Name: Balo, Marielle Date Performed: 08/14/2017

Group No. 2

Experiment No. 1
PV Isotherms of Real Gases

I. Background

Gas is a state of matter that has no fixed shape and no fixed volume (Bagley, 2016).
Among the three states of matter, gas has the lowest density. Consequently, it is the simplest
state of matter and is used to correlate the molar volume and pressure because its density is
dependent on its temperature. The higher the temperature, the more the molecules are spread out.
High pressure means high density, cooler, sinking air. Low pressure means low density, warmer,
rising air (Ophardt, 2003). The behaviour of gases is explained theoretically by the Kinetic
Molecular Theory which also states that the average kinetic energy of a collection of gas
particles depends on the temperature of the gas and nothing else.

Real gases only obey the Ideal Gas Law at low pressures and at high temperatures. These
gases show deviations from the perfect gas laws because molecules interact with one another. To
characterize the deviations real gases make in comparison to perfect gases, equations of states
are necessary; an equation that interrelates pressure, temperature, volume and the number of
moles.

Chlorine (Cl2) is a pure chemical element has the physical form of a diatomic green gas
(Lenntech, 2017). On the other hand, Formaldehyde (CH2O) is a highly reactive aldehyde gas
formed by oxidation or incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons (National Center for
Biotechnology Information, n.d.). This experiment deals with polar and nonpolar real gases.
Chlorine (Cl2) gas was the nonpolar gas used and Formaldehyde (CH2O) was the polar gas used
as samples to explain the deviations of real gases from the ideal gas. The values for their critical
temperature, critical pressure, critical volume and a and b (for some EoS) were used to plot the
pressure against the molar volume of these gases; with volume lesser than the critical volume
and temperature that conforms the positive slope of the isotherms plotted.

Generally, this experiment aims to explain the deviation of real gases from ideal gases.
This experiment also aims to examine the different features and changes in the PV isotherms
using different EoS, to graph the Pressure-Volume isotherms of real gases using different
equations of state (EoS), to explain the variations between the PV isotherms derived from
differrent equations of states, and to rationalize the ideal gas behaviour of different gases.
II. Results

The pressures of the polar (formaldehyde) and nonpolar (chlorine) gases calculated using
different equations of state were plotted against their molar volume on the y-axis and x-axis,
respectively. The following results were graphed using Microsoft Excel.

PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Ideal Gas Law)

700

600

500
Pressure (atm)

400

300

200

100

0
0.07474
0.09474
0.11474
0.13474
0.15474
0.17474
0.19474
0.21474
0.23474
0.25474
0.27474
0.29474
0.31474
0.33474
0.35474
0.37474
0.39474
0.41474
0.43474
0.45474
0.47474
0.49474
0.51474
0.53474
0.55474
0.57474
0.59474
0.61474
0.63474
0.65474
0.67474
0.69474
0.71474
0.73474
0.75474
0.77474
0.79474
0.81474
Molar Volume (L/mol)

Vm P1 (Below Critical Temperature) P2 (Critical Temperature) P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Ideal Gas Law)

700
600
Pressure (atm)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0.07474
0.09474
0.11474
0.13474
0.15474
0.17474
0.19474
0.21474
0.23474
0.25474
0.27474
0.29474
0.31474
0.33474
0.35474
0.37474
0.39474
0.41474
0.43474
0.45474
0.47474
0.49474
0.51474
0.53474
0.55474
0.57474
0.59474
0.61474
0.63474
0.65474
0.67474
0.69474
0.71474
0.73474
0.75474
0.77474
0.79474
0.81474

Molar Volume (L/mol)

Vm P1 (Below Critical Temperature) P2 (Critical Temperature) P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

Figure 1. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using Ideal
Gas Law
 Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)

100
200
400
500
600
700
800

300

200
600
800

400
1000
1200
1400

Waals EoS
0.07474
0.06464
0.09474

Vm

Vm
0.08464
0.10464 0.11474
0.12464 0.13474
0.14464 0.15474
0.16464 0.17474
0.18464 0.19474
0.20464 0.21474
0.22464 0.23474
0.24464 0.25474
0.26464 0.27474
0.28464 0.29474
0.30464 0.31474

