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ILLEGAL HARVEST
ACT, 10 OF 2004 TBA TOPS LIST 2015. Commented [S1]: We agreed that you remove FROM
TOPS TO BOTTOM: and also write NEM:BA in full
by Formatted: Line spacing: Double
Mosshadi Mashangoane
are
in
Botany
in the
Faculty of Science
at the
University of Johannesburg
November 2017
DECLARATION
I declare that this dissertation hereby submitted to the University of Johannesburg for the
degree BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS (Botany), is my own work and has not
Formatted Table
INDEX TO TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Formatted: Left
BOLD - Barcode of Life Database Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Dark Blue
CITES - Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Dark Blue
IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature
MatK - Maturase K Commented [S2]: Rather use the table to have smooth
alignment, and then select the table, choose no border
option
NEM: BA - National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act Formatted: Font: Not Bold
Formatted: Font: Not Bold
NFTP - Non- Timber Forest Product
Formatted: Font: Not Bold
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ACKNOWLEDMENTS Formatted: Left
I would like to thank SANBI for sponsoring my honours degree studies at the university Formatted: Font: Not Bold
Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Dark Blue
of Johannesburg. I also would like to thank my supervisor Prof Michelle van der Bank for
Formatted: Justified
her supervision and allowing me to be part of a wonderful team at the African Centre for Formatted: Font: Not Bold
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DNA Barcoding. I would also like to thank Ms Lerato Hoveka for being my co-supervisor. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
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Lastly, I thank all the lab technicians for assisting me with my lab work. Without all the
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above-mentioned people, this paper would not exist. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
Formatted: Left
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later and it will be different from the one you submitted to
the conference.
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Commented [S4]: Please reference the source or the link
where the NEM: BA (Act No 10 of 2004) can be found
Formatted: Highlight
Commented [S5]: This is a bold statement and needs to
ABSTRACT be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
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Background: Overexploitation of natural resources is a major threat to biodiversity as it be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
may lead to the extinction of rare and vulnerable species. According to the National
Commented [S7]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No 10 of 2004) authority
[Source/Reference], National Environmental Biodiversity Act (NEM: BA), act 10 of 2004 Commented [S8]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
any person who is in possession of a species that is listed as protected or threatened or authority
Commented [S9]: This is a bold statement and needs to
owns any product derived from these species must have a valid permit to do so be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
[Source/Reference]. Countries with unique floras such as South Africa face major Commented [S10]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
challenges in protecting indigenous plants from specialist collectors while having to
Commented [S11]: This is a bold statement and needs to
manage other threats such as habitat destruction, biological invasions and climate be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
change [Source/Reference]. DNA barcoding can be used as a tool in aiding plant Commented [S12]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
conservation. In this study, core DNA barcoding regions (rbcLa and matK) were used to authority
Commented [S13]: This is a bold statement and needs to
assist in identifying the threatened plant species of South Africa [Source/Reference]. be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Results: Based on genetic divergence, PCR amplification efficiency and the BLAST Commented [S14]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
algorithm [Source/Reference], the core DNA barcodes proved to be efficient authority
Commented [S15]: This is a bold statement and needs to
[Source/Reference]. Hence a DNA barcoding library was created on BOLD (Barcode of be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Life Database) to assist in future identification of unknown or taxonomically doubtful Commented [S16]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
species [Source/Reference],. Significance: Plant diversity is not only crucial in
Commented [S17]: This is a bold statement and needs to
maintaining healthy and sustainable ecosystems [Source/Reference], but also holds be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
socio-economic value [Source/Reference]. In order to implement strategies to protect Commented [S18]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
threatened species, identification of these species is a critical first step
Commented [S19]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
[Source/Reference],. authority
Commented [S20]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Commented [S21]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Commented [S22]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Commented [S23]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
Chapter 1HAPTER 1 Formatted: Left, Line spacing: Double
Formatted: Font: Bold
1. General Introduction and objectives Formatted: Line spacing: Double
Formatted: Centered, Line spacing: Double
GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
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1.1 Overexploitation of natural resources as a threat to global biodiversity Formatted: Left, Line spacing: Multiple 1.08 li
Commented [S24]: Consider using headings and
Many species are becoming extinct and biodiversity is wiped out at a fast rate subheadings but please confirm this with Lerato
Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 12 pt
[Source/Reference]. Biodiversity is defined as the variety of life on earth which include all
Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 12 pt
the species as well as their habitat [Source/Reference]. Furthermore, it can be measured Commented [S25]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
in terms of generic diversity and the identity structure of each species (Swinggland,2002).
