Earths internal heat drives volcanism.

Earths internal heat is essential in sustaining life on Earth as it drives most geological processes
including volcanism and plate tectonics. The source of this heat is attributed to leftover heat
from its formation 4.54 billion years ago as gravitational energy caused particles to accrete and
collide with each other, forming larger bodies. It includes the collision of the Earth with the
Theia which led to the formation of the moon and a differentiated Earth. Another source of
Earths internal heat is the disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside Earth such as
the radioactive decay of 238U, 232Th and 40K. Based on geophysical data and geochemical models,
scientists estimate that temperatures in the Earths core are between 5000C and 7000C.

MAGMA

Molten rocks that are found beneath Earths surface

They are less dense than the surrounding solid rock, and therefore capable of rising the
surface.
LAVA when magma emerges at the surface
Composed of the abundant elements
1. Silicon
2. Aluminum
3. Iron
4. Calcium
5. Magnesium
6. Sodium
7. potassium
8. Hydrogen
9. Oxygen
Compositional Variation of Magma in terms of oxides
1. SiO2 (most component at 45% to 75% by weight)
2. Al2O3
3. CaO
4. MgO
5. FeO
6. H2O
Dissolved gases are also present, comprising 0.2 to 3%.
It has very high temperature. The melting temperature of rocks could range from 800C
and 1400C.
VISCOSITY degree of resistance to flow. The more viscous a substance, the less fluid it
becomes.
o It depends on silica content.
o Magmas with high silica are more viscous than low-silica magmas.
o Gas content and temperature also affects the viscosity of magma.
FORMATION OF MAGMA

1. Decompression melting
melting can occur when the temperature stays the same but the pressure
decreases
usually occurs in parts of the crust called rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and in
volcanic hotspots
2. Flux melting
When volatiles or gaseous substances are added into the hot solid rocks in a
process
The water vapor or carbon dioxide will react with the rocks and weaken or break
their bonds and cause it to change from solid to liquid state.
Usually occurs in subduction zones
3. Heat Transfer Melting
It is the melting of surrounding rocks caused by very hot magma bringing in
additional heat
A very hot magma (1200C) from the upper mantle could rise and cause melting
of the rocks in the lower crust (500C) which has a lower temperature.
Occurs in rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, hotspots and subduction zones
4. Eutectic temperature
The melting temperature of the rock is lower than the melting temperature of it
its constituent minerals
5. Partial Melting
When a rock begins to melt, only certain minerals are melted.
The rock will eventually be melted completely when the temperature is high
enough.
The magma formed has a different composition than the original solid rock.
6. Fractionation
If the magma is separated from rock that has not undergone complete melting,
the magma will consists of components that melted at lower temperature and
the remaining solid rock will contain components with higher melting
temperature.
During melting, the magma that are formed first tend to be richer in silica.

VOLCANOES

Visible manifestation of the process of rock formation

It is a vent that serves as the conduit of lava or the molten rock that reaches Earths
surface.
CRATER the funnel shaped depression where materials are ejected
 ERUPTION the event when the lava is spews out of the volcano
EFFUSIVE dominated by the flow of lava and formation of fountain and lakes
- Lavas with low silica silica content are less viscous and flow more rapidly
EXPLOSIVE ejects ash and larger fragments of broken up pyroclastic materials,
forming ash clouds that eventually collapse and cover the slopes of the volcano
- Associated with lavas having high silica content and is more viscous. The
dissolved gases in the magma develop very high pressure as it rises
towards the surface.
3 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VOLCANOES ACCORDING TO ITS SHAPE
SHIELD forms very broad dome with gentle slope that covers a very wide area
- They are mostly made of alternating layers of basaltic lava and cinder
accumulation.
Ex. Volcanoes in Hawaii
STRATOVOLCANOES/COMPOSITE composed of alternating layers of lava and
pyroclastic materials
- They are generally composed of intermediate to felsic rocks and they tend
to build large and high volcanic edifice
Ex. Mt. Mayon & Mt. Pinatubo
CINDER CONE which consists of small cone formed by spattering of lava
- It is composed of cinder with mafic composition.
Ex. Binitiang Malaki located within Taal Volcano and Smith
Volcano in Babuyan Island
VARIOUS TYPE OF MATERIALS FORMED DURING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
LAVA FLOW DEPOSIT formed from effusive eruptions
PAHOEHOE lavas with smooth surface
AA lavas with very rough surface
OBSIDIAN produce pure volcanic glass from certain eruptions
PUMICE made of volcanic glass but with frothy texture characterized by lots of
open spaces caused by gas bubbles
PYROCLASTIC DEBRIS the fragmental materials of various grain size produced
by the volcano
LAPILLI are pea- to marble-size fragments of lava
VOLCANIC ASH are very fine particles composed of glass shards, crystals, and
fragments of existingrocks
TUFF the lithified volcanic ash
BOMBS the blobs of lava that are thrown into the air and develops a
streamlined and smooth shape fragments
BLOCKS larger non-streamlined chunks of lava or preexisting rocks
PYROCLASTIC FLOW DEPOSIT aggregate of pyroclastic debris that flow on the
slope of a volcano
IGNIMBRITE a pyroclastic deposit that is dominantly composed of pumice
LAHAR when the pyroclastic debris mixed water it forms muddy-like slurry
DEFORMATION