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

0.33474

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

0.32464
0.34464 0.35474
0.36464 0.37474
0.38464 0.39474
0.40464 0.41474
0.42464 0.43474
0.44464 0.45474
0.46464 0.47474
0.48464 0.49474
0.51474
Molar Volume (L/mol)

0.50464

Molar Volume (L/mol)

P2 (Critical Temperature)

0.53474

P2 (Critical Temperature)
0.52464
0.54464 0.55474
0.56464 0.57474
0.58464 0.59474
PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Van der Waals EoS)

0.60464 0.61474
0.63474
PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Van der Waals EoS)

0.62464
0.64464 0.65474
0.66464 0.67474
0.68464 0.69474
0.70464 0.71474
0.73474
0.75474

Figure 2. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using van der
P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.77474

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.79474
0.81474
 Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)

200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

0
1000
1400

400
600
800

200
1200

Berthelot EoS
0.06969 0.06969

Vm
Vm
0.08969
0.09969 0.10969
0.12969 0.12969
0.14969
0.15969 0.16969
0.18969 0.18969
0.20969
0.21969 0.22969
0.24969 0.24969
0.26969
0.27969 0.28969
0.30969 0.30969

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)
0.32969
0.33969 0.34969
0.36969 0.36969
0.38969
0.39969 0.40969
0.42969 0.42969
0.44969
0.45969 0.46969

Volume (L/mol)
0.48969 0.48969
0.50969
Molar Volume (L/mol)

0.51969

P2 (Critical Temperature)
P2 (Critical Temperature)

0.52969
0.54969 0.54969
0.56969
PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Berthelot EoS)

0.57969
0.58969
PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Berthelot EoS)

0.60969 0.60969
0.62969
0.63969
0.64969
0.66969 0.66969
0.68969
0.69969

Figure 3. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using
0.70969
0.72969 0.72969
0.74969
0.75969

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.76969
0.78969 0.78969
0.80969
 Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)

150
200
250
300
350
400
450
100
150
200
250
300
350

100

0
0

50
50
0.07474 0.07474
0.09474 0.09474

Vm
Vm
0.11474 0.11474
0.13474 0.13474
0.15474 0.15474
0.17474 0.17474

Redlich-Kwong Equation
0.19474 0.19474
0.21474 0.21474
0.23474 0.23474
0.25474 0.25474
0.27474 0.27474
0.29474 0.29474
0.31474 0.31474

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)
0.33474 0.33474
0.35474 0.35474
0.37474 0.37474
0.39474 0.39474
0.41474 0.41474
0.43474 0.43474
0.45474 0.45474
0.47474 0.47474
0.49474 0.49474

Molar Volume (atm)

0.51474 0.51474
Molar Volume (L/mol)

P2 (Critical Temperature)
P2 (Critical Temperature)

0.53474 0.53474
0.55474 0.55474
0.57474 0.57474
0.59474 0.59474
0.61474 0.61474
0.63474 0.63474
PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Redlich-Kwong Equation)

0.65474 0.65474
PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Redlich-Kwong Equation)

0.67474 0.67474
0.69474 0.69474

Figure 4. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using
0.71474 0.71474
0.73474 0.73474
0.75474 0.75474

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.77474 0.77474
0.79474 0.79474
0.81474 0.81474
 Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)

100
120
140
160
100
150
200
250
300

0
0

20
40
60
80
50
0.06969 0.06969
0.08969 0.08969

Vm
Vm
0.10969 0.10969
0.12969 0.12969
0.14969 0.14969
0.16969 0.16969
0.18969 0.18969

Modified Berthelot Equation

0.20969 0.20969
0.22969 0.22969
0.24969 0.24969
0.26969 0.26969
0.28969 0.28969
0.30969 0.30969

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)
0.32969 0.32969
0.34969 0.34969
0.36969 0.36969
0.38969 0.38969
0.40969 0.40969
0.42969 0.42969
0.44969 0.44969
0.46969 0.46969
0.48969 0.48969
0.50969 0.50969
Molar Volume (L/mol)