Commented [S26]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
Overexploitation of natural resources is a major threat to biodiversity as it may lead to the authority
Commented [S27]: Very excellent way of introducing the...
extinction of rare and vulnerable species (Schippmann et al. 2002; Courchamp 2006). Commented [S28]: This is a bold statement and needs to...
According Seshrest and Brooks (2002) extinction of species is the most obvious Commented [S29]: This is a bold statement and needs to...
Commented [S30]: This is a bold statement. Its great that...
biodiversity loss. According to the (WWF, 2017), environmental management and
biodiversity field specialists have reported that at least 10 000 species go extinct every
year. Moreover, the rapid loss of species was estimated to be 1000 to 10000 higher than
resources increases due to over-consumption. Reichard and White (2001) reported that Commented [S31]: I have shortened he sentence.
since the beginning of time (from 8000 BC) Non-timber forest products (NFTPs) have Commented [S32]: Please introduce NFTP by defining
itsimilarly to the way you have introduced overexploration
been exploited by indigenous communities for subsistence and trade. However, in the
past two decades, the commercialization of natural resources including medicinal plants
has increased (Ticktin,2004). The aforesaid increase is attributed to the fact that rural
communities in developing countries depend greatly on NFTPs for their livelihood (Twine
Additionally, factors such as the growing number of black people living in the cities have
also contributed greatly to the over-harvest. Most indigent black peopleof them consult
traditional healers since western medicines are too expensive and some peoples beliefs
Commented [S34]: Please make sure that your intext
references is consistent and correct e.g. (Williamson et al.,
do not agree with Western medicinese (Williamson et al., 2000). The trade in NFTPs 2000) vs (Twine et al. 2003).
Commented [S35]: Please break this into two sentenced.
ranks among the top 5 most profitable yet unlawful trade alongside drug smuggling, As a rule of thumb, sentence should have at most 14 words.
Commented [S36]: This sentence is too long
weapons, counterfeit goods as well as human trafficking (Lawson &Vines, 2014). The wild
Commented [S37]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
life trade is permitted for some species, provided that the person has a permit from authority
Commented [S38]: This is a bold statement and needs to
authorities [Source/Reference]. However, the problem arises when the trade is done be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
unsustainably making other species to become vulnerable and putting them in danger of Commented [S39]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
being extinct [Source/Reference]. The unsustainable trade of species does not only affect authority
Commented [S40]: This is a bold statement and needs to
the species being exploited, it also affects the livelihood of the people particularly the poor be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
[Source/Reference]. Moreover, the trade affect other species and the illegal harvesting of Commented [S41]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
timber plants affects the forest. The overexploitation of this wildlife plants results in loss
Commented [S42]: This is a bold statement and needs to
of biodiversity (WWF,2017). be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
The plant species that are poached are usually sold as ornamentals, crafts and
medicines (Ticktin,2004). Hydrastis canadensis and Cimicifuga racemesa are two Commented [S43]:
Commented [S44]: Never start a sentence with e.g. (for
examples of the traditional medicines which are harvested for different purpose. an example)
An example of the aforesaid among others include treating of ailment such as Commented [S45]: Never start a sentence with For
hemorrhoids and pain respectively. Roberson (2008) reported that in a year more than Commented [S46]: Never start a sentence with For"
the population of this species has been reduced. It is currently considered to be a plant
of conservation concern by CITES and it is recorded in appendix II of CITES regulations Commented [S47]: Introduce CITE properly by defining it
rate [Source/Reference]. It has been reported by Williamson et al., (2016) that almost Commented [S51]: Define this scientific tern
Commented [S52]: This is a bold statement and needs to
two-thirds of South Africas Encephalartos species is illegally traded at the traditional be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
