MOVEMENT-BASED LEARNING IN SECONDARY INSTRUMENTAL LARGE

ENSEMBLE MUSIC CLASSROOMS:

COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DALCROZE
EURHYTHMICS AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
by
Oren H. Logan

A thesis submitted to the

Colorado State University Honors Program
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for graduation as a University Honors Scholar.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my adviser Dr. Erik Johnson for continually supporting

and inspiring me in my endeavors as a music educator and Dr. Dan Goble for his mentorship and

encouragement. I would also like to thank all of my friends and family that have inspired and

influenced me to be the person I am today and have continually helped in the creation of this

project, including Linda Sweanor, Ken Logan, Hannah Lentz, Sebastian Adams, and countless

others. A huge portion of this thesis was also made possible to the contributions of Dr. David

Frego, Katrina Hedrick, and Dr. Natalie Higgins. Most of all, I would like to thank Fritz Anders

and Dr. Bonnie Jacobi for their support and continued input. This thesis only exists because of

the inspiration they have given me to pursue Dalcroze Eurhythmics and Movement-Based

Learning.

ii
 Abstract
This thesis explores the approach of movement-based learning (MBL) and its benefits to brain
development, student learning, and music education, and discusses reasons why MBL is not
included in traditional lessons or curricula in education. The science of the effects of movement
on the brain, specifically cognitive and socio-emotional brain development, and the approach of
Dalcroze Eurhythmics, are examined. In addition, interview responses of in-the-field elementary
through collegiate level teachers are included to draw connections to the research. Based on
these resources, MBL can be extremely beneficial to learning as it helps strengthen neurons,
create strong connections between different parts of the brain, increase heartrate, and regulate
neurotransmitters and neurotrophins. These factors help engage students, increase retention rates,
regulate stress responses, and help students understand and express musical concepts. This paper
also points out limitations of MBL and strategies that can be used to overcome these limitations.
The third section of this thesis provides 27 activities from this synthesis that can be used in a
secondary instrumental large music ensemble.

iii
CONTENTS
Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
I. Literature Review --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Brain-Body Connection: Brain Structure and MBL Relevance ---------------------- 2
Brain-Body Connection: Cognitive Development ------------------------------------- 4
Attention and Engagement------------------------------------------------------- 4
Brain Systems and Benefits -------------------------------------------- 5
Strategies and Applications -------------------------------------------- 6
Energizers -------------------------------------------------------- 6
Brain Breaks ----------------------------------------------------- 6
Learning and Memory ------------------------------------------------------------ 7
Brain Systems and Benefits --------------------------------------------- 8
Memory -------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Explicit and Implicit Learning --------------------------------- 10
Strategies and Applications --------------------------------------------- 12
Brain-Body Connection: Socio-Emotional Development ----------------------------- 14
Stress and Anxiety --------------------------------------------------------- 14
Strategies and Applications: Class Cohesion -------------------------- 16
Movement and Emotional Music Expression ---------------------------------- 17
Ancillary Movement ------------------------------------------------------ 17
Strategies and Applications: Dance ------------------------------------- 18
Learning with Movement in Music: Dalcroze Eurhythmics --------------------------- 19
Teaching Techniques --------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Quick Reactions ----------------------------------------------------------- 21
Associations/Dissociations ----------------------------------------------- 21
Inhibitions/Incitations ----------------------------------------------------- 22
Canons ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Follows --------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

iv
 Time-Space-Energy Relationships -------------------------------------- 23
Systemization -------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Replacement ---------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Improvisation -------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Plastique Anime ---------------------------------------------------------- 24
Activities by Concept -------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Durations and Individual Rhythms-------------------------------------- 24
Tempo ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Dynamics ------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Meter and Style ------------------------------------------------------------ 27
Phrase and Form ----------------------------------------------------------- 28
Melody and Harmony ----------------------------------------------------- 28
Overview -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
II. Using MBL in the Music Classroom: Experiences and Applications ---------------------- 31
Philosophies on MBL ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Student Development ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Cognitive ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Socio-Emotional -------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Limitations and Applied Strategies ------------------------------------------------------- 35
Teacher Limitations ---------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Student Limitations ---------------------------------------------------------------- 37
Environment Limitations ---------------------------------------------------------- 38
Applications and Effectiveness ------------------------------------------------------------ 38
Warm-up Activities ----------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Non-Locomotor Activities --------------------------------------------------------- 39
Locomotor Activities --------------------------------------------------------------- 40
III. Activities and Strategies in the Secondary Ensemble Music Classroom ----------------- 41
Class Cohesion Activities ------------------------------------------------------------------- 42

v
 Miscellaneous Activities ------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Duration Activities -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
Rhythm Activities --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
Tempo Activities ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Meter Activities ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47
Dynamics Activities ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
Melody and Harmony Activities ----------------------------------------------------------- 50
Style and Expression Activities ------------------------------------------------------------ 52
Phrase and Form Activities ----------------------------------------------------------------- 53

Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Overview of Findings ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Status and Limitations of Current Research ---------------------------------------------- 56
Future Directions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
References --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The Lateral Brain ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
Figure 2: The Medial Brain ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3

vii
 Movement-based learning (MBL) is an avenue of methodology that can be beneficial to

the field of music education. This teaching approach helps students, especially developing

adolescents, grow cognitively and socio-emotionally, which is important for students in the

music classroom. However, MBL is often left out in lesson plans and curricula in secondary

content areas outside of physical education. There are some MBL approaches to music

education, such as Dalcroze Eurhythmics, but they are primarily used in pre-school and

elementary learning. Movement-based content in secondary ensemble classrooms is far less

explored (Abril, 2011). Some have attributed this disconnect to teacher, student, and

environmental limitations new in the secondary setting, which are especially pronounced in the

large instrumental music ensemble. Movement in the classroom is often discouraged due to lack

of space and the preconceived notion that students need to become quiet, well-disciplined

listeners (MacLennan, 2015),so many teachers rely on verbal and mathematical teaching

strategies in hope of reaching students (Skoning, 2008). In order to best understand the benefits

and limitations of MBL for the purpose of this thesis, it is important to use researched literature

and the experiences of teachers in the field to answer key questions. How can this largely

unexplored avenue of education (MBL) be effective in student development? How can teachers

incorporate and adapt MBL for their classrooms, especially in the secondary instrumental large

music ensemble setting?

I. Literature Review

To answer these essential questions, scientific connections between movement and the

development of the cognitive and socio-emotional brain according to research from the last two

decades will be discussed. Cognitive and socio-emotional movement factors, such as

1
engagement, retention/memory, stress regulators, and expression will then be compared to the

philosophy and methodology of Dalcroze Eurhythmics, as an example of MBL in music

education. These elements were chosen to be included in the literature review because the first

two elements (cognitive and socio-emotional development) explain how movement can affect

learning and the brain as a whole outside of music, while the third element (Dalcroze

Eurhythmics) will help provide an elementary basis on how MBL might be applied in a

secondary instrumental large ensemble music setting.

Brain-Body Connection: Brain Structure and MBL Relevance

The brain learns by processing information acquired by the senses from the surrounding

environment and encoding it. In order to do this, the brain relies on neurons, a network of brain

cells that form connections between sensory input and the different parts of the brain (Lengel,

2010). Within this network of 100 billion neurons, scientists have divided the brain into different

areas or lobes based on the primary responsibilities of different sections of the brain. The

occipital lobe is primarily responsible for vision and the temporal lobe for hearing, memory, and

language. The frontal lobe is primarily used in creativity, judgement, problem solving and

planning, as well as for short term-memory. The parietal lobe processes higher sensory and

language functions (Jensen, 2005). The cerebellum coordinates movement and motor-skill

function (Lengel, 2010) and the pre-frontal cortex has been implicated in higher cognitive

abilities such as alertness and planning (Hall & Brier, 2007).