Molar Volume (L/mol)

P2 (Critical Temperature)
P2 (Critical Temperature)

0.52969 0.52969
0.54969 0.54969
0.56969 0.56969
0.58969 0.58969
PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Modified Berthelot)

0.60969 0.60969
PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Modified Berthelot)

0.62969 0.62969
0.64969 0.64969
0.66969 0.66969
0.68969 0.68969

Figure 5. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using
0.70969 0.70969
0.72969 0.72969
0.74969 0.74969

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.76969 0.76969
0.78969 0.78969
0.80969 0.80969
 Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)

100
150
250
300
350
400
150
200
250
300

200
100

0
0

50
50
0.06969 0.06969

Robinson EoS
0.08969 0.08969

Vm
Vm
0.10969 0.10969
0.12969 0.12969
0.14969 0.14969
0.16969 0.16969
0.18969 0.18969
0.20969 0.20969
0.22969 0.22969
0.24969 0.24969
0.26969 0.26969
0.28969 0.28969
0.30969 0.30969

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)

P1 (Below Critical Temperature)
0.32969 0.32969
0.34969 0.34969
0.36969 0.36969
0.38969 0.38969
0.40969 0.40969
0.42969 0.42969
0.44969 0.44969
0.46969 0.46969
0.48969 0.48969
0.50969 0.50969

Molar Volume (L/mol)

Molar Volume (L/mol)

P2 (Critical Temperature)
P2 (Critical Temperature)

0.52969 0.52969
0.54969 0.54969
0.56969 0.56969
0.58969 0.58969
PV Isotherms of Chlorine (Peng-Robinson EoS)

0.60969 0.60969
0.62969 0.62969
PV Isotherms of Formaldehyde (Peng- Robinson EoS)

0.64969 0.64969
0.66969 0.66969
0.68969 0.68969
0.70969 0.70969
0.72969 0.72969

Figure 6. Graph of the PV isotherms of chlorine (upper) and formaldehyde (lower) using Peng-
0.74969 0.74969

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

P3 (Above Critical Temperature)

0.76969 0.76969
0.78969 0.78969
0.80969 0.80969
III. Discussion

In general, particles of a gas are dimensionless points in random motion and the identity
of a gas is irrelevant. Particles of a gas do not interact apart from elastic collisions bouncing off
one another. These principles are true with ideal gases.

Most gases behave ideally when they are held at low pressures and high temperatures.
Ideal behaviour; moreover, means that the gas molecules only possess kinetic energy, and do
not interact with each other. However, interactions of gas molecules exist, and are more likely at
low temperature and high gas pressure. At these conditions, some molecules have significant
intermolecular attractions. Polar molecules, for instance, are electrostatically attracted to each
other. In addition, partial charges with opposite signs are present in polar molecules which
causes the potential energy present between them.

Four variables are to be considered when examining an ideal gas. The first one is the
pressure, or the force the gases are exerting on its container. This also describes how much the
particles are heating the sides of the container. The second variable is temperature, or the amount
of heat energy available to be transferred to kinetic energy in motion. The higher the
temperature, the faster the particles move. The PV product, in this experiment, cannot be
negative which means that the temperature cannot be less than zero. The third variable is the
volume. To consider this variable, the size of the container must also be considered. The fourth
variable to be considered is the number of moles. This also implies the number of particles
present inside the container. These four variables depend on each other, formulating the gas
lawsBoyles Law, Charless Law, Avogadros Lawthat make up the Ideal Gas Law.

In a PV diagram, Pressure (P) in term of atmosphere (y-axis) is plotted against the Molar
Volume (Vm) in terms of L/mol with constant temperature. Critical temperature (Tc) is the
temperature of the gas which the gas cannot be liquefied. As the Temperature (T) approaches Tc,
the curves flatten. Moreover, at T<Tc, there are horizontal regions were gas and liquid coexist.