black markets. This is due to the belief that Encephalartos species are useful in chasing Commented [S53]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
evil spirits away [Source/Reference]. Brackenridgea zanguebarica which is also known
Commented [S54]: This is a bold statement and needs to
as the magic tree is used by Venda people due to their belief that it possesses magical be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
powers and healing properties. These species have declined over years and has been Commented [S55]: This is a bold statement and needs to
be reference from someone who is a subject matter
authority
classified as vulnerable according to the IUCN red list categories South Africa
Commented [S56]: This is an excellent way of explaining
or describing briefly the scientific term. Please do the same
for the Encephalartos
(Tshisikwawe and Rooyen,2012). The overexploitation of these plants results in
A B
C D
K.A. and Jones, E.T.). (B) Cimicifuga racemesa (Credit: J. Coddington). (C) Confiscated
Encerphalartos spp. (Credit: Eastern Cape Department of Economic Development and Formatted: Font: Italic
species to an extent that the loss such species could mean loss of health and wealth and
thus threaten the survival of humans (Barker, 2011). Biodiversity is also very significant
maintenance of the ecosystem [Source/Reference]. It also offers natural capital which is Commented [S57]: I have paraphrased this sentence,
please see if you agree or Lerato agrees with my suggestion
critical in providing ecosystem services [Source/Reference]. Most of the critically
endangered species hotspots are found in the developing countries [Source/Reference]. Commented [S58]: Adding this complete the meaning of
this sentence
Increase loss of endangered species could destabilize the economy of the developing
countries by negatively affecting tourism, which is one of their main sources of national
income [Source/Reference]. The loss of biodiversity worsens poverty similarly poverty is Commented [S59]: I have paraphrased this sentence,
please see if you agree or Lerato agrees with my suggestion
also a major threat of biodiversity (Sligenburg et al., 2009). Commented [S60]: I have paraphrased this sentence,
please see if you agree or Lerato agrees with my suggestion
The diversity of plants is also significant to humans because plants are used for different
things such as medicines, food. Plant ,diversity help to regulate climate change, provide Commented [S61]: Maybe you should introduce a
sentence which explains/link the plant as part of
endangered species, and please reference the source of
ecosystem services and most importantly, it is highly valued for its aesthetic features
such a bold statement.
(Mutia,2009Sligenburg et al., 2009). Maybe you need to explain biodiversity of plants relying on
relevant research papers/articles and authorities
According to Germishuizen and Meyer (2003), South Africa is rich in the diversity of
plants as it has got the most abundant flora in the entire world. SANBI (2017) figures
show that South Africa comprises approximately 21000 species which constitute around
8% of the worlds vascular plants. Staden and Raimono (2017) added that 2 576 species
are threatenedd. Furthermore, South Africa also has three biodiversity hotspots
(SANBI,2017). These are the areas which have high amount of species consisting of both
animals and plants which are endemic to the area. The species in these regions are
According to Taylor and Crous (2001) South Africa has a unique biodiversity hotspot
namely Cape Floristic Region. The Cape Floristic Region is one of the six plant kingdoms
located entirely within the borders of South Africa. Although Cape Floral kingdom is the
smallest of all 6 kingdoms, it has high diversity of species richness and endemism.
However, it has the highest number of threatened or endangered species in the world
(????? Portfolio Review,2004). Furthermore,South Africa is known as the third most Commented [S62]: Theres a missing operative word, e.g
Biodiversity Portfolio Review, 2004)
biodiverse country after Brazil and Indonesia [Source] and it is the only country with more Commented [S63]: Country not countries
than one biodiversity hotspot [Source]. Hence its conservation is very important not only
for South Africa but for the entire world (EThekwini Municipality, 2009).
There are other factors that contributes to the biodiversity besides overexploitation of
plants [Source]. The threats are brought by the anthropogenic factor and some are
brought by natural factors [Source]. [Please write a sentence that introduces or link the
Invasive alien species, Habitat loss and Climate change] as part of biodiversity and
overexploitation.