While these large structures (and smaller important structures such as the hippocampus

and amygdala) may appear to function separately, sensory input from actions and experiences

2
are rarely confined to just one section of the brain. For example, performing in music has often

been recognized for utilizing multiple parts of the brain as it requires the use of vision (occipital),

hearing (temporal), and creativity through improvisation and composition (frontal). Movement is

another activity that uses multiple brain systems and is often underused in the classroom setting

(Jensen, 2000).

Figure 1, The Lateral Brain. This figure illustrates
brain lobes and their relation to each other.
Science Test [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved July 10,
2017, from www.lcsd.wednet.edu
Figure 2, The Medial Brain. This figure illustrates key parts of
the brain that can only be seen in a medial view.
The Brain [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved July 10, 2017, from
http://neurosciencefundamentals.unsw.wikispaces.net/Stressing
out about Stress

While early understandings of the brain restricted movement connections to the

cerebellum, motor cortex, and parietal lobe, research from the 21st century suggests that most of

the brain is activated during movement/physical activity. Parts of the brain activated during

movement include: Pleasure-and-Reward System, Fine/Gross Motor Movement Systems,

Sympathetic Stress Response System, Circulatory and Neurovascular Systems,

Vestibulocochlear Balance System, Visual System, Sensory-Motor System, and memory systems

(Jensen, 2000). Triggering these systems (combined with neurotransmitters such as dopamine,

3
norepinephrine, serotonin, and others), engages students, encourages information processing,

allows information retention/memory, regulates mood, and allows for individual and social

emotional expression.

This is especially true for teenage students in secondary classroom settings. Hall & Brier

(2007) explain that current research has shown that neural transformation takes place during the

teen years. Parts of the brain such as the frontal lobes, parietal lobes (Jensen, 2005), and more

movement related areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex and the cerebellum, all undergo

major changes during this period of a students life (Hall & Brier, 2007). These changes are often

why teenage students have trouble staying alert, planning, and interpreting social cues. They may

also engage in inappropriate social behavior, make poor decisions, and have trouble

remembering content (Jensen, 2005 and Hall & Brier, 2007). Jensen (2005) even suggests that

the average nine-year-old can make better decisions than an adolescent going through puberty.

Teenagers brains go through a lot of changes, so it is important to keep these factors in mind

when teaching students.

Brain-Body Connection: Cognitive Development

Attention and engagement. Learning and cognitive development in the classroom first

and foremost relies on student attention and engagement. Students cannot learn or remember

information if they are not first engaged on content being presented in the classroom. Movement

is a good tool for encouraging engagement as it increases heartrate and releases

neurotransmitters that strengthen connections between neurons. Lengel (2010) even describes

4
how two of movements purposes, preparing the brain and providing brain-breaks (breaks in

instruction that allow the brain to rest and refocus), are attention based.

Brain systems and benefits. Studies show that increased heartrate (Circulatory and

Neurovascular System) allows for higher levels of arousal, which in turn increases performance

(Jensen, 2000). This is because increased heartrate increases blood flow to the brain, transporting

oxygen from the lungs that is essential for neuron connection and growth (Jensen, 2005). An

oxygen engaged brain also enhances communication between neurons so that learning can more

easily take place (Lengel, 2010). Even simple forms of movement such as standing and

stretching after a period of time can increase blood flow by as much as five to eight percent

(Jensen, 2005). In a physical education case study at Naperville Central High School west of

Chicago, Ratey (2013) also found that increasing the heartrate through exercise would increase

arousal and student engagement. In this study, a select group of freshman students were required

to take a daily morning gym period before any other class. Not only did students find themselves

more awake during the day, but they also found that their test scores and levels of attention

were higher than students not taking part in the morning gym class.

Movement also allows for the release of neurotransmitters that can encourage

engagement and attention. While neurotransmitters such as glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric

acid (GABA) determine the strength of connections between neurons, regulator

neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and dopamine help determine attentiveness and

motivation for learning. Norepinephrine amplifies signals that influence attention, perception,

motivation, and arousal, and dopamine (Pleasure and Reward System) is a movement and

attention neurotransmitter that acts as a learning reward (Ratey, 2013). These attention and

arousal providing neurotransmitters are better supplied and balanced through exercise and

5
movement. This effect can even be a stand-in for neurotransmitter regulating drugs such as

Ritalin to engage individuals. This means that movement can be a key role in grabbing the

attention of students that have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other

attention disorders in the classroom (Ratey, 2013). Students that do not move in a learning

environment, may not have the appropriate balance of neurotransmitters for engaging in the

classroom.

Strategies and Applications. Attention spans for students can rarely, if ever, last an entire

class period. Lengel (2010) suggests that individuals have attention spans that are no longer than

20 minutes, while Jensen (2005) suggests that attention spans start at five minutes in

kindergarten and only get as high as 15 minutes in secondary classrooms (18 minutes for adult

learners). In order to acquire and maintain students attention during a class period, one can use

movement in the form of energizers and brain-breaks. These applications are meant for

initializing or reinitializing attention/engagement.

Energizers. Energizers are brain-preparation movement activities that usually take place

during the beginning of class or after a large content transition (after a test or quiz for example).

These activities usually last between two and five minutes and raise blood flow, raise

epinephrine (adrenaline) levels, and reduce restlessness (Jensen, 2005). Good energizers can

include stretching, movement-based warm-up activities (reviewing, engaging, and framing

content through movement), and cross-laterals. Cross-laterals help engage the brain by forcing

both hemispheres to talk with one another. Examples of these activities include: touching

opposite feet, shoulders, or knees, or patting your head and rubbing your belly (Jensen, 2005).

Brain-breaks. Brain-breaks are movement activities that should be used as a relief

between segments of content (about every 20 minutes). These activities allow students to refocus

6
their brain, reenergize the body, and feel less overwhelmed with content. They also allow the

brain time to process recent information into long-term memory (Lengel, 2010). Brain-break

activities can include stretching and cross-laterals similar to energizers, but should be used as a

break from content and not as activities for reviewing content. Brain-break activities could

include games such as freeze dance, hacky sack, or ball passing (Lengel, 2010). Effective brain-

breaks should also incorporate a change in scenery. The brain seeks change and a change in

position and environment can help students refocus as well as associate different parts of the

classroom with different content during a given lesson (Lengel, 2010). In elementary classes, this

is often done by having students move from desks, to the floor, to the front of the room, or to

other parts of the room. In secondary classrooms, this can be done by using a brain-break to

separate in-desk work with periods of group work or station-work (different tasks to be

completed are spread around the room). A modified version of a hacky sack or ball-passing game

could allow students a brain-break while also placing them in groups, ready for the next learning

objective (Lengel, 2010).

Learning and memory. Students learn and retain information in a variety of different

ways. In his Multiple-Intelligence Theory, Howard Gardner suggests that individuals learn from

a combination of eight intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial/visual,

kinesthetic, intra-personal, inter-personal, and naturalistic (Gardner et. al, n.d.) and suggests that

there may be more intelligences out there such as existential, and pedagogical intelligence

(Gardner, n.d.). Methods that teachers use and the intelligences through which students learn

may not always coincide. Movement can provide a link between intelligences, especially

between kinesthetic and musical intelligence (Brice, 2004).

7
 Learning and using movement to explore multiple intelligences can be traced to brain

systems such as the Fine- and Gross-Motor System, the Sensory-Motor System, and the

Vestibulocochlear Balance System, as well as neurotrophins: nutrient chemical packages

(Jensen, 2005). These brain-systems can be further activated through memory lanes (different

ways the brain remembers information), utilizing implicit/explicit learning, and encouraging

play when teaching content in the classroom.