A process in which rocks change in shape, size, location, tilt, or break due to squeezing,
stretching or shearing.
Dominant process in the formation of mountain belts
Mostly happens deep within the Earth, and the products are only revealed when the
rocks are exposed due erosion.
STRESS a force applied per unit area
UNIFORM if the forces act uniformly from all directions
CONFINING the weight of overlying rocks exerts pressure
DIFFERENTIAL if the force is not equal from all directions
TENSIONAL STRESS occurs when the dominant force is directed
away from each other. It stretches the rocks, causing as elongation
parallel to the direction of stress and shortening perpendicular to
direction of stress.
o Normal faults and lineation (stretched mineral grains) as
well as thinning of crusts
COMPRESSIONAL STRESS formed when the dominant force is
directed towards each other. It squeezes the rocks causing
shortening parallel to the direction of stress and elongation
perpendicular to the stress direction.
o Reverse faults, folds and foliated (flattened) mineral grains
SHEAR STRESS develops when the two dominant force are
directed towards each other but not along the same axis. It results
to slippage and translation.
o Strike-slip faults
STRAIN resulting change in the rocks due to the different types of stress
- Change in size, shape, or volume of the rock subjected to stress
An object can become longer by STRETCHING and it can be
shorter through SHORTENING/ CONTRACTION.
SHEAR STRAIN occurs when the change in shape involves movement in
one part of an object relative to its other parts such that there is change
in shape in angles between features
ELASTIC STRAIN rocks can also temporarily change shape when
subjected to stress but can change back to its original form when the
stress is remove
3 SUCCESSIVE STAGES OF DEFORMATION (subjecting to increasing stress)
 A. ELASTIC DEFORMATION - characterized by reversible strain. Like a rubber
band, the rock returns to nearly it original size and shape when the stress
is removed.
B. DUCTILE FORMATION in which the strain is irreversible. The rock is
permanently deformed once it reaches the elastic limit.
C. Deformation is also permanent, resulting to fracture.
Rocks can be classified according to their behavior when under stress.
A. BRITTLE MATERIALS have small region of ductile behavior before
fracture but could have small or large region of elastic behavior.
- Occurs low temperature, low confining pressure, high strain rate
B. DUCTILE MATERIALS have large region of ductile behavior prior to the
stress but only small region of elastic behavior.
- Occur when there is high temperature, high confining pressure, and low
strain rate
Material behavior depends on factors such as temperature, confining pressure,
and strain rate.
The mineral composition of rocks is another factor that influences deformation.
High amount of water also tends to influence ductile deformation.
Dry rocks often behave in brittle manner. Rocks found in the upper
part of the crust behave in a brittle manner due to low
temperature and low pressure.
BRITTLE-DUCTILE TRANSITION At a depth of about 15 km below the surface,
the rocks deformed in a ductile manner due to increasing temperature and
pressure.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY branch of geology concerned with the study of rock
deformation

FAULTING OF ROCKS

Most of the structures resulting from deformation are planar structures and their
orientation can be described based on how they are positioned with respect to a
horizontal plane
STRIKE the compass direction (reckoned from the North) of the line formed by the
intersection of an inclined plane and the horizontal plane.
DIP the angle between the inclined plane and the horizontal plane in which
perpendicular to the strike
JOINTS natural cracks in the rocks produced by brittle deformation. The rocks on both
sides of a joint do not slide past each other.
- Are formed due to tensional stress in brittle rock.
 - It can form when rock cools and contracts, or when there is decrease in
pressure from overlying rocks as a result of erosion.
FAULTS are planar structures from brittle deformation but there is sliding between the
rocks
ACTIVE FAULT a fault wherein there is sliding in recent geologic times are
considered
- This fault can move again in the future and generate earthquake.
They are classified based on the movement of the rocks with respect to each
other.