Illegal trading has a potential to cause the increase in the number of species that get Commented [S64]: Introduce and define Illegal trade in
context of biodiversity and endangered species
introduced into a new region which is not their natural habitat. These kind of species are
known as Invasive alien species and they are defined as non-native species introduced
Furthermore, these species pose a negative impact on the environment as it can quickly
outcompete indigenous species (Weber, 2003, Mutia ,2009). Chamier (2012) reported
that invasive alien species are the driver to the loss of biodiversity which have a potential
to cause harm to the terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystem. Alien invasive species are
known to be the second most common threat which has driven other species to extinction
(IUCN, 2017).
Habitat loss
Habitat loss is one of the main threat to biodiversity caused by human activities [Source]. Commented [S65]: The first sentence must introduce
Habitat loss by defining its meaning
Population growth leads to habitat loss because more people increase pressure on Commented [S66]: Delete which was
natural resources [Source]. Moreover, the population is growing faster thaIt n natural
resources can replace itself [Source]. Habitat loss involves the conversion of land for
other use, which include - (a) production of agricultural crops and (b) creating space for
urban development and industry (Tschakert et al., 2017). Commented [S67]: This should be one complete
sentence
Formatted: Font: Italic
Habitat loss does not only destroysdestroy the individual animals and plant species. Habit
loss also threatens long term survival of the species that were not directly targeted by
find it hard to reach other individuals for mating purposes (Sechrest and Brooks,2002)..
Climate change
Miller and Spoolman (2015) reported, climate has changed drastically over the past 3.5 Commented [S68]: Never start a sentence with AS
billion years. It has been influenced by factors such as volcanic eruptions, shifts in tectonic
plates and changes in the solar input [Source]. Recent studies [Source] have shown that
human activities are the contributors of climate change due to burning of fossil fuels
[Source] and other activities which release greenhouses gases [Source]. These
greenhouse gases have altered the atmospheric variability as they absorb the heat from
sunlight and preventing it from escaping it back into the space (IPCC, 2007).
The change in climate patterns have an impact on the terrestrial biodiversity [Source].
Longer term variability in climate as well as ecosystem health influence the shifts in
distributions of plants, pathogens, animals and even settlement [Source]. Moreover, the
weather events such as flooding and droughts directly impact the ecosystem health,
productivity availability of goods and services which is available for human use (World
Management
There are different international organizations were established specifically for the
protection wildlife and management of global trade of the species. The organizations
include CITES, WWF and IUCN to which South Africa is party to (Pandy et al.,2014).
South Africa has drafted specific goals for protecting wild life and management of trading
endangered species globally that are targeted to be achieved by 2020 [Source]. These
goals are classified as target 2, which has a national red list that contains the conservation
status of each plant [Source]. South Africa achieved and reached its target for the target
2 goals, in 2009 [Source]. Conservation status is important as it guides a wide range of Commented [S69]: See how I have broken this into three
different sentences to make it brief and on point. Please
follow this example through the document.