Brain systems and benefits. Humans have been using the Fine- and Gross-Motor

Movement System since they first became a species. This system (moving parts of the body,

specifically the hands, feet, and face, and their connection to the brain) was first meant as a

survival tool. It allowed humans to communicate, find food and eat. This is why so many nerve

endings, muscles, and bones are dedicated to these areas (Jensen, 2000). The brain creates

movements by sending nerve impulses to muscles and in turn, movement activates cortical areas

of the brain. This includes the cerebellum (Sensory-Motor System) which contains about 40%

of the brains neurons (Jensen, 2000). This area of the brain compares movements that are

occurring in the body with the intended movements being projected from the parietal and frontal

lobes, and makes corrections based on this comparison. The cerebellum has pathways that

connect to parts of the brain responsible for memory, attention, and spatial perception, all of

which assist in learning (Jensen, 2000).

Motor movement also encourages memory as cognitive neural connections are used more

and strengthened by movement (Ratey, 2013). The more a neural connection is used, the stronger

it will become. Stronger neural connections amount to faster and more accurate information

retention. Conversely, if a neuron is not used, it dies (Ratey, 2013). This is why repeated

exposure or practice helps one to better remember procedures or concepts. Movement allows

8
certain neural connections to be used more, resulting in better retention. As far as our brains are

concerned, if were not moving, theres no real need to learn anything (Ratey 2013). Despite

this, many classrooms still take traditional teaching approaches by requiring students to sit

during lessons, robbing them of motor stimulation.

The Vestibulocochlear Balance System is also important for cognitive learning. Next to

the inner ear and controlled by the cerebellum, parietal lobes, and frontal lobes, this system helps

individuals maintain balance, turn thinking into actions, and coordinate moves (Jensen, 2000).

Without this system, students may have trouble reading and writing, have slow reflexes, show a

lack of impulse control, and have weak memory and attention. Using movement as a means to

teach content can help students engage this part of their brain, find balance between their brain

and their body, and retain information (Jensen, 2000). Students in the secondary classroom can

especially benefit from this as they can often feel uncomfortable and out of balance due to the

physical and hormonal changes of puberty. Movement activities such as spinning, tumbling, and

rolling movements are best to stimulate this system (Jensen, 2000). If students are unable to

correctly coordinate themselves and turn thinking into action in the learning stage of a lesson,

then will they be able to apply this knowledge when they need to?

Neurotrophins (nutrient rich protein factors) also play a large part in the brains learning

and memory capability. Ratey (2013) discusses a specific factor he calls brain-derived

neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and refers to it as Miracle-Gro for the brain. A mice study at the

Institute for Brain and Aging and Dementia at the University of California, found BDNF to be

important for sustaining and growing neural branches in the brain. This was especially evident in

the hippocampus, a part of the brain that is important for learning and memory. Researchers also

found that when comparing the physical activity of mice (active mice with running wheels vs.

9
mice without any means to exercise), mice that exercised more had a greater amount of BDNF

coursing through their systems. Other studies also found that individuals were able to learn

faster with movement and exercise and that the rate of learning correlated directly with levels

of BDNF (Ratey, 2013).

Memory. Memory is what allows students to retain content. The brain stores information

in long-term memory through different channels in the brain, which Sprenger (1999) calls

memory lanes. These lanes include semantic, episodic, emotional, automatic, and procedural

memory, which moves short-term and working memory (memory available for hours obtained

through scenarios such as cramming for a test) into permanent storage. The semantic memory

lane is utilized through discussion and reading. Episodic memory refers to location memory:

remembering or picturing where you were when learning content, helps you apply context to the

learning (Jensen, 2000). Emotional memory processes emotionally charged events (Lengel,

2010) whereas automatic memory is readily accessible information. Procedural learning stores

information related to movement (Lengel, 2010), like riding a bike where one has to go through

the procedure of mounting the bike, pushing off with the foot, balancing the bike, and pedaling

(Jensen, 2000). Jensen (2000) also adds a responsive lane of memory (reflexive) and further

categorizes these memory lanes into explicit and implicit learning.

Explicit learning. Explicit learning centers on the mind and includes semantic and

episodic memory lanes, the what and where of learning and memory. Lectures, classroom

discussions, in-class reading, listening, and work-sheets are all considered explicit learning

(Jensen, 2000). Traditional school settings often employ explicit learning because students are

typically in their seats, though physical education and the arts can often go beyond this (Jensen,

10
2000). Explicit learning can be easily modified, but does not allow for learning by doing

(Jensen, 2000).

Implicit learning. Implicit learning focuses on the body and includes procedural,

emotional, and reflexive memory lanes: the how and wow of learning (Jensen, 2000). This

method of learning takes place primarily outside of our conscious awareness (Jensen, 2000). A

child that actively learns how to ride a bike will instinctively make body and balance corrections

that allows them to better ride the bike without necessarily realizing what corrections they made.

Implicit learning examples can include role-playing, simulations, complex games, model-

making, peer demonstrations, experiments, and movement (Jensen, 2000).

Both explicit and implicit learning are important and can often work together. However,

Jensen (2000) argues that implicit learning is more reliable than explicit learning because it:

allows more information to be absorbed per day, is applicable to all age groups, is efficient in

applying information from many different sources, is cross-cultural, is less susceptible to brain

diseases, helps transfer knowledge into real world applications, and strengthens the mind-body

connection (Jensen, 2000). Implicit learning also uses more of the cerebellum and its connections

to memory, attention, spatial perception, analysis, and decision making (Lengel, 2010).

Jensen (2000) provides a good example of the importance of implicit learning versus

explicit learning. If someone learned how to change a lightbulb by doing it (implicit learning)

would they still be able to remember how to do so if they havent changed one in five years?

Contrastingly, could an individual who memorized the names of the worlds five largest rivers

(explicit learning) remember their names if they havent thought about them in five years? It is

likely that the person changing the lightbulb would remember how to do so, while the person

trying to remember the names of the worlds five largest rivers, would be unable to do so

11
(Jensen, 2000). Movement is a form of implicit learning and is thus able to take advantage of all

of its benefits. While explicit learning may be necessary in the classroom, implicit learning

through movement provides additional benefits that help students remember and respond to

content being taught.

Strategies and applications. Teaching content using implicit and movement-based

activities have required more careful thought than energizers or brain-breaks. Here purposeful

movement: external body movements used as a means to accomplish a non-movement or dance

goal (Abril, 2011), needs to be used. Movement alone can help prime the brain to learn, but it

will not help students learn specific content if the reason why movement is being used is not

made clear. Movement without purpose will not be of full benefit to students (Lengel, 2010).

Incorporating movement into teaching content can also be difficult due to classroom constraints,

teacher unfamiliarity, or student discomfort. Here are some strategies for incorporating

movement:

Be prepared: Lengel (2010) suggests that it is important that both the teacher and the

students are prepared for movement-based activities. This means setting up the room

appropriately, explaining expectations, objectives, and consequences, as well as reviewing and

practicing content material, and providing time limits so that students do not get off task in their

movement (Lengel, 2010). With these guidelines, movement can effectively work as a means for

teaching content.

Start small and simple. Before using movement to embody content (musical or

otherwise), Abril (2011) suggests that it is important to start small and simple. Movement

activities should start with directive movement (planned/choreographed movement) that involves

individuals working alone or in pairs. Beginning movement should also be non-locomotor:

12
movement that takes place around the axis of the body and does not carry a person from one

place to another (Abril, 2011). These factors allow students to become familiar and comfortable

with movement before investing themselves in something that is more difficult and more

exposed (Lengel, 2010). Once students are willing to tackle more complex and exposed

movement, activities should use more creative movement (learner-driven, exploratory, and free)

and locomotor movement: movement in which a person travels through space, from one place

to another such as walking, or gliding (Abril, 2011).