The Ideal Gas Law is one of the equations of state that relates the pressure, volume, and
temperature of the gas given a quantity of n moles of gas. All sufficiently diluted gases obey the
Ideal Gas equation of state. The forces present in the gas can be monitored by their
compressibility factor (Z). The compressibility factor can be used to detect the deviations of a
gas from ideal gas behaviour in this experiment. The ratio Z which is equal to PV/nRT must be
equal to 1 for the ideal gases. In order to determine the deviation of a real gas from the ideal gas,
the ratio Z for the ideal gas is compared with the ratio Z for the real gas. There are conditions
applicable to interpret whether an attractive force or a repulsive force is present as the Z for the
real gas deviates from 1 as the pressure increases. In a microscopic view of deviation of gases
from the ideal gas behaviour, real gases differ from ideal gases because they have finite size and
there are forces acting between the particles or molecules of the real gas. Repulsive forces
between molecules assist expansion and attractive forces assist compression. When Z<1,
intermolecular attractions exist; potential energy is present.

At low pressure, the Ideal Gas Law and the Kinetic Theory of Gases are obeyed. The
actual volume taken up by a gas in the container is equal to the volume obtained using the Ideal
Gas Law. At higher pressure, when the volume is decreased, some molecules move to stick with
each other, effectively reducing the moles of the gas. In this case, the actual volume taken up by
the gas molecules is lower than the ideal volume. This means that the gas is more compressible,
and attractions dominate that molecules have a higher probability of sticking together; Z<1.
When the pressure is increased higher again, the gas takes up a lot of space. In this case, the
gases molecules cannot move. The actual volume is greater than the ideal volume. Thus,
repulsions dominate. Molecules are repelled by each other, basically, because they each have a
certain volume that they have to take up; Z>1. The closer the gas is to its critical point or its
boiling point, the more Z deviates from the ideal case.

Repulsive forces are significant only when molecules are almost in contact: they are
short-range interactions, even on a scale measured in molecular diameters. Because they are
short-range interactions, repulsions can be expected to be important only when the average
separation of the molecules is small. This is the case at high pressure, when many molecules
occupy a small volume. On the other hand, attractive intermolecular forces have a relatively long
range and are effective over several molecular diameters. They are important when the molecules
are fairly dose together but not necessarily touching. Attractive forces are ineffective when the
molecules are far apart. Intermolecular forces are also important when the temperature is so low
that the molecules travel with such low mean speeds that they can be captured by one another.

Real gas is used to be compared with the ideal gas because when its Pressure vs Volume
graph is plotted in a two-dimensional way, the real gas shows an obvious deviation from the
properties of the ideal. When Z=1, gases exhibit a perfectly ideal gas behaviour. As shown in
Figure 1, the graph of the ideal gases of chlorine and formaldehyde are all hyperbolas. Each
graph produced below, above and at the critical temperature of the gases is called an isotherm. At
different temperatures, the pressure-volume dependence of the ideal gases at fixed amounts can
also be seen in Figure 1. Chlorine has the critical compressibility factor (Zc) equal to 0.276 while
formaldehyde has the critical compressibility factor (Zc) equal to 0.223. Both these nonpolar and
polar gases have Z<1 which means that attractive forces among chlorine molecules and among
formaldehyde molecules dominate.

The equations of state used to relate the properties of a real gas are cubic in nature; thus,
have a cubic term. Moreover, this also means that its graph is cubic where the transition line and
the inflection point exist.

To further elaborate the concepts behind the deviations of real gases from the ideal gas,
different equations of state are devised. Equations of state were developed as modifications of
the Ideal Gas Law. These include: van der Waals EoS, Berthelot EoS, Modified Berthelot,
Redlich-Kwong EoS, and Peng-Robinson EoS. These are used to explain the different
behaviours or size of particle.
Van der Waals Equation of State

The van der Waals Equation corrects the ideal gas law for real gas behaviour.