conservation intervention such as land-use decision making and protected area
Making the community of the aware of the biodiversity crisis is a very crucial
thereforecrucial therefore, South Africa has been involved in projects which offers
traditional healers and muthi gatherers are taught techniques to cultivate and identify
regulations, South Africa has laws which supports biodiversity conservation (Department
of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 1998). NEM: BA 10 of 2004 is a South African law
that monitor the species which have been illegally harvested species and ensure that
resources are used in a sustainable manner (Strydom and King,2009) by restricting any
activities which involves threatened or protected species, or have any product derived
from those species (NEMBA, 2015). In addition, South Africa has Protected areas which
are defined under National Environmental Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003. The act
includes special nature reserves, national parks, nature reserves and protected
environment declared under the Act (Paterson,2009). The Act declares that certain areas
must be protected for the protection of ecologically viable areas and to protect the species
DNA barcoding
DNA barcoding is a rapid, accurate and a reliable technique which is developed to help
identify species. It uses a short fragment of gene from chloroplast region in the case of Commented [S70]: This should go to the first sentence,
where I said define DNA barcoding
plants and mitochondrial region in animals. It can identify species that are not wholedoes
not come intact particularly those that , and in such cases, it would be difficult to identify
requires tiny number of samples. The advantages of this technique are thatIt it is
applicable in many ways., Ffor instance, it can be used to detect food fraud, monitor the Commented [S71]: Never start a sentence with for
instance
quality of water and others (Dudu et al., 2016) and. tTaxonomic expert is not that much
necessary to identify the species once a solid database is used (Harvig et al.,2015). DNA
barcoding proved to be successful in identifying the Encerphalatos species that are sold
illegally at the muthi market (Williamson et al., 2016). Commented [S72]: This should be the first paragraph and
should go to the section where I said define DNA barcoding
Formatted: Font: Italic, Font color: Accent 2
[Define in full (NEMBA,2015)]. Although South Africa has good regulations regarding
restrict any activities involving protected and threatened species (NEMBA,2015). Without Commented [S73]: Please be consistent, if its correctly
abbreviated like this, rather use this abbreviation
throughout the document
being able to identify species, the regulation would not be effective thus a technique like
NEMBA vs NEM:BA (No 10 of 2005) double check the
correct abbreviation and use it consistently throughout the
DNA barcoding is necessary [Source]. In this study, the species which are of conservation document
concern from NEMBAs TOPS list will be barcoded to create a library reference that can Commented [S74]: Use the correct abbreviation
Hartvig et al., (2016) reported added that correct identification for the threatened species
(CITES ) is essential for the enforcement of laws and regulation as well as future
guidance to differentiate between legal and illegal species in trade (WWF, 2006).
LIST OF
Diversity. South African National Report on the convention on Biological Diversity. Pg. Commented [S76]: Most of you intext references are not
included in your List of References.
50. Please make sure that every reference source of an intext
reference is included in your list of References
Ethekweni Municipality. (2009). Our Bio Diverse City. Available from Formatted: Line spacing: Double
(http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/development_planning_management/environ
mental_planning_climate_protection/Publications/Documents/Our%20Biodiverse%20Cit
Hartvig, I., Czako, M., Kjaer, E. D., Nielsen, LR and Theilade, I. (2015). The use of DNA
(9). Pg.2.
Lawson, K. and Vines, A. (2014). The global impacts of Illegal Wildlife Trade. The
(597). Pg.27.
Pandy, R., Jha,D.K., Thapha, N., Pokharel, B.R. and Aryal, N.K. (2014). Forensic
Wildlife Parts and their Product Identification and Individualization using DNA
Paterson, A. R. (2009). Legal framework for protected areas: South Africa. Pg.20.
K. (2009). Study on understanding the causes of biodiversity loss and the policy
South African National Biodiversity Institute. (2017). e-flora of South Africa. Available
from ( http://www.sanbi.org/biodiversity-science/foundations-biodiversity/biosystematics-
Strydom, H. A. and King, N.D. (2009). Environmental Management in South Africa. 2nd
Swingland, I. (2002). Capturing carbon and protecting biodiversity. The Royal Society.
Pg.
Taylor, J.E., Lee, S. and Crous,P.W. (2001). Biodiversity in the Cape Floral Kingdom:
Pennstate. Pg.1.
Pg. 5748-5756.
Twine, W., Moshe, D., Netshiluvhi, T. and Siphungu, V. (2003). Consumption and
semi-arid area of Limpopo province, South Africa. South African Journal of Science.
IUCN. (2017). Invasive species. Available from https://www.iucn.org/theme/species/our- Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Font: (Default)
+Body (Calibri), 11 pt
work/invasive-species) Accessed on [10 July 2017].
market for medicinal plants and plant parts on the Witswaterand, South Africa.
World Health Organization. (2017). Climate change and human change. Available from
(http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/biodiversity/en/). Accessed on [19 July Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Font: (Default)
+Body (Calibri), 11 pt
2017].
.
Method