HANGING WALL the block of rock on the top of the fault in an inclined fault

FOOTWALL the block of rock below of the fault in an incline plane

NORMAL FAULT formed when the hanging wall moves down with
respect to the footwall
REVERSE FAULT formed if the hanging wall moves up
THRUST FAULT a reverse fault with inclination below 35; also classified
as dip-slip fault
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT when the blocks slide past each other the fault
- 2 TYPES OF STRIKE-SLIP FAULT BASED ON RELATIVE MOVEMENT OF THE
BLOCKS
RIGHT-LATERAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT when a block on the opposite
side of the fault moves towards the right
o LEFT-LATERAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT if the movement of the blocks along the fault
plane is diagonal

FOLDING OF ROCKS

FOLDS are produced by deformation of ductile materials

- Are contortions of rock layers forming wave-like curves

PARTS OF A FOLD

HINGE LINE/ FOLD AXIS is the part of the fold where the curvature is greatest
LIMBS are the sides of the folds with least curvature
AXIAL PLANE contains fold axis of each folded layer
It can be described based on the orientations of these parts.
ANTICLINE when the limbs of the fold are inclined away from the hinge forming
an arch-like shape
SYNCLINE when the limbs are inclined toward the hinge, forming a trough-like
shape
 MONOCLINE a bend in a generally flat-lying rock layer
OVERTURNED when the axial plane is inclined and one limb is steeper than the
other
Folds that are more complex develop depending on the degree of compressional stress
applied during deformation.
TECTONIC FOLIATION this alignment of deformed and/or reoriented grains in which
often occur during metamorphism. [During ductile deformation, the original shape and
arrangement of the particles in a rock also changes. For example, quartz grains may
transform into elongated ribbons or cigar shape. Other minerals may recrystallize and
reorient themselves.

MOUNTAIN BUILDING

Mountains are formed when the deformation is principally due to tensional stresses.
This creates crustal thinning and develops rift valleys where the dominant structures
are normal faults.
UPLIFT process by which the Earths surface moves from a lower elevation to a
higher elevation. MOUNTAIN BELTS are formed.
OROGENESIS process of mountain building
Continental lithosphere has lower density and floats over the high density
and floats over high density mantle rocks in the asthenosphere. Continental
collision results into a mountain belt with thick continental crust. It shortens
the crust horizontally and thickens it vertically.
CRUSTAL ROOT thickened crust that gives the portion of continental lithosphere
enough buoyancy to support the weight of the mountain range and allows it to float
higher like iceberg floating in the sea
ISOTASY adjustment to maintain buoyancy when the very old mountain belts are
eroded, the continental lithosphere including crustal root slowly rises to compensate for
the removal of mass
EX. AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY IN EASTERNA FRICA (Ethiopia and Kenya); AND THE
BASIN AND RANGE PROVINCE (Nevada and Utah) of Western United States
HORSTS are elevated landforms, comprising the mountains, bounded by
normal faults that are inclined in opposite directions
GRABENS are valleys filled with sediments and bounded by normal faults
inclined toward each other
OROGENIC BELT active mountain belt where the igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic processes occur and produces new rocks
METAMORPHISM