Balance between play and instruction. While play and learning are often considered to

be two different things, studies show that they can work well together. Play is lifes natural

curriculum (Jensen, 2000). Animals play in order to learn how to hunt and escape predators

while humans play to learn how to engage in sports, create art, or familiarize themselves with

later career choices (like a child pretending to be a doctor). Play is an activity that allows for a

low threat, high feedback, big fun, and creative environment (Jensen, 2000). This means that

incorporating and adapting students games and activities can be beneficial to the effectiveness

of MBL.

In elementary classrooms, games such as hopscotch have been used to teach

multiplication tables (students throw bean bags on a numbered hopscotch diagram and multiply

numbers with each other as they complete the game) and games such as paddy cake have been

used to teach musical rhythm, steady beat, or rhymes. In secondary classrooms, these games

have often taken the form of dramatic plays. Students can learn about cell division by

physically creating cells (circles) in groups and addressing each stage of mitosis (cell division).

History students can reenact important historical battles or events and English students can put

on mini performances that follow one of Shakespeares plays (Lengel, 2010). Students in

13
secondary music and dance can also follow these examples by acting out historical events that a

piece of musical literature may be about, or by creating their own play/sequence of events that

interpret the meaning of a piece (Jensen, 2000). Play without the right expectations and rules,

however, can just become playing, so one must be careful to make sure that all play activities

have a set purpose and execution.

Brain-Body Connection: Socio-Emotional Development

While old understandings of the brain-body connection saw cognition, movement, and

emotions as separate compartments, new understandings realize that these three entities actually

work best together for a learning student (Jensen, 2005). Taking care of emotional needs in a

learning environment motivates students to connect with content and facilitate cognition (Jensen,

2000). Lengel (2010) also suggests that the brain prioritizes survival and emotional information

before considering learning new content information. This means that if survival and emotional

needs are hindered by student stress and anxiety, students will not be able to learn effectively

(Ratey, 2013). Social comfortability and development go hand in hand with emotional

development as students that are not comfortable with a social setting (such as performing,

moving, or solving problems in front of others) will have a hard time expressing emotions other

than fear. Movement allows students to overcome emotional and social hindrances and further

express themselves a quality that is especially important for performing arts such as music.

Stress and anxiety. Studies show that stress and anxiety are important factors in the

ability to learn (Ratey, 2013). Stress initiates the amygdala (Memory Systems) which processes

strong-emotional experiences that help the brain retain information (Jensen, 2000). In response to

14
emotion, the amygdala sends signals in the form of norepinephrine and corticotrophin releasing

factor (CRF) to the hypothalamus and pituitary glands which help stimulate the adrenal gland to

release cortisol that provides an energy surge to the brain (Jensen, 2000). The amygdala also

sends signals to the hippocampus to start recording memories (Ratey, 2013). In limited supply,

these factors help one to remember strong emotional experiences which can be very useful for

retaining information in the classroom. However, if the amygdala is stimulated repeatedly and

too much cortisol is released in the brain, then an individual can be susceptible to impaired

memory (Jensen, 2000) and anxiety: a natural reaction to a stress response that sharpens

attention in preparation for a fight or flight response (Ratey, 2013). Anxiety can make one

feel tense, jittery and short of breath, and emotionally makes one feel fear (Ratey, 2013).

When the amygdala triggers this response, all memory lanes besides emotional may be blocked.

This can sometimes be called downshifting as stress chemicals such as cortisol block

neurotransmitters from making logical connections and thus changes the brain from a higher

level of thinking, to a lower one (Sprenger, 1999).

Students can be susceptible to higher levels of stress and anxiety, especially in a music

ensemble where playing and performing for others in the classroom, at concerts, or other social

settings can cause performance anxiety (Boucher, 2011). Consequently, it is important to

regulate stress related functions in the brain. Exercise and MBL provide distractions from

anxiety-inducing emotions, interrupt the negative feedback with the body that reduces muscle

tension, and regulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and neurotrophins such as BDNF

and GABA that cement memories and keep the amygdala under control. They also positively

encourage the brain through the release of rewards such as dopamine and serotonin, and give

15
students a sense of control over their own learning which helps reduce anxiety and depression in

the classroom (Ratey, 2013).

Strategies and applications: class cohesion. While studies suggest that all forms of

movement can help students regulate their emotional needs, activities that focus on classroom

environment, social interaction, and overall comfortability are especially beneficial. Lengel

(2010) calls these activities class cohesion activities. These activities allow students to get to

know one anothers names, strengths, and personalities and allow them to feel less stressed in

the classroom environment (Lengel, 2010). Lengel (2010) suggests that these group activities

specifically be used at the beginning of the year, when students are not familiar with each other,

before tests (or perhaps stressful musical playing opportunities/performances), before breaks in

the school calendar, when students are not connecting with one-another, and regularly one to two

times a month. These activities should focus on teamwork in small groups or with the entire

class. If competition is used, it should pit students against the clock to see how many times an

objective can be completed in a certain amount of time (Lengel, 2010).

A balloon tap activity is a perfect example of a class cohesion activity. In this activity,

students form circles in small groups and try to keep a balloon in the air for as long as possible

(or for as many taps as possible). The teacher can add further details by deciding what body parts

can/cannot be used to keep the balloon in the air, how many balloons must be kept in the air at

once, whether students have to link arms while participating in the activity, or whether to impose

other limitations (Lengel, 2010). Lengel also provides an example of a whole-class activity

called a hula-hoop relay. In this activity, students link hands in a giant circle and pass a hula-

hoop all the way around the circle as fast as possible (students will have to climb through the

hula-hoop one by one) (Lengel, 2010). This activity could also be done by clap-passing: students

16
have to pass a clap all the way around the circle as fast as possible, but each student cannot clap

until the student before them has done so. These activities get students moving and help them

feel more comfortable with one another. These factors help regulate neurotransmitters and the

amygdala which allow students to control and embrace positive emotions, access higher-level

thinking, and use more memory lanes, enhancing learning capabilities. In the music classroom,

these activities can help students overcome the stress associated with playing in front of one-

another and let students tap into emotions besides fear that can be crucial for music learning and

expression.

Movement and emotional music expression. Movement allows students to overcome

and regulate stress and tension, which in turn allows students to gain emotional competence

over feelings that might otherwise overwhelm them (Jensen, 2000). This allows students the

ability to stretch their range of expression and better communicate feelings and emotions

(Jensen, 2000). This is especially shown in the use of ancillary movement (physical movements

not directly involved in the production of sound; MacLennan, 2015), and dance in performing

arts.

Ancillary movements. In musical performance, there are two types of movement that are

used: instrumental gestures and musical, or ancillary gestures (Cadoz, 2000). Ancillary gestures

are not directly involved with the sound being produced from an instrument and can include

swaying from side to side, leaning forward, and other movements that show qualities of the

music (MacLennan, 2015). Dahl & Friberg (2007) found that ancillary movement was an

effective way to communicate emotions. Participants in their study were accurately able to

distinguish emotions that the music was supposed to convey solely based on the ancillary

movements of the musician (participants were only shown visual elements of the musician or the

17
audio of the performance). This included emotions such as happiness, sadness, and anger (Dahl

& Friberg 2007). Participants were also better able to distinguish emotions from visual

movements than from audio performances. Nusseck & Wanderly (2009) found that higher levels

of movement in clarinet players performing a single musical passage correlated with higher

observer ratings of the performance. They also found that whole body movement had more effect

on observers ratings than smaller movements in the arms or torso. Movement can help students

internally cope with and understand emotion, as well as expressively communicate it with other

students and observers.

