Lecture 2 - Power System Basics

SINUSOIDAL VARIABLES
In AC circuits, the basic current and voltage

variables are considered to be sinusoidal
functions
A sinusoidal function is
magnitude
angular phase
time or
frequency angle
amplitude
ECE 333 2006 - 2015 George Gross, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, All Rights Reserved. 2
SINUSOIDAL VARIABLES
The argument of the sinusoidal function is
radians and so:
x
is expressed
in radians T 2
t
Xm
ANGULAR FREQUENCY
We can also express the argument of the
sinusoidal function in terms of the frequency f
given in Hz or cycles per second with
2 f
radians / cycle Hz
radians/s
ANGULAR FREQUENCY
The periodic sinusoidal function has a period of
T s, where
1
s/cycle T cycles/s
f
that is each cycle (or period) takes T s
We may express x t therefore as
AC SYSTEM
The current in the AC system is specified by
The use of the cosine function is rather arbitrary

since for an arbitrary angle
or equivalently
AC SYSTEM
The voltage is also sinusoidal
v t Vm cos t + v
The power is
Recall that
1
cos cos cos cos
2
POWER EXPRESSION FOR NETWORK
We are interested to evaluate the average value of
the power p t
As we consider two periodic functions, each with
the identical period T, the average value is given
by the average value over any single period

AC SYSTEM
Therefore
AC SYSTEM
where, we use the fact that the average value of
a sinusoid is 0, as the positive and negative
areas cancel out
Therefore
1
pavg Vm I m cos
2
EFFECTIVE VALUE
The effective value of a periodic variable is the
square root of the average of the squared value
of the variable
For current
EFFECTIVE VALUE
We next evaluate I
1
1 cos 2 t i
2
Im
I
2
EFFECTIVE VALUE
The value I is referred to as the r.m.s. value

The r.m.s. value of a sinusoid equals its
amplitude divided by 2
The 240-V 60-Hz voltage at which electricity is
supplied to a dryer is understood to mean that
V = 240 V
and so
Vm 240 2 339.41V
AC SYSTEM
with the angular frequency
and so we have the sinusoid
We henceforth adopt the convention of treating

the input voltage as having and we
measure all other variables with respect to the
reference voltage
r.m.s. VALUE OF A SQUARE WAVE
We consider the square wave
x t
a
t0
t
T T
2 2
T
a t 0 n 1 T t t 0 2n 1
2
x t n 1, 2 , ...
T
0 t0 2n 1 t t0 nT
2
r.m.s. VALUE OF A SQUARE WAVE
We compute the r.m.s. value of x t by evalua-
ting the average value over a cycle
1
1
t0
T
2
1 t0 T

2
1 2

x t dt
2
X a dt
2
T t0 T t0

1
a2 T 2

T 2
a

2
IDEAL RESISTOR IN AC NETWORKS
i t
+
~ R

We analyze the behavior of an ideal resistor in a
circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source
or in the terms of the r.m.s. voltage V
v t 2 V cos t
Now,
v t V
i t 2 cos t
R R
is the current through the resistor with r.m.s.
value
V
I =
R
Since there is a 0 angle phase difference
between the v t and i t sinusoids, we say that
the two sinusoids are in phase with each other

The evaluation of the average power is
In AC networks, power is always interpreted as

average power and so we drop the avg sub-
script and write
2
V
P V I I 2R
R
and P represents the average power
EXAMPLE: CUISINART TOASTER
The two-slot Cuisinart toaster uses 1,500 W of

power when plugged into a 120-V socket at 60 Hz;
the appliance is modeled as a simple resistor
We compute from
V2
P
R
the value of the resistance
V2 120 120 14, 400

R 9.6
P 1, 500 1, 500
EXAMPLE: CUISINART TOASTER
The current is
V 120
I 12.5 A
R 9.6
Now, consider a voltage spike of 125 V and so the
dissipated power becomes
V2 125 125
P 1627.6 W
R 9.6
representing an increase of 127.6 W in the toaster
consumption a rather marked 8.5 % increase
IDEALIZED CAPACITOR IN AC NETWORKS
Recall the equation of motion for a capacitor
dv
i t C
dt
~ C

