GLOSSARY Action research: A method of initiating change processes, with an incremental focu: rowing the gap between the desired and actual states. Alternate hypothesis: An educated conjecture that sets the parameters ome exnects to fin mate hypothesis: Ambiguous question respondents in different wavs. Analvtiea! studv: A study thet gies to dependent variable of interest to the researcher. ANOVA: Stands for Analvsis of Variance. which tests for significant mean differences in ‘Variables among multinle groups. Applied research: Research conducted in-a partieular setting » solving an existing problem in the situation. Area sampling: Cluster ssmpling within a specified area or region: a probability sampling design Attitudinal factors: People's feelings, dispositions, and reactions toward the organization and factors in the work environment such as the work itself, co-workers, or supervision research: Research conducted 1 generate knowledge and understanding of phenomena setting) that adds to the existing body of knowledge {about organizations and management theory). Behavioral factors: Actual behavior of employees on the job, such as being late, working hard. remaining absent. or quitting work. Bins: Any error that creeps into the data. Biases can be introduced by the researcher, the respondent. the measuring instrument. the sample. and so on. Bibliography: A listing of books, articles, and other relevant materials, alphabetized according to the last name of the authors. referencing the titles of their works. and indicating where they can be located Broad problem grea; A situation where one senses a Solving. even though the specific problem is. specific objective of possible nerd for research and problem lea between two or more dependent variables and several independent variables. Case studv: The documented history of noteworthy events that have taken place in a given institution. Categorization: The process of onganizing, arranging and classifying coding units (in qualitative data analysis) Category reliability: The extent io which judges are able 10 use category deflnitions 10 classify qualitative data. Category scale: Causal analysis ‘more variables. Causal study: A research study conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships among variables. Chi-square test: A nonparametric test that establishes the independence or otherawise between ‘two nominal variables ek a single response.Cluster sampling: A z. A piobabllny sampling design in which the sainple comprises groups or chinks of elements with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity. Coding: The analytic process through which the qualitative data that you have gathered are reduced, rearranged, and integrated to form theory (compare Daia coding) Comparative seale: A scale that provides a benchmark or point of reference t ‘opinions, and the like. Comparative study: A study conducted by collecting dat from several settings or assess arrinides. Complex probability sampling: Several probability sampling designs (such as systematic and fied random), which offer an alternative to the cumbersome, simple random sampling ted! telephone interviews (CAT): Interviews in which questions are prompted ‘onto a PC monitor that is networked into the telephone system, to which respondents provide their answers. Conceptual analysis: Establishes the existence themes, or characters) in a text. s tO critetonerelated validity, which is established at the same time cence and frequency of concepts (such as words, Confidence: The probability estimate of how ‘usual accepted level of confidence in 5 Conjoint analvsis: A used importance respondents attach to attributes and the utilities they attach to specific levels of artributes. Consensus scale: A scale developed through consensus or the unanimous agreement of a pane! of judges as to the items that measure a concept, Constant sum rating scale: le where the respondents dis + ich reliance can be placed on 1 findings: the thieores around which the test was designed, Content analy: ational research method ty symbolic contents of of recorded communicati Content validity; Establishes the representatives sampling of 2 whole set of items that measures a coficept and reflects how well the dimensions and elements thereof are deleinated. Contextual factors: Factors relating to the organization under study such as the backeround and environment of the organization including its origin and purpose, size, resources, financial standing, and and he lil Control group: The group that is not exposed to any treatment in an experiment Conteniled variable: Any exogenous or extraneous variable that could contaminate the cause andveffect relationship, but the effect either matching or randomization3 instruments measuring the same concept, or by measuring the concept by two different methods, are highly correlated. Correlational analvsi Correlational Study: Criterion-related validity: That which is the individuals on a criterion thar it is expected to predict. Criterion variable: The variable of primary interest to the study, also known as the dependent variable, Cross-cultural research: Studies done across two or more cultures to understand, desierbe. ‘analyze, or predict phenomena Cross-sectional study: A research study for which data are gathered nce (stretched thou: ‘itmay be over a period of days, weeks, or months) to answer the research question. Bata coding: In quantitative research data coding involves assigning a number to the ‘participants’ responses so they can be entered into a