetic energy of the wind
The wind velocity has to be reduced downstream the wind
turbine. It can not be zero.
The wind will take the route with least
resistance.
Therefore some of the air will go outside the rotor cross section
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Rotary Disk Theory

We assume the wind turbine to consist of an infinite
number of blades that will influence the wake downstream
the turbine.
We introduce a rotational component to the wind

Rotary Disk

W
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Blade Element Momentum

theory, BEM
Expressing the velocities in the wake and at the blade
elements w.r.t. axial and rotational induction factors a
and a
Develop expressions for
the forces on each blade element
the rate of change of momentum
equating them and solving for the a and a.
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FL
FR

FD
FR Resultant force [N]
FL Lift force [N]
FD Drag force [N]
U Wind velocity [m/s]
rW Peripheral velocity [m/s]
Urel Relative velocity [m/s]
W Angular velocity [rad/s]
r Turbine radius [m]
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FR

FR Resultant force [N]

FThrust Thrust force [N]
FT Torque force [N]
U Wind velocity [m/s]
rW Peripheral velocity [m/s]
Urel Relative velocity [m/s]
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a What will happen with

the lift and drag force
during a wind gust ?

FL

FD

FL Lift force [N]

FD Drag force [N]
U Wind velocity [m/s]
rW Peripheral velocity [m/s]
Urel Relative velocity [m/s]
W Angular velocity [rad/s]
r Turbine radius [m]
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What will happen with the lift and drag force
during a wind gust ?
a
a

FL FT FR
FR FThrust

FD
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a What will happen with

the lift and drag force
during grid failure ?

FL

FD

FL Lift force [N]

FD Drag force [N]
U Wind velocity [m/s]
rW Peripheral velocity [m/s]
Urel Relative velocity [m/s]
W Angular velocity [rad/s]
r Turbine radius [m]
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What will happen with the lift and drag force
during grid failure ?

a
a

FL FR
FT

FR FThrust

FD