For a sinusoidal voltage in an AC network
We use the identity

sin cos cos cos
2 2 2
Thus
Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor and
the current through it are
same frequency sinusoids
there is a radians shift between the two

2
waveforms
the current leads the voltage by radians

2
Let
I CV
and so
We summarize
1 AC version of Ohms Law

V I
C for capacitors
The power dissipated by the capacitor is

pt v t i t 2 V cos t 2 I cos t
2
and this simplifies to

Since the average value of a sinusoid is 0
and so for a capacitor
CAPACITOR EXAMPLE
We consider the current through a 200 F
capacitor supplied by a 120-V 60-Hz source
The voltage is given by
v t 2 120 cos t
and the current is therefore

i t 2 I cos t
2
with
IDEALIZED INDUCTOR IN AC NETWORKS
Recall the equation of motion for an inductor

di
v t L
dt
i t
+
~ v t 2 V cos t L

and so t
1
i t v d
L0
For the sinusoidal voltage
v t 2 Vcos t
we have
t
1 2V
i t 2 V cos d sin t
L0 L
We use the identity

sin cos
2
Thus
V
i t 2 cos t
L 2
Therefore, the voltage across the inductor and

the current through it are
same frequency sinusoids
there is a
radians shift between the two
2
waveforms
the current lags behind the voltage by

2
Let
1
I V
L
and so
AC version of
We summarize:
Ohms Law for
V LI inductors
The power dissipated by the inductor is

pt v t i t 2 V cos t 2 I cos t
2
and this simplifies to
Clearly
and so
Neither capacitors nor inductors consume real
power
POWER FACTOR
We generalize the expressions for resistors
capacitors and inductors for a sinusoidal
and a current
i t 2 I cos t
Now, we have shown that
for a resistor
for a capacitor

for an inductor
POWER FACTOR
but for a network with an arbitrary combination
of R, L and C components, is unknown
We also showed earlier that the average value of
power is
pavg V I cos (* )
for
v i
Power engineers define the quantity cos as the
power factor
POWER FACTOR
The expression in (* ) is general and may apply to
any circuit or circuit element, any combination of
R, L and C elements and, more importantly, any
component with sinusoidal voltage and current
The interpretation of p f is the fraction that the
real power represents of the total apparent power
used by a particular component or system

A p f EXAMPLE
A small industrial customer is supplied by a
24-kV 60-Hz source to run a 1.5-MW real power
load through a line with resistance R
We compute the ratio of the real power line
losses on the feeder line under two different p f
values
EXAMPLE ON p f
R
P 1.5 MW
+
~ v t 2 V cos t

Basic assumption: the voltage drop through R is

negligibly small
EXAMPLE ON p f
Since
P V I cos 1.5 MW
the r.m.s. value of the feeder current we compute
under p f 1
1.5 MW
I1
1
24 kV
2 MW
and also under p f 2 kA
kV
1.5 MW
I2
3
24 kV
2
EXAMPLE ON p f
The ratio of the losses is therefore

2
3

2
I1
3
2
I 1R 2 2
3
2
I2 R I 1
2
2
There are 3 times higher losses under the poor
value p f 1 than the better value p f 2

THE POWER TRIANGLE
There is an important relationship between the
apparent power S, the real power P and the
reactive power Q ; we represent this relationship
by the so-called power triangle in the complex
plane
The power triangle is drawn as follows

imaginary power VAr THE POWER TRIANGLE
apparent power VA Q VI sin

real power
P VI cos W 44
ECE 333 2006 - 2015 George Gross, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, All Rights Reserved.
THE POWER TRIANGLE
S VI
P S cos real power
Q S sin reactive power
S 2 P 2 Q2 apparent power
THE POWER TRIANGLE
For an arbitrary consumptive load
The actual power consumed by a load is the rate