In van der Waals Equations of State, the pressure depends on both the frequency of
collisions with the walls and the force of the collisions. These two elements are further affected
by the intermolecular interaction. Because both the frequency and the force of the collisions are
reduced by the attractive interactions, the pressure is reduced in proportion to the square of this
concentration. (Atkins and de Paula, 2014). van der Waals EoS holds an advantage in that it is
analytical and allows us to draw some general conclusions about real gases, it is a model
equation of state for real gas expressed in terms of two parameters, a and b, the strength of the
attractive interactions and the strength of the repulsive interactions respectively. The value of a,
in this case, is significant to account for the force of attraction which reduces the force of impact
of the particles of the gas to the wall of the container. This also means that the larger the value of
a, the more attractions the molecules have. The value of b, on the other hand, accounts for the
size of the particle which significantly describes the behaviour of the gas at high pressure and
low temperature. As the constant b increases, its molecular size also increases. The van der
Waals equation captures the general features of real gases, including their critical behavior.
(Atkins and de Paula, 2014). The following are the features of van der Waals EoS:

1. Perfect gas isotherms are obtained at high temperatures and large molar volumes
2. Liquids and gases coexist when the attractive and repulsive effects are in balance
3. The critical constants are related to the van der Waals coefficients.
As shown in Figure 2, there are no significant changes in the PV isotherm of the Chlorine
and Formaldehyde on the critical temperature. However, the graph of the PV isotherm below the
critical temperature is the saturation pressure approximation; thus, it contains an inflection point.
Above the critical temperature, the graph of the PV isotherm is approximately ideal.

The van der Waals EoS implies that the volume of the real gas is less than the volume of the
ideal gas. The V-nb in the denominator stands for the space occupied by the gas molecules, and

the fraction 2 is the correction for intermolecular attractions.

Looking at their b values: Chlorine has b=0.0413 while the Formaldehyde has b=0.0383.
This means that both of these polar and nonpolar gases are small molecules. Thus, relatively
small amount of molecular attractions are done; relatively small corrections are needed for the
Chlorine and Formaldehyde to behave as ideal gases. In terms of the value of a, Cl2 has a=3.51
while CH2O has a= 2.58. This means that the molecules of Cl2 has greater attraction that the
molecules of CH2O with each other. Moreover, Cl2 has a significantly lower pressure than CH2O.
Ideally, if a and b are equal to zero, it implies that it is an ideal gas.

The values of the constants a and b of Chlorine, in this experiment, are larger than that of the
formaldehydes. Because of this, the pressures below, above and at the critical temperature of the
Chlorine are lower than the pressures of the Formaldehyde calculate using the van der Waals
EoS.

The advantage of van der Waals equation is that it is analytical and allows us to draw general
conclusions about real gases (Atkins, 1978).

Berthelot EoS

P. A. Daniel Berthelot developed another equation which is the van der Waals equation
modified for the temperature dependence of the attractive term (Laidler/Meiser 1999). It
provides high accuracy at low pressures and temperatures.

Compared with the PV isotherms of the van der Waals EoS, Figure 2, the curvatures of
the graphs of the PV isotherm of Cl2 and CH2O below the critical temperature have decreased
their ranges. The isotherms, in Figure 3, are closer to the parabolic shape of an ideal gas
isotherm. The same concepts with the van der Waals EoS are applied for the constants a and b;
however, lower pressure are produced using this equation, which yields an isotherm that is closer
to the ideal, compared with the isotherms produced when the van der Waals EoS was used.

Modified Berthelot EoS

In the case of Modified Berthelot EoS, the constants a and b are not used. In contrast, this
equation of state uses the values at the critical point: critical temperature and critical pressure.
The modified version the Berthelot model, relating temperature, pressure, and volume of real
gases, is more accurate than the Berthelot equation. It was modified by incorporating knowledge
gained from empirical data gathered in analysis of real gases (Bartmess, 2017). The PV
isotherms of Cl2 and CH2O are closest to the graph of an ideal gas compared with the van der
Waals and Berthelot EoS. As shown in Figure 5, no inflection points in on the isotherms are
visible; however, its PV plot for polar and nonpolar gases resembles that of the ideal gas.