Strategies and applications: dance. Dance can be used as an effective medium for

physical musical expression, as well as a tool for encouraging ancillary movement when playing

an instrument. Sansom (2011) describes dance as a physical language that uses movement and

fun to communicate externally, but is also felt, as well as thought about, in and through the

body with purpose and intent (Samsom, 2011). Rudolf Laban determined that dance consisted

of four factors: time, space, flow, and weight. Eight different actions could be used to express

combinations of different levels of these factors: punch, slash, dab, flick, press, wring, glide, and

float (Abril, 2011).

Dance is often used as a way to physically express music, so much so that many cultures

use just one word for both music and dance (MacLennan, 2015). Krumhansl & Schenck (1997)

suggest that this relationship works because there are many parallels between music and dance

including rhythm, tempo, contour, texture, dynamics, and emotional structure. Dancers and

choreographers can take these elements of music and create parallel or oppositional movements

that express the music. In their study, Krumhansl & Schenck (1997) set out to find if dance and

music could similarly express phrases, tension, and emotions. They found that the responses and

18
reactions of dance-only and music-only groups of observers to interpretations of the tension,

emotions, and sections of a piece, were correlated despite both using completely different senses.

Dance can communicate the same emotions and feelings that music can, but through a

different medium. Students can use dance to better understand and socially communicate musical

and emotional expressiveness. In music education, teachers can choreograph dances with a piece

of music that reflect the nature of the composition. When the music is soft, students move lightly

on their feet, while more energetic passages may become heavier footed. If the music pitch gets

higher, then dance moves may call for students to make themselves taller while lower notes may

have students execute dance moves that have them closer to the ground. Specific dance moves

might even be repeated when a melody, theme, or phrase reoccurs in the music. This physical

representation of music through movement can help students better conceptualize and

emotionally express what they are hearing and what they are playing on their instruments. This

concept is often used in Dalcroze Eurhythmics (though it is often not choreographed) (Dittus,

2015).

Learning with Movement in Music: Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a movement-based learning approach to music that was

developed by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, a professor of harmony and solfege at the Conservatory in

Geneva in 1892 and later a professor in his own school, the Emile Jaques-Dalcroze Institute,

where he continued to develop and spread his ideas until his death in 1950 (Mead, 1986).

19
 Dalcroze developed his approach due to the response of

students in his class. He realized that his students were only able

to perform and perceive rhythm vertically (one note at a time)

rather than horizontally (in phrases, passages, and ideas) with a

physical feeling of timing that allows students to incorporate

dynamics and other expressive elements that contribute to the

musicality of a performance (Mead, 1986). Dalcroze believed the

reason behind his students deficits of musicianship and lack of

comfort with the music, were due to the disconnection between

the mind and the body (MacLennan, 2015). He also noticed that
students used spontaneous movements such as swaying, or
Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. (n.d.). In D.
Frego (Ed.). Retrieved July 10, 2017, from
https://www.allianceamm.org/resources/d
alcroze/

tapping of the foot as they sang (Farber & Thomsen, 2017), which helped students coordinate

with the music (Caldwell, 2012). He further studied ways in which music, movement,

cognition, and physical skills were related and realized the missing linkwas kinesthetics, the

awareness of movement (Caldwell, 1995). This encouraged him to believe that movement was

the key to reunite the body and mind, and encourage flow between them. He called his

approach: Eurhythmics, which means good-flow in Greek (Farber & Thomsen, 2017).

Through this approach, Dalcroze created movement-based musical games to teach time

concepts (tempo, tempo beat, tempo changes, and meter), energy concepts (dynamics, dynamic

changes, and articulation), and space concepts (high/low, sound/silence, melodic direction,

keys/modes, melodic steps/leaps, and tonic) (Mead, 1986). The Dalcroze approach can be and

has been applied in musicianship training across all age groups, but is most common in

elementary music due to the already playful nature of younger children and the reluctance of

20
teachers in the secondary setting (Mead, 1986). No matter the setting, Dalcroze Eurhythmic

teaching techniques can be effective ways to incorporate MBL in music learning.

Teaching techniques. In order to teach musical concepts through movement using the

Dalcroze Eurhythmics approach, it is first important to understand the different Dalcroze

teaching techniques and activities. These include quick reaction, associations/dissociation,

inhibitions/incitation, canon, follow, time-space-energy relationship, systemization, replacement,

improvisation, and Plastique Anime exercises. These techniques will be further referenced

when discussing musical concepts that can be taught through Dalcroze and MBL.

Quick reactions. Quick reactions make students think and react quickly to verbal,

aural/musical, tactile, and visual cues through movement. A verbal quick reaction is used when a

teacher uses a word such as change to have students switch between two predetermined

elements. For example, if students are moving to the right and the teacher says change they

would have to switch direction and move to the left. Aural/musical reactions can be used in the

same way, but are cued with an instrument (e.g., students change direction when the teacher

plays a trill on the piano). Visual quick reactions require students to watch the teacher. For

example, if the teacher and their students are tapping a rhythmic pattern on the palm of their

hand, and the teacher switches to a different pattern, the students would be expected to tap the

new pattern. Tactile reactions are reactions to touch; for example, students might repeat or react

to rhythmic patterns that are tapped on their backs by the teacher or other students. These

different reactions help challenge students to listen, maintain visual focus, and respond to touch

initiated concepts (Dittus, 2015).

Associations/Dissociations. In association activities, students combine multiple elements

that are the same: students might clap and walk to the same beat. In dissociation activities,

21
students combine multiple elements that are different: students may walk to a beat and sub-

divide the beat in their hands (Dittus, 2015). These activities can be useful in coordination and

understanding relationships between concepts. For example, students that can walk quarter notes

while clapping eighth notes learn that an eighth note is half of the quarter note. Being able to

multi-task between the feet and hands, or between the two hands is also useful for instrumental

playing.

Inhibitions/Incitations. In these activities, elements are added or taken away to help

students internalize concepts. For example, in a clapping/walking beat activity, a cue from the

teacher may have students stop their clapping and just focus on feet or vice versa. Students could

also be required to stop moving with the beat and pick up the beat again at the right moment.

This helps students internalize musical concepts when they arent able to rely on their body to

maintain a beat or pattern (Dittus, 2015).

Canons. Canons are a rapid memorization exercise (Dittus, 2015) that help students

work on their short-term memory. For example, the teacher might sing, tap, or play a rhythm and

students would have to follow along by repeating the teachers actions, or translating the concept

to movement. Canons can be continuous (students repeat right after the teacher) or interrupted

(students repeat the teacher after a delay) (Dittus, 2015).

Follows. In a follow exercise, a student moves in a rhythmic pattern or pulse as the

teacher follows them through improvisation on the piano or other instrument. These exercises

can help students understand nuance (e.g., dynamics, articulation, accents, and weight of music)

and how their movements can express/influence music. Activities can also be reversed where the

teacher makes changes to nuance in instrumental improvisation, and the students must reflect it

in their bodies (Dittus, 2015).

22
 Time-Space-Energy relationships. In these activities, students use changes in time,

space, and energy of movement to express musical concepts and discover how these elements

relate to one another in more detail (Dittus, 2015). For example, students may use changes in

space to represent dynamics: an energy concept. To do this, students could form a circle and

listen to a musical composition or improvisation. As the music gets louder (gains energy)

students make the circle bigger; as the music gets softer or quieter (loses energy) students make

the circle smaller (Dittus, 2015). Students can also benefit from these relationships when

learning about tempo. As students tap/clap to faster tempos or beats, they start to realize that they

need to take up less space (move their hands closer together) in order to maintain the tempo

(Dittus, 2015). Students learning an instrument may find this useful when learning how to tongue

(wind instrument) or strike something (percussion instrument) at various tempi.

Systemization. Systemizations manipulate a given subject throughout the course of a

measure, phrase, or other larger form (Dittus, 2015). For example 1-2-3-4, 2-3-4-1, 3-4-1-2,

and 4-1-2-3 is a numerical systemization that could be translated to beats of a measure (students

move with a four-beat rhythm for one measure, and on measure two they repeat the previous

measure, but start with beat two instead of one). These activities help students recognize patterns

and their variations in the context of phrases (Dittus, 2015).