at which work is done and is measured in W
The reactive power is incapable of doing work
and its average is always 0 for either a capa-
citive or an inductive element
THE POWER TRIANGLE
Power suppliers, typically, charge for the P

consumption but are impacted also by the Q
since the larger the Q the larger the line losses;
in some cases, charges are imposed on the
basis of S or take into account the p f
The presence of electric motors, which are
highly inductive loads, leads to increased losses
on transmission lines
EXAMPLE: POWER TRIANGLE
We consider a 250 V induction motor that
draws 20 A of current to generate 4.33 kW of real
power delivered to its shaft
We draw the power triangle using
EXAMPLE: POWER TRIANGLE
reactive power
Q 2.5kVAr

6
P 4.33kW active power
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
The smaller the p f , the worse the utilization of

power is; the ideal is to get as near as possible
to the perfect p f of 1.0
Sometimes, it is desirable or necessary to use
capacitors to correct the p f to offset the VArs
of the inductive elements
A p f corrective action can lead to the increased
real power delivery to the loads
EXAMPLE: POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
i ( pf < 1 ) i ( pf = 1 )
fully loaded transformer

with extra load: lagging
transformer pf
capacity
load: lagging pf correction
pf capacitor
A transformer is operating close to its kVA
rating and is used to deliver 600 kVA at a 0.75 p f
There is a 20 % forecasted growth in the real
power demand
This growth needs to be accommodated without
investing in a new transformer by installing
capacitors for p f correction

The existing situation is characterized by
p f 0.75 cos
cos 1 0.75 0.72 radians
P 600 0.75 450 kW
Q 600 0.66 397 kVAr
The forecasted situation
Pnew 450 1.2 540 kW
540
p f new 0.9
600
cos 1 0.9 0.45 radians
Qnew 600 0.435 261 kVAr
The difference between Q = 476 kVAr and
Qnew = 261 kVAr can be compensated by
capacitors
Qc 476 261 215 kVAr

reactive power
capacitor
215 kVAr
anticipated
without pf
Q = 476 kVAr
growth to
Q = 476 kVAr
correction
720kVA
Q = 397 kVAr
Q new 261 kVAr

= 0.72 = 0.45
P = 450 kW Pnew = 540 kW
90 kW
before correction with 215-kVAr correction

We can determine the capacitance of the p f

correcting capacitors
Q c V c I c V c C Vc
Qc
C
V c2
If we assume that the input voltage to the
capacitors is at 12 kV, then
215 kVAr
C 3.96 10 3 F
377 12 kV
2 2
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CAPACITORS
FOR p f CORRECTION
THE RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
In the US, residential service is typically
provided from a 4.16 kV feeder line through a
step-down transformer to the 120/240 V
household voltage
all outlets provide 120 V
some outlets provide 240 V electricity (air
conditioning, heavier duty appliances)

The provision of 240 V service is done by
grounding the center tap of the secondary
side of the transformer
using the other two ends of the windings at
the 120 V supply to obtain the 240 V
potential
v1 120 2 cos 377 t
v2 120 2 cos 377t
v1 v2 240 2 cos 377t
Analytically
v1 t 120 2 cos 377 t
v2 t 120 2 cos 377 t
120 2 cos 377 t

and therefore
v1 t v2 t 240 2 cos 377t

RESIDENTIAL LOAD EXAMPLE
We consider the three loads served by a three-
wire 120 / 240 V system with
1, 200 W at 120 V on phase A , p f 1.0

2, 400 W at 120 V on phase B , p f 1.0
4, 800 W at 240 V , p f 1.0
We wish to compute the currents in the wires
We start with the relationship
P V I cos V I
For the 4,800 W load
Note that KCL induces a current of 10 A in the
neutral leg and therefore the unbalanced load
creates a nonzero current in the neutral
This case differs from the typical balanced
conditions we encounter in which each hot leg
has current of the same magnitude and the
neutral current vanishes