database. Data display: Taking the reduced qualitative dam and displaying them in an organized. condensed manner. Data mining: Helps to trace pattems and relationships in the data stoved in the data warehouse Data reduction: Breaking down data into manageable pieces, Data transformation: The process of changing the original numerical repres Quantitative v Data warehouse Deductive reasoning: The colleen ofa general theory £ a specific case, i i A. forecasting method that uses 2 cautiously selected panel of expetis to a Dependent variabls Descriptive statistics: Statistics such as frequencies, which provide descriptive information about Descriptive study: A research study that describes the variables researcher. Dichotomous scale: Scale aspects of a concept. Dircetional hypothesis: An educated conjecture as to the direction of the relationship, or differences among variables, which could be positive or negative, or more or less respectively Discriminant analysis: mean, and the standard deviation a situation of interest to the ed 10 elicit a Yes’No response, or an answer to nwo different A statistical technique that help to identify the independent variables that discriminate a sealed dependent variable of interest Discriminant validitv: That which is established when two variables are theorized to by uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed empirically found be $0.Disproportionate stratified random Jampling A probability sampling design that involves a procedure in which the number of sample subjects chosen from various strata is not directly proportionate 1 Double-barreled question: Refers to the improper framing of a question that should be posed a5 WO Of More separate questions, so that the respondent can give clear and unambiguous answers. Double-blind studv: A study where neither the experimenter nor the subjects are aware as tov who is given the real treatment and who the placebo Double sampling: A probability sampling design that involves the process of collecting "information, and later us mg a subsample ofthe primary samo for more infomation Dummy variabl hare coded 0 or 1 sample subjects for a research study conducted over an extended period of rime. Editing data: The process of going over the data and ensuring that they are complete and ‘acceptable for data analysis Efficiency in sampling: Atained when the sampling design chosen either results in a cost reduction to the researcher or offers a greater degree of accuracy in terms of the sample size. Electronic questionnaire: Online questionnaire administered when a ‘lp fe computer networks Element: A single member of the Ethies: microcomputer is hooked ie populate d societal norms of behavior. ‘between two variables in some way, and needs 10 be controtled. Experimental design: A study design in which the researcher might create an artificial setting. ‘control some varishles, and manipulate the indenendent variable to establish cause-and- effect relationships. Experimental group: The group exposed to a treatment in an. ec ee cee Exploratory study: A research study w the subject un ct relationships (in. contrast to establishing cause-and-effect relationships by many variables in a Jab or a Geld setting), External consultants: Research experts ‘problems to find solutions External validity: The extent of generalizability of the resu A particular representation of the graphic scale smiling to sad. Face-to-face interview: Information gathering 1. hen bath the interviewer and interviewee meet “reads supposed t0 Factorial validity: That which indicates, through the use of factor analytic techniques, whether atest Is a pure measure of some specific factor or diField experiment: An experiment done to detect cause-and-effect relationship in the natural environment in which events normally occur. Field study: interference Fixed rating scale: See Constant sum Focus group: A group consisting of eight to ten members rar indicators Frequencies: The number of times various subcategories of a phenomenon occur, from which the percentage and cumulative percentage of anv occurrence can be caleulaied. Fundamental research: See Basic research. Funneling technique: The questioning iechnique that consists of initially asking general and broad questions. and gradually narrowing the foeus thereafter to more specific timmes. Generalizabilitv: The applicability of research findings in one setting to others. Goodness of measures: Atrests to the reliability and validity of measures. Graphic rating seale: A scale that graphically iMlustrates the responses that can be provided, rather than specifying any discrete response categories Grounded theory: A systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory fromthe data. Group videoconferencing: Video transmittal technology that enables r ‘to participate in 2 conference using video cameras and monitors. History effects: A threat to the intemal validity of the experimental results. when events unexpectedly oceur while the experiment is in progress and contaminate the cause-and~ effect reladonship. Hypothesis: A tentative empirical data, Hypothesis testing: of testing if the if: framework hold true when subjected to Sgorous Hypotheticn-deductive method pf research: A seven-step process of identifving 2 broad problem grea, defining the problem statement, developing, hypotheses, determining measures. data collection, data analvsis, and the interpretation of data. Independent samples test: Test shat is done to sez if there are significant differences in the means for two groups in the