Replacement. In these exercises, students replace notes and rhythms with rests in

different parts of the measure. This helps teach students awareness of how rests affect the flow of

beats (Yelin, 1994). For example, students walk to a steady beat, stepping to the quarter note. On

a cue from the teacher, students then turn one or more of the beats into rests, stopping their

movement. Rests can further be added or taken away (Yelin, 1994). This can help students

23
internalize beats as they would be expected to maintain a steady tempo, no matter how many

beats or rhythms are replaced by rests.

Improvisation. Improvised movement activities allow students to incorporate play and

creative expression (Findlay, 1971), which with proper social care, can engage, motivate, and

regulate students (Dittus, 2015). Movement improvisation can be taught through real-life

reenactments and plays which encourage spontaneous movement (Findlay, 1971). These

activities can further translate to instrumental improvisation.

Plastique Anime. Plastique Anime is a way of demonstrating music with the body

(Dittus, 2015). In these activities, students move to musical compositions or improvisations with

interpretation freedom (Dittus, 2015). Whereas other activities allow students to connect the

mind-body relationship with individual concepts (like rhythm and dynamics) these activities

allow students to connect with musical pieces or improvisations as a whole.

Activities by concept. The above Dalcroze teaching techniques are effective ways to

teach musical concepts through games and activities expressed in books such as Rhythm and

Movement: Applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics (Findlay, 1971). The following activities are

Dalcroze-based and primarily geared to the elementary level, but can be applied and adapted to

secondary music settings as each musical concept is relevant to all levels of musicianship. These

concepts include, but are not limited to: duration and individual rhythms, tempo, dynamics,

meter and style, phrase and form, and melody and harmony. These activities help teach musical

concepts as well reap the cognitive and emotional benefits of movement.

Duration and individual rhythms. Duration is an element of musical rhythm that can be

taught in a number of ways. Students can learn about note values such as whole notes, quarter

24
notes, eighth notes, and sixteenth notes by moving through space at different energy levels. For

example, students would move across the floor in a sliding motion to represent whole of half

notes, a walking motion to represent quarter notes, and a running motion to indicate eighth notes

(Findlay, 1971). A sliding motion takes up more space and uses less energy, while a running

motion takes up less space and uses more energy (more times the students move their feet),

which is the movement equivalent of whole notes and eighth notes in music. Students can learn

how to differentiate between durations through inhibition/incitation exercises. For example,

students walk to a quarter note beat, but must stop and clap eighth notes when they hear the

music change to eighth notes (Findlay, 1971). Association/Dissociation exercises, such as having

students walk and clap quarter notes, then switch to walking quarter notes and clapping eighth

notes (Dittus, 2015) can help teach students relationships between note durations (an eighth note

is half of a quarter note in duration). This can also be done through quick reaction exercises

where students have to enact smaller or larger note values at a verbal or other cue. For example,

saying one would have students clapping the original beat of quarter notes, saying two

would have students augment (double) the duration to half-notes, and saying three would have

students halve the duration (diminution) back to quarter notes (or eighth notes if this cue was

used after saying one) (Roach, 1980).

Systemizations in movement can also help students learn how durations can combine into

different rhythms and rhythm patterns (Dittus, 2015) and canons are good activities for learning

note durations and rhythms in rapid succession (Roach, 1980). Other duration activities can stem

from having students act out stories or real-life plays such as a day in spring where students

represent elements such as the slow setting of the sun, and the rapidness of rain through gliding

half-notes and running eighth notes (Findlay, 1971).

25
 Tempo. Findlay (1971) argues that movement, not counting, is the secret of developing

a real feeling for time. Time in music can be referred to as tempo: the rate of speed which a

composition is played (Findlay, 1971). Compositions of music that do not adhere to a consistent

tempo, or stray from their original tempo, can lose their meaning (Findlay, 1971). Steady tempo

can be taught through clapping or walking to a consistent beat, or through using manipulatives

such as passing an object in a circle (Roach, 1980), or bouncing a ball while saying bounce

and catch to help maintain a steady beat (Findlay, 1971). Inhibition/Incitation exercises can

also be used to teach the internalization of steady tempo; for example, students walk to a beat

until they are told to stop, but must continue the beat in their head in order to begin walking

again at the right time (say after four counts). Replacement exercises can have the same effect as

they require students to internalize beats that have been turned into rests (Yelin, 1994). Follow

exercises can be used to teach changes in tempo, such as accelerando (quickening of tempo) and

ritardando (slowing of tempo). A student could choose a tempo to walk, run, or skip to and the

teacher would accompany them by improvising on the piano. This could also be reversed to

allow the teacher to control the tempo the students must move in by changing the tempo of the

improvised music. Those following must maintain, speed up, or slow down their tempo to match

those of the leader (either the teacher or another student) (Dittus, 2015).

Students can also mimic real life situations such as carrying a really heavy bag (which

causes the students to move slower like a ritardando) or slowly walking up a steep hill and

running down the other side (Findlay, 1971), like an accelerando in music. These activities can

help develop an understanding of tempo, which can especially be important to musicians in the

secondary setting that may otherwise develop habits that cause them to rush or drag in their

performances.

26
 Dynamics. Movement reflecting dynamics can allow students to become aware of nuance

expression that can transfer to instrumental tone and coordination (Findlay, 1971). Levels of

dynamics, such as loud versus soft, can be taught by varying energy of movement. For example,

students can improvise strong movements for loud dynamics, like fortissimo, and small quiet

movements for softer dynamics like pianissimo (Findlay, 1971). Students can also mimic

animals or creatures such as giants and dwarfs to reflect these dynamic differences (Findlay,

1971) (i.e., bigger creatures have louder footsteps than smaller creatures).

Students can move through space in order to reflect changes in dynamic volume and

energy, such as crescendos and decrescendos. To do this, students can lie on the floor and slowly

rise to a standing position (associating taller position with level of volume) as the music gets

louder, and fall back down as the music gets softer (Findlay, 1971). Follow exercises (Dittus,

2015), as well as reenactments such as mimicking the development of a storm that starts as

pianissimo, climaxes with a fortissimo thunderclap and falls back to pianissimo as the rain

subsides, are also effective ways for teaching dynamic changes (Findlay, 1971).

Meter and style. Meter and articulation often contribute to the style of a musical piece.

Meter is perceived through accent, or stress of beats (Findlay, 1971). Triple meter music, like a

waltz, has an accent or stressed beat every three beats, while duple meter music, such as a march,

has one every two beats. Accented beats are usually on beat one of a measure. Meter can be

taught through embodying these stressed beats through movement. Students can start learning

about these accents by assigning heavier motions to accented beats, like hitting hands on the

floor, and softer motions to unaccented beats, like clapping or tapping in the palm of the hand

(Findlay, 1971). Students can also bounce a ball on accented beats while simply stepping

unaccented beats (Roach, 1980), or mimic a rope tugging motion where students pull on

27
accented beats and prepare to pull on unaccented beats (Findlay, 1971). Articulation can be

taught by manipulating movement energy or space to represent different styles. To mimic a

heavy or accented style of music, students can act like they are carrying heavy suitcases

(Brice, 2004) (which causes them to use heavier footsteps). Students can mimic lighter

articulations such as staccato by tip-toeing or using quick movements, and can mimic more

elegant articulations such as tenuto by using gliding motions. Follow exercises are good for this

purpose as they allow the teacher to make changes in articulation and style that students would

then have to reflect in their movement (Dittus, 2015).