THREE PHASE AC NETWORKS
Todays systems use the three phase
generators to produce electricity and
transmission lines to transport it to various
parts of the network
The interconnection of network elements into a
network is done typically using either the
delta or wye Y configuration
We examine a Yconnected generator to a
load
The phase voltages are measured with respect
to the neutral
,
where the entities on the right represent the
phasor notation for the voltages
Note that the voltages are equal in magnitude

and exactly radians from another (balanced
voltages)
Consequently,
The voltage between two-phases are typically

called line voltages; for example the line a to the
line b voltage is
and so
Now, for a balanced network, the phase voltage
r.m.s. values are equal
r.m.s. phase voltage

Therefore
We make use of the identity
So we obtain
The relationship of importance for the r.m.s. value
of line-to-line voltage relative to that of the
phase voltage V p is
Examples of typical values

service type Vp
buildings 202 V 120 V
commercial 480 V 277 V
residential 416 V 240 V
Each phase has apparent power
and so the system has apparent power
Therefore,
where is the phase angle between the phase
current and the voltage and is identical for each
phase under balanced conditions
In fact, we can show that
and is constant and such a smooth constant level

of power constitutes a key advantage of sys-
tems in contrast to where is sinusoidal
total power pa pb pc is constant
average power in pa , pb or pc
power
pa pb pc
EXAMPLE: NETWORK p f CORRECTION
The motors in a small enterprise are supplied
using a 208 V transformer
The real power demand is 80 kW with a p f = 0.5
and incurs losses of 4 kW
We compute using
so that
We also evaluate
Next consider a p f correction to 0.9 and so
Also
We also evaluate the losses under corrected pf
THE DELTA CONNECTION
The other way to connect elements in the

connection which has no neutral line
THE DELTA CONNECTION
The comparison of the key characteristics of the

two connection schemes is summarized by the
table
variable
r.m.s. current
r.m.s. voltage
power P3 3 V p I p cos

Lecture 2 - Power System Basics

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SINUSOIDAL VARIABLES

In AC circuits, the basic current and voltage

We can also express the argument of the

sinusoidal function in terms of the frequency f

given in Hz or cycles per second with

The use of the cosine function is rather arbitrary

We are interested to evaluate the average value of

As we consider two periodic functions, each with

the identical period T, the average value is given

by the average value over any single period

a sinusoid is 0, as the positive and negative

areas cancel out

The effective value of a periodic variable is the

square root of the average of the squared value

The value I is referred to as the r.m.s. value

with the angular frequency

and so we have the sinusoid

We henceforth adopt the convention of treating

or in the terms of the r.m.s. voltage V

is the current through the resistor with r.m.s.

between the v t and i t sinusoids, we say that

the two sinusoids are in phase with each other

The evaluation of the average power is

In AC networks, power is always interpreted as

The two-slot Cuisinart toaster uses 1,500 W of

V2 120 120 14, 400

Recall the equation of motion for a capacitor

For a sinusoidal voltage in an AC network

We use the identity

Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor and

the current through it are

same frequency sinusoids

there is a radians shift between the two

the current leads the voltage by radians

1 AC version of Ohms Law

The power dissipated by the capacitor is

and this simplifies to

Since the average value of a sinusoid is 0

and so for a capacitor

Recall the equation of motion for an inductor

Therefore, the voltage across the inductor and

the current lags behind the voltage by

The power dissipated by the inductor is

Neither capacitors nor inductors consume real

The expression in (* ) is general and may apply to

any circuit or circuit element, any combination of

R, L and C elements and, more importantly, any

component with sinusoidal voltage and current

The interpretation of p f is the fraction that the

real power represents of the total apparent power

used by a particular component or system

24-kV 60-Hz source to run a 1.5-MW real power

load through a line with resistance R

We compute the ratio of the real power line

losses on the feeder line under two different p f

Basic assumption: the voltage drop through R is

The ratio of the losses is therefore

There are 3 times higher losses under the poor

value p f 1 than the better value p f 2

There is an important relationship between the

apparent power S, the real power P and the

reactive power Q ; we represent this relationship

by the so-called power triangle in the complex