variable of jote groups of people statement that predicts what you expect to find in generated from the theoretical ‘accounts for (or explains) its variance Inductive reasoning: A process where we ‘at general conclusions. Inferential statistics: Scatistics that help 10 establish relationships among variables and draw conclusions therefrom. Inkblot tests: A motivational research technique that uses colored panems of inkblots to be interpreted by the subject Instrumentation effects: The ity in experimental designs caused changes in the measuring instrument berween the pretest and the positesem consistency reliabilit of the consistency of measure to establish that they hang together as a set. Anterjudge reliability; The degree of consistency be: qualitative) data. Internal consistency: Homogeneity of the jtems in the measur Internal consultants: Research & solutions go problems. Internal validity of vat nats : effect relationship found Interrater reliability; The consist ‘phenomenon or interpret intervening variable: A. helps in conceptualizing and explaining the influence of the coe ‘variable on the dependent variable. Interviewing: A data collection method in which the researcher asks for information verbally Intranet: the itemized rating seale: A scale that offers several categories of rn of w respondent picks 1! dudgment sampling: fh the ampling design in which nf ¢ sample subject dividual's ability to provide ype of special information needed by the researcher. Lab experiment: An experimental design set up in an artificially contrived senting w controls and manipulations are introduced to establish cause-and-effect relationship among 2 researcher. warlables of interest, Leading questions: pueshutte phrased | in such a mi answers that cl Likert scale: An interval scale that ‘40 lead the respondent jo give the weed Ean review of the published work from fi the researcher. Literature review: Th secondary Literature survey: Se: Logistic regressio nonmetric, dichotomous varia al study; A research study for which data are gathered at several points in time to answer a research question. Manipulation: How the researcher exposes the subjects to the independent variable to deter ct relationships in experimental designs. MANOVA: A statistical technique that is similar to ANOVA, with the difference that ANOVA tests ihe mean differences of more than two groups on one dependent variable, wheress MANOVA ‘tests mean differences among groups across several dependent variables simultaneously, by using sums of squares and cross-product matrices. Lon:Matehing: A. id of comtrofling deliberately spreadin; equally aero: fo nship Maturation effects: A threat validity that is a function of the biological, psychological, and other processes taking place in the respondents as a result of the passage fume. MeNemar's test: A nonparametric method used on nominal data, | the difference between wo dependent samples when not to ssesses the significance of dichowomo: Measure of central tendency; Descriptive statistics of a data set mode Measure of dispersion: The variability in a set variance, standard deviation, and the interquartile range helps in conceptualiz dependent variable. Mode: The most frequently occurring numbei Moderating variable: A variable on which the relationship hetween two other variables the moderating variable is present, the theorized relationship between contingent. That is, two the Mortality : The loss of research subje s during the course the catsse-andaeffect relationship. Motivational research: A particu i experiment. which confounds data-gathering technique directed toward surfacing information, ideas, and thoughts that are not either easily verbalized, or remain at the jevel in the respondents. multiple regression model are hi, ighly correlated. Multiple regression analvsis: A statistical technique to predict the variance in variable by regress the independent variables against i. Multistage cluster sampling: A probability sampling design th: ithe dependent at is stratified sampling of Narrative analysis: A qualitative approach that aims about ourse es and their implications for our lives Nominal scale; A scale thet categorizes individuals or objects into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups, and offers basic, categorical information on the variable of interest Sesto: ed setting: Research d scrutinise the st Nonparticipant-observer: integral part of the system.Nonprobability sampling: A sampling design in which nents in the population do not have a known or predetermined chance of being selected as sample subjects Non-response error: Exists to the extent that those who did respond to your survey are Nuisance variable: ntaminates the lationship. Null hypothesis: The conjecture that postulates no differences or no relationship between or among variables. Numerical seale: the scale. to subjective Observational survev: Collection of data by observing people or events in the work ‘environment and recording the information One sample f-test: A test that is used to test the hypothesis that the mean of the population from is equal to a comparison standard. Qne-shot studv: See Cro’ Open-ended questions: Questions that the respondent can answer in 3 free-flowing format estricting the range of choices to a set of specific alternatives suggested by tilt researcher. Operational definition: Definition of a et in measurable terms by reducing: it from level of abstraction through the delineation of its dimensions and elements. Operations research: A quantitative approach