Phrase and form. Phrases are musical sentences which together, structure the form of a

piece. Here, space and energy can be physically manipulated to show time. Students can use

spatial patterns, such as moving arms in an arc movement, and change patterns when a new

phrase is introduced (Findlay, 1971). This can also be done by having students walk in a straight

line for the duration of a phrase and then change their direction when they hear the phrase end

(Roach, 1980). When learning forms such as ABA, students would be expected to use the same

patterns or direction for each A section, while using different patterns in the B section (Findlay,

1971). Plastique Anime exercises are especially good for teaching these concepts as they allow

students freedom to experience/analyze subjects, structures, and characteristics that make up the

form of a composition (Dittus, 2015).

Melody and harmony. Pitch and melody are strongly felt as movement and direction

(Findlay, 1971). The body naturally wants to stretch when melody goes up and relax when

melody goes down (Findlay, 1971). Students can learn melody contour through association

exercises (Dittus, 2015), in which students grow taller as a melodic line ascends, and hunch

down as a melodic line descends (Findlay, 1971), similar to a previously mentioned dynamics

28
exercise. Whole steps, half steps, and individual pitches can be learned by having students create

a mental scale on the floor (or through using hula-hoops). In this example, students would step

intervals of the scale, by taking full steps for each whole-step, and physically stepping half-steps

for each half-step between notes mi-fa and ti-do (Roach, 1980). It would also be beneficial to

have students improvise by writing shapes or melodies on the board and then accompanying the

melody through appropriate arm, or full body movements (Findlay, 1971).

Concepts such as tonality and harmony can also be taught through movement. For

tonality, the teacher can have students change between two directions as they change between

minor and major modes on the piano (similar to a previous phrase exercise) (Roach, 1980). In

order to learn chord progressions, students can move with the nature of individual chords. The I

chord represents the tonic or resting chord in music, so students can mimic this by sitting. The V

or V7 chord is a dominant chord that naturally wants to move to tonic in music, so students can

act this out by standing with arms extended, or standing on one leg (Roach, 1980). The IV chord

naturally wants to move to the dominant V chord, so students could mimic this by standing half-

way, or kneeling (Roach, 1980).

Overview

There are many ways people and students are able to learn. The main findings of this

literature review suggest that movement can be an effective means to help students develop

cognitively and emotionally in a classroom setting, especially music. Scientific studies on the

cognitive and emotional benefits of movement, as well as music learning through movement

exemplified by Dalcroze Eurhythmics, show that MBL in a secondary music setting can be

effective.

29
 Students that learn through movement are able to benefit from a brain-body connection.

These benefits include: more effective neural connections, regulated neurotransmitter levels, and

more connections between different areas of the brain. These factors help students be more

engaged, better remember content, reduce stress, and better express themselves. This is

especially important during the adolescent years of a students life when major changes in the

brain (including development of the cerebellum and pre-frontal cortex) can cause them to have a

harder time dealing with these factors. In a music classroom, students are expected to develop

muscular control (instrumental/ancillary and/or throat muscles depending on the type of

instrument) of their instruments, play alone and with others, develop understandings of musical

concepts, and freely be able to express themselves without physical, emotional, or social

hindrances. This makes movement even more useful.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a perfect example of how MBL can work in a music classroom.

Dalcroze realized that while students (especially young children) were naturally capable and

made to move through avenues of play, that the traditional musical classroom did not take

advantage of this. Any instrument is soundless until a person pushes the keys, presses a button,

or takes a breath. So, Jaques-Dalcroze reasoned, the first instrument to be trained is the

body (Caldwell, 2012). Dalcroze pioneered techniques to teach musical concepts such as

duration, tempo, meter, and more. His approach is able to benefit from movement-initiated

cognitive and emotional development, as well as from natural movement-musical connections

through time, space, and energy to enhance learning.

As a music educator, it is important to learn new, effective ways of teaching content. If

movement is one of these avenues of effective learning, then it is important to know how it

works, as well as how one might be able to apply this in the classroom. With these

30
understandings, teachers are able to better consider MBL to teach content and better know when

activities and lesson plans are being or might be effective.

II. Using MBL in the Music Classroom: Experiences and Applications

In order to synthesize an effective approach for applying MBL in the secondary

instrumental large ensemble setting, it is first important to explore why and how individual

teachers use movement in music classrooms today. This section contains insight on the

philosophies, observed student development, limitations, strategies, and application examples of

five elementary through collegiate level teachers. Teachers interviewed include: Dr. Natalie

Higgins, Assistant Professor of Music for French horn at Columbus State University Schwob

School of Music; Dr. David Frego, President of the American Eurhythmics Society and Director

of Penn State School of Music; Fritz Anders, a graduate of The Julliard School of Music and

current Elementary Dalcroze Eurhythmics teacher in Colorado; Katrina Hedrick, former

secondary music teacher for at-risk youth in the Ignacio School District on the Southern Ute

Tribe Reservation in Colorado and current graduate student at Colorado State University; and Dr.

Bonnie Jacobi, Associate Professor of Music Education at Colorado State University. All five

teachers were interviewed in 2017: Dr. Higgins on February 20, Ms. Hedrick on July 12, Dr.

Frego on July 21, Mr. Anders on July 25, and Dr. Jacobi on August 2. All of their following

comments were taken from those interviews.

Based on the research questions presented in this thesis regarding MBLs effectiveness in student

development and MBL applications in the secondary instrumental large music ensemble,

interviewees were asked the following questions:

31
 1. When did you first become interested in movement-based learning and teaching
methods?
2. What is your philosophy on movement-based learning and how did it change your initial
teaching philosophy?
3. Have you noticed any differences in students cognitive, social, and emotional ability
levels when employing these techniques?
4. What are the most important aspects of effectively using movement in the classroom?
5. What are the limitations of movement based education and strategies to overcome them?
6. Are there ways you would approach movement based learning techniques in the
secondary large ensemble?
7. What are some non-locomotor activities that can be used that might be easily included in
a secondary ensemble classroom?

Philosophies on MBL
MBL has helped influence and define the teaching philosophies of each of these teachers.

Throughout Higgins musical career, she has found that beginning levels of music education start

with the clapping of hands the moving of feet, but later instruction does not touch on these

things. This led her to wonder: Why shouldnt we keep working on concepts that we started

on? She further discovered through watching performers and listening to music, that the best

musicians arent robotic. Through these observations, Higgins has come to believe that

movement should be used as a means of sensing music to encourage effective musical

learning.

Similarly, Frego made a comparable discovery during his time teaching elementary

children in Canada. He found that his students became antsy when they had to stay still to play

instruments or sing to songs. This led to lack of engagement and less effective learning in the

classroom. He decided to try having students move with music he played on the piano and found

that students were more engaged and responded better to the concepts he was teaching. He later

attended a Dalcroze Eurhythmics clinic and discovered a more defined approach for his lessons.

By adopting this approach, Frego has come to believe that movement involves the whole body

32
connecting the body to the brain and that students and adults are better able to engage with

music through movement.

Anders, a former dancer, discovered Dalcroze and MBL during his first year of teaching.

He noticed that when movement was used in the classroom it was often limited to marching

forward and backward, and his conviction that the body could be used for so much more led

him to Dalcroze. This has led Anders to believe that the first and finest instrument to be trained,

is the body. He argues that all feeling and emotion comes from the body first and that

instrumental and vocal performances begin with gesture of the body.

Hedrick began incorporating MBL in her philosophy for different reasons. The music

program in Ignacio included at-risk youth from low socioeconomic minority families. These

students were unable to participate in an elementary music program, and were only able to

engage in one to two semesters of music in the secondary setting. Hedrick realized that the

traditional approach to secondary music would not work here and began utilizing movement as a

way to reach her students. Through this experience, Hedrick has come to believe that movement

is effective in creating accepting learning environments, personally meaningful, student-led

experiences, and student understanding of musical intent. Hedrick further believes that MBL

best serves as a bridge between the different intelligences as explained by Howard Gardner.