Redlich-Kwong EoS

This is an equation which provides a simple and accurate two-parameter expression

applicable over a wide range of temperature and pressure. Consequently, it is almost always
more accurate than the van der Waals equation and often more accurate than some equations
with more than two parameters. Redlich- Kwong Equation of State is a modification of the van
der Waals Equation of State; it improved the van der Waals EoS by proposing temperature
dependence for the attractive term. In the case of this equation, the empirical constants a and b
used are not identical with a and b of the van der Waals EoS. As shown in Figure 4, the
curvatures and points of inflection of the PV isotherms of both Chlorine and Formaldehyde
below their critical temperatures are significantly evident and more defined compared with the
PV isotherms of both Cl2 and CH2O below their critical temperatures using the previous
equations of statesvan der Waals, Berthelot EoS and Modified Berthelot EoS. In addition, the
plotted isotherms of Cl2 and CH2O in the graphs at critical and above their critical temperatures
are observed to have a slight dent with respect to their curvatures compared with the isotherms
plotted using the van der Waals EoS, Berthelot EoS and Modified Berthelot EoS which have a
smooth plotted curvature.

Peng-Robinson EoS

The Peng-Robinson EoS is similar to Redlich-Kwong EoS. To obtain the values of

pressure using this equation, the critical properties of the gases and their acentric factors () are
taken into account. In this equation, accounts for the gas molecules shape.

Using this EoS, the accuracy of the values is near the critical conditions such as the
critical temperature (Tc), critical Pressure (Pc). Moreover, this EoS is used in pure substances and
mixtures, and is useful for both liquids and real gases. Consequently, vapour pressure and
volumetric behaviour of pure component and binary mixtures can be predicted using this EoS.
The properties and the PV isotherms derived from the Peng-Robinson EoS and Redlich-Kwong
EoS are similar based on the graphs as plotted in Figure 6.

The Redlich-Kwong and Peng-Robinson equations of state are used mainly because they
are easy to use and they accurately represent the relationship between the temperature, pressure,
and phase compositions in binary and multicomponent systems.

IV. Calculation

The value of pressure for each equation of state was calculated using the Microsoft Excel.
The following formulas for each equation of state were used to solve for the pressure, and plot
the PV isotherms of the polar (formaldehyde) and nonpolar (chlorine) gases above, below and at
the critical temperature of the gas:
V. Conclusion

Gas molecules interact in real gases while they do not in ideal gases. To account for the
interactions of these gas molecules, different equations of state are devised: van der Waals EoS,
Berthelot EoS, Modified Berthelot EoS, Redlich-Kwong EoS and Peng-Robinson EoS. In this
experiment, the PV isotherms of ideal gases and real gases are also graphed. The isotherms of the
real gases, as observed from the experiment show common behaviours below, above and at
critical temperature of the polar and nonpolar gasesCH2O and Cl2, respectively. Thus, it was
observed that above the critical temperature of the gas, the isotherm of the real gas is close to
ideal. Some of these different equations of state are the more modified versions of the other to
obtain the closest approximation of an ideal gas. Hence, in this experiment, all the objectives are
attained.

VI. References

Atkins, P. & de Paula, J. (2014). ATKINS' Physical Chemistry (10th ed.). New York: Oxford
University Press Inc.

Bagley, M. (2016, January 7). Properties of Matter: Gases. Retrieved August 23,2017 from
https://www.livescience.com/53304-gases.html

Bartmess, M. (2017). Berthelot modified model. Retrieved August 19, 2017 from
https://www.vcalc.com/wiki/vCalc/Berthelot+modified+model

Census data revisited. (n.d.) Retrieved August 23, 2017, from Purdue website,
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch4/kinetic.php

Coursera Inc. (2017). Lecture 12 - Video 2.3 - Gas-Liquid PV Diagrams. [video] Available at:
https://www.coursera.org/learn/statistical-thermodynamics/lecture/8vpL1/video-2-3-gas-
liquid-pv-diagrams [Accessed 23 Aug. 2017].
Lenntech, B. V. (2017). Chemical properties of chlorine - Health effects of chlorine -
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