The process when a rock changes its form into a new one without undergoing melting or
disintegration
This implies that the change occur in a solid state
PROTOLITH original rock undergoes mineralogical and textural changes due to
modification of its physical or chemical environment
PROCESSES
1. RECRYSTALLIZATION refer to the changes in shape and size of minerals without
changing its identity
2. PHASE CHANGE process that transforms a grain of one mineral into a grain of
another mineral having the same composition but different crystal structure.
- Ex. Quartz changes into coesite - both are SiO2
3. NEOCRYSTALLIZATION the growth of new minerals that differ from those in the
protolith. Chemical reactions digest the existing minerals to produce new minerals
sometimes with the aid of hydrothermal fluid (hot water solutions)
4. PRESSURE SOLUTION refers to the dissolution of mineral grains when a rock is
squeezed dominantly in one direction at relatively low temperature and pressure
and in the presence of water.
- The dissolved mineral migrates and precipitates elsewhere with aid of
water.
- This can cause grains to change shape shorter in one direction and
longer in the other.
5. PLASTIC DEFORMATION occurs when some minerals become flattened or
elongated without changing either the composition or crystal structure due to their
plastic behavior when exposed to high temperature and pressure.
CAUSES
Metamorphism occurs at temperatures roughly between 200C to 850C, the
temperature range between diagenesis and melting. At high temperature, atoms
vibrate rapidly, causing the chemical bonds to stretch and bend. If the bonds
break, atoms detach and move to form new bonds with other atoms. This
process leads to rearrangement of atoms within the mineral or to migration into
other minerals.
Rocks formed below 320C are low-grade metamorphic rocks, while those
formed over 500C are considered as high-grade metamorphic rocks.
Minerals with relatively open crystal structure (large spaces between atoms) are
stable near the Earths surface. When these minerals are subjected to extreme
pressure, the crystal structure becomes smaller and denser minerals form.
Metamorphism occurs at pressure of about 12 kilobars, which is about 12000
times the pressure at the surface of Earth.
 Temperature and pressure change together with increasing depth. The stability
of certain minerals and mineral assemblages depend on both temperature and
pressure condition. When the temperature or pressure changes, the mineral
becomes unstable and the atoms migrate to form new mineral.
PREFERRED MINERAL ORIENTATION
- Rocks experience differential stress or unequal stress magnitude in
different directions in the form of tension, compression, and shear. When
this occurs at high temperature and pressure, the rock will change its
shape without breaking.
- It can develop through the process of pressure solution, plastic
deformation, neocrystallization, and grain rotation.
Flat grains lie parallel to each other and elongate grains align in the same
direction resulting into a PLANAR FABRIC. This apparent layering in the rock is a
type of METAMORPHIC FOLIATION.
Metamorphism usually occurs in the presence of hydrothermal fluids.
METASOMATISM the process wherein hydrothermal fluids are involved in the
change of chemical composition of rock
TYPES
CONTACT METAMORPHISM an intruding magma can cause metamorphism
because of its high temperature and the presence of hydrothermal fluid
- The magma cools but the surrounding rock heats up.
BURIAL METAMORPHISM Metamorphism can also occur in sedimentary
basins. As sediments pile up and become thicker, the pressure increases due to
the weight, and the temperature also increases because of geothermal gradient.
Diagenesis takes place but at depths of 8 km to 15 km temperature is high
enough to cause metamorphism at upper part.
DYNAMIC/CATALASTIC METMORPHISM Faulting near the surface of the earth
causes rocks to break into angular fragments or to powder. At greater depth,
rocks behave like plastic as they are sheared during faulting because of higher
temperature. This leads to recrystallization of minerals in fault zones.
- It only involves shearing and does not require change in temperature or
pressure. It has foliation parallel to the fault.
- MYLONITE rock that is formed in the process
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM In convergent plate boundaries, large slices of
crusts slip up over other portions of the crust. Materials that were once situated
near the surface are transported at greater depths. The protolith is subjected to
higher temperature due to geothermal gradient and igneous activity. It also
experiences higher pressure due to the weight of overlying rocks. Lastly, it is also
subjected to differential stress due to plate movement. These factors lead to
change that result into foliated metamorphic rocks.
 HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM a process where the cold seawater
penetrates the crust through the faults in mid-ocean ridges is heated by the
rising magma turning it into hydrothermal fluids. These fluids react with the
existing basalt in the seafloor and produce new chlorite mineral.
SHOCK METAMORPHISM a process that the extreme compression of the shock
wave causes minerals to change its chemical structure.
- Quartz is transformed to coesite through this process.

Rock responds to stress differently depending on the pressure and temperature

(depth in Earth) and mineralogic composition of the rock.

elastic deformation: For small differential stresses, less than the yield strength,
rock deforms like a spring. It changes shape by a very small amount in response to
the stress, but the deformation is not permanent. If the stress could be reversed
the rock would return to its original shape.

brittle deformation: Near the Earth's surface rock behaves in its familiar brittle
fashion. If a differential stress is applied that is greater than the rock's yield
strength, the rock fractures. It breaks. Note: the part of the rock that didn't
break springs back to its original shape. This elastic rebound is what causes
earthquakes.

ductile deformation: Deeper than 10-20 km the enormous lithostatic stress

makes it nearly impossible to produce a fracture (crack - with space between

masses of rock) but the high temperature makes rock softer, less brittle, more

malleable. Rock undergoes plastic deformation when a differential stress is applied

that is stronger than its yield strength. It flows. This occurs in the lower

continental crust and in the mantle

How a material behaves will depend on several factors. Among them are:
Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and
move, thus materials will behave in more ductile manner. At low Temperature,
materials are brittle.

Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the formation of
fractures. At low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to fracture
sooner.

Strain rate -- Strain rate refers to the rate at which the deformation occurs
(strain divided by time). At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low
strain rates more time is available for individual atoms to move and therefore
ductile behavior is favored.

Composition -- Some minerals, like quartz, olivine, and feldspars are very brittle.
Others, like clay minerals, micas, and calcite are more ductile This is due to the
chemical bond types that hold them together. Thus, the mineralogical composition
of the rock will be a factor in determining the deformational behavior of the rock.
Another aspect is presence or absence of water. Water appears to weaken the
chemical bonds and forms films around mineral grains along which slippage can
take place. Thus wet rock tends to behave in ductile manner, while dry rocks tend
to behave in brittle manner.