taken to analyze and solve problems of complexity. Ordinal scal not only categorizes the qualizative di: interest, but also allows for the rink-orderine of these categories Paired comparisons: Respondents choose benveen nwo objects repeated small number of object constr la ameaningful way. a tinge, with the process the same group before and after a meatment. Panel studies; Studies conducted over a period of changes made in a situation, using a panel cis as the sample base. Parallel-form reliability: Thai fom of rellab is established when responses fo two ‘comparable seis of measures iapping the same construct are highly correlated Parametric statistics: Statistics used 10 test hypotheses when the population from » sample is be tributed, Parsimonv: Efficient expl the use of a small Participant-observe ho collects observational data by becoming a member of the system Population: The enti events, or things that the researcher desires 10 investigate. io determine the effects of certain dependemt variable of interest through drawn. Posttest: AA test given to the subjects 10 measure the dependent variable after exposing them toa reammient,Precision: The degree of closeness of 1 @ population parameters, determined by the extent of the variability of the sampling distribution of the sample mean. Predictive study: A study that 8 particular situation Predictive yalidity: The ability iterion predicted for th Predictor variable: See Independent variable. given to subjects to measure dependem variable heft em 10 a treatment. Pretesting survey question: ‘Test of the understandability and appropriateness of rit, questions planned to be included in a regular survey, using 2 small number of respondents: Primary data: Data collected first-hand for subsequent analysis to find solutions 10 researched Probability sampling: The sampling design in which the elements of the population have some known chanee or probability of being selected as samnle subjects Problem definition: A precise, succinct statement of the question or issue that investigated Problem statement: Sec Problem definition. Projective methods: Ways of eliciting responses difficult to obtain, othenwise than through such means as word association, sentence completion, and thematic anperception tests problem to be Proportionate stratified random sampling: A probability sampling design in which the number of sample subjects drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the: elements in the respective strata. Pure researc Purpasivencss in research: The situation in which research is focused on solving a well- identified and defined problem, father than aimlessly looking for answers to vague Qualitative data: Deis those are not immediately quantifiable unless they are coded and ‘categorized in some way. Qualitative studv: Research involving analysis ‘ature and not readily quantifiable, Questionnaire: A preformulsed wrinen set of questions 1o which the answers, ually in rather closely delineated alternatives. which a predetermined proportion of people are descriptive in respondent records Randomization: The process of common the nuisance variables by randomly assigning members among the various exnerimental and control groups. so that the confoundin; variables are all groups dicated by the difference in he two extreme values 4Ratio scale: A scale an absolute magnitude. but also the proportion. of the differences. Recall-dependent question; Question that elicits from the respondents it involves zecall of ces from the past thal may be hazy in their memory. Reflective scale: Each item underiving ¢: ct of interes! Regression analysis: Used fare} hypo Relational analysis; Builds on conceptual anal by examining concepts in a text test to the consistency and. The repeatability of similar results when identical research is conducted at different times or in different organizational settings Research: An organized. svstematic. critical. scientific inquiry or investigation into = specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions thereto: Research proposal: A document that sets out che purpose of the study and the research design details of the investigation to be carried out by the researcher. Researcher interference: The extent with the normal course of work at the Restricted probability designs: See Rigor: The theoretical and methodological precision adhered to in conducting research. Sample: A subset or subgroup of the population Sample size: The actual number of subjects chosen characteristi Sampling: The process of selecting items ftom the population so the sample characteri ‘be genieralized to the population. Sampling involves both design choice and sample size decisions. a mmple to represent the population ‘the sampling process. ‘of mechanism by shich individual some meaningful wav. A step-by-step, logical, organized. and rigorous effort 10 solve evenisor objects are distinguished on the Scientific investigation: problems. Secondary data: Data that have already been gathered by researchers, data published in ed statistical and other joumals, and information available from any published or unpublis! Source available either within or outside the organization, all of which might be useful to the researche Selection effects: The threat to intemal validity that is a function of improper or unmatched selection of subjects for th control groups. Semantic differential scale: Usually a seven-point scale with bipolar attributes indicated at extremes: nple random sampling: A probability sampling design in which every single element! population has-a known and equal chance of being selected as.a sublect. in theSimulation: A model-building technique for assessing the possible effects of changes that might be introduced in a system. Social desirability: The respondents! need to give socially Jturally acceptable responses to the questions posed by the researcher even if they are not ie. Solomon four-group design: The experimental design that sets up two experimental groups and two contral groups, subjecting one experimental group and one control group to both the pretest and the posttest, and the other experimental group and control group 10 only the posttest Split-half reliability; The correlation coefficient between one half o concept and the other half. Stability of a measure: The ability vulnerability tocharines id thesituatiod: Standard deviatior measure of dispersion for paramemic data: the square root of che ‘variance. Standardized regression coefficients (or beta coefficients): The estimates resulting fromm a multiple regression analysis performed on variables that have heen standardized (a process whereby the variables are transformed imo variables with a mean of 0 and a standard devistion of 1). Stapel scale: A scale that measures both the direction and intensity of cept Static panel: A panel that consists of extended period of time for Statistical power (1-): The probability of of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis. Statistical regression; The threat io intemal validity that results when various group in the ‘study have been selected on the basis of their extreme (very high or very low) scores on some important variables. Stratified random sampling: A probability sampling design that first divides the population into meaningful, nonoverlapping subsets, and then randomly chooses the subjects from gach subset Structural variables: Factors related to the form and design o: ‘and positions, communie: eontrol Structured interviews: Interviews conducted by the researcher wi ques Structured observational studies: Studies in which the researcher observes and notes specific activities and behavior that have been clearly delineated as. important factors for observation. before the commencement of the study Subject: A single member of the sampl Synopsis: A brief summary of the research study Systematic sampling: A probability sampling design that Tn the population for the sample. Eetest: A stati establishes items measuring a the attributes of a ¢ same group of people serving as subjects over an the organization such as ro! d h a predetermined lst of hy choosing every ath element istical test thar able between two significant mean difference a Broun: Telephone interview; The information-gathering method by which the interviewer asks the interviewee over face, for information needed for the research. telephone, rather than faceme Subject the data collected to appropriate statistical tests. substantiate of reject the hypotheses developed for the research study, Festing effects: The distorting effects on te experimental vesulis (the posttest scores) caused by the prior sensitization, the instrument through the pretes ‘Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test that requires the respondent io develop a story around a picture, Vheoretical framework: A logically develoned, described, and explained networ associations among variables of interest to the research study Treatment: The manipulation of the independent variable in experimental designs so determine irs effects on a dependent variable of interest io the researcher. Twoewav ANOVA: tical technique that can be used to examine the effect of wo two different points Testability; The ability order to nonmetric independent variables on a single metric dependent variable. Tvpe | error (a): The probability of rejecting the sull hvnothes! when itis actually tue. Il hypothesis given that the iling Tepe 11 error (By: The probability of alismaiive hypothesis is actually rue, \Unit of analysis: The level of aggregation of the data aallecled fee alysis. Unobtrusive measures: Measurement of variables throueh data gathered from sources other than people. such 35 examination of birth and death records or count of the number of cigarette butts in the ashtray. Unrestricted probability sampling: See Simple random sampling. Unstructured interviews: Interviews conducted with the primary purpose of identifying s Important issues relevant to the problem situation, without prior preparation of a planned or predetermined sequence of questions Unstructured observational studies: Studies ‘of almost all activities and behavior that occur amticular varlubles will bé of specific imerost ip the smude Validity: Evidence that the instrument, technique. or process used to measure a concept does indeed measure the imended concept Varinble: Anything that can take on differing or varving values. Variance: Indicates the dispersion of a variable in the data set, and is obtained by subtracting the mean from each of the observations. squaring the results. summing them, and dividing the total by the number of observations: A honparamerric tes Wilcoxon signed-rank tes uséd 10 Ekamine differences between twa related samples or repeated measurements on a single sample. It is used as an alternative to a paired samples retest when the population cannot be assumed to be normally distributed, Word association; A projective method of identifying respondents’ attitudes and feelings by asking them to associate a specified word with the first thing that comes to their mind,