Jacobi discovered Dalcroze during her time teaching elementary through collegiate level

students. She has come to believe that Eurhythmics, combined with the other two components of

Dalcroze: improvisation and solfege rythmique, provides a completely comprehensive approach

to music education. She further believes that Dalcroze and MBL provide a teaching approach

based on discovery which helps balance play and teaching content through subconscious

learning. The four essential goals of Dalcroze: attention, concentration, social integration, and

33
nuance, help encourage this. With her comprehensive schooling and certification in both Kodly

and Dalcroze, Jacobi continues to teach multiple approaches and applications of MBL to

undergraduate students at CSU.

Student Development
Cognitive Development. These teachers have noticed cognitive benefits of movement

that agree with research discussed in the literature review. Higgins has observed that movement

engages all of the senses. Anders calls this a holistic awareness and has further noticed that

students are better able to sustain attention and concentration because of this. Jacobi believes that

students are more attentive and able to concentrate because it is impossible not to pay attention

in a movement activity. According to Frego, movement also combines the three learning

modalities: aural, kinesthetic, and visual. It also seems to encourage student responsibility,

clarity and precision of musical understanding, and awareness of musicality (F. Anders, personal

communication). These changes in student cognitive ability can be attributed to engagement of

the circulatory and motor systems that create neural connections between areas of the brain, as

well as prime memory for information retention. These factors allow students to stay engaged as

well as retain more information, allowing them to reach higher order thinking skills (F.

Anders, personal communication).

Socio-Emotional. Movement supplies a bridge for students to express themselves

emotionally (K. Hedrick, personal communication). A number of times Fregos students

communicated that they felt emotionally and spiritually changed because of their experiences in

expression through movement. Similarly, Anders has noticed joy and greater social integration of

his students using Dalcroze and MBL approaches. This is especially noticeable during group

34
activities that engage students in higher levels of problem solving activities (B. Jacobi, personal

communication).

Movement can also be used as a therapeutic tool. Hedrick recalled a student of hers

named Ricky. This student was hyperactive and likely had ADHD. Because of this, the other

students in the class thought Ricky was not as competent or stupid causing Ricky emotional

distress. Movement showed Ricky that there were ways that he could learn music that

accommodated him (K. Hedrick, personal communication). Frego has also observed benefits in

managing student behavior and reaching out to students, especially those with ADD or ADHD.

Students that communicate with one another through movement (such as pulsing with the beat

during a musical passage in an ensemble) will also create a sense of team mentality and group

comfort (N. Higgins, personal communication). These socio-emotional changes may very well

be caused by movements effect on the amygdala and the regulation of neurotransmitters which

help reduce stress and social anxiety, giving students more confidence and freedom to express

themselves.

Limitations and Applied Strategies

While these teachers agree on the benefits of MBL and why it should be used in the

music classroom, they also agree that there are limitations that can make MBL ineffective due to

the teacher, the student, or the environment. They also offer strategies that can be helpful in

overcoming these limitations.

Teacher Limitations. Teacher imposed limitations can be the biggest inhibitors of MBL

effectiveness, for the weakness of the teacher will be the weakness of the student (F. Anders,

personal communication). Teachers who prefer traditional avenues of teaching or are resistant to

35
change may not spend enough time or effort on MBL to make it effective (K. Hedrick, personal

communication). Often times, teachers will be willing to do a fun movement activity after a

concert, before a break, or during the first few days of the term, but this is not enough for MBL

to make a difference in students education (D. Frego, personal communication). Teachers can

also misunderstand movement with a purpose. While games such as Let Us Chase the

Squirrel can get students moving, it has no musical purpose other than to give students a game

to play while they sing a song (D. Frego, personal communication). Movement in the form of

play can help prime and engage the brain, but movement with purpose has the added benefit of

being able to teach musical concepts. Teacher improvisation can also serve as a limiting factor.

Often times, teachers will be uncomfortable improvising on the piano, and will resort to playing

recordings for students to move to. This is less effective because improvisation with a piano can

be changed to accommodate students needs, input, or reactions, while a recording cannot (D.

Frego, personal communication).

To overcome these limitations, teachers should consider attending one-week training

courses on Dalcroze Eurhythmics to learn how to approach improvisation on the piano or other

instruments, and learn how to give movement purpose and relevance in teaching musical

concepts such as dynamics, articulation, or durations (D. Frego, personal communication). Day

or week-long sessions are often held at universities across the country or during annual

conferences such as the Colorado Music Educators Association (CMEA) conference. Teachers

can also consider getting certified in Dalcroze Eurhythmics (B. Jacobi, personal communication).

This further allows teachers to become more comfortable with using MBL, a new-school

mentality that may be mysterious to more traditional music educators (N. Higgins, personal

communication).

36
 Student Limitations. In MBL, students must allow themselves to be vulnerable which

inevitably makes them reluctant to engage in movement activities (F. Anders, personal

communication). While some students may latch on to movement activities right away, others

will fight it (K. Hedrick, personal communication). Movement activities, especially locomotor

activities that are more involved and exposed, can cause stress to students. Students who are

afraid of embarrassing themselves will not participate in MBL activities, or will not be able to

fully benefit from them.

To overcome these limitations, teachers should start small by using movement in

exercises such as stretching and breathing that are useful for teaching body awareness and air

support. Teachers should try and incorporate silly movements, such as acting like an

elephants trunk to simulate the direction of a melodic line (K. Hedrick, personal

communication), and/or movements that students are familiar with, such as walking or

mimicking the movement of texting (F. Anders, personal communication). Teachers should also

start by having students focus on individual elements of movement rather than entire

movement/musical passages. For example, one could have students focus just on the breath or

movement that first engages a piece or dance rather than focusing on the music or movement of

the entire first passage (K. Hedrick, personal communication). Always give concise directions

and never give more than one challenge or change at a time (F. Anders, personal

communication).

Team building activities that have students working together, or activities that use music

that students are more familiar with, such as pop songs, can also build student trust and

encourage student learning (N. Higgins, personal communication). Establishing a routine,

(letting students know what to expect) and giving students some creative control over how they

37
are learning with movement, can further make students feel more comfortable (K. Hedrick,

personal communication).

Environmental Limitations. While teacher and student limitations are a big reason why

MBL isnt used regularly in the music classroom, environmental limitations also contribute.

Room size and space availability can often make locomotor or group movement activities

difficult to execute. Using non-locomotor movement activities that students can do in their seats

(such as conducting) can help accommodate this limitation (D. Frego, personal communication).

Pressure to perform is a more challenging environmental limitation. MBL activities focus

on the process of learning music rather than the product that is performing music. Because

performances are what most administrators, parents, and other teachers expect of music

programs, it can be difficult to sacrifice time spent on musical performance for process learning

methods such as movement, despite its benefits (K. Hedrick, personal communication). Higgins

believes that teachers should balance the time they spend on process- focused activities (such

as movement) with product-based activities (such as playing through a piece). This balance will

provide a comprehensive learning experience that will help all students, especially those that are

less keen to participate in MBL activities (N. Higgins, personal communication). Teachers

wanting to employ MBL should also consider pulling administrators aside to explain the benefits

of MBL by presenting research or showing certification. Many administrators appear to be

unwilling to incorporate MBL approaches, mainly because they dont understand it yet (B.

Jacobi, personal communication).

Applications
Warm-up Activities. Warm-up activities are meant to wake up and engage the brain, and

also introduce students to the main concepts of the days lesson. Jacobi argues that one of the

38
main ways Dalcroze can be effective in the secondary setting, is by starting a class with

Eurhythmics. This is especially true as sitting in a chair could perhaps be categorized as

torturous for adolescents and their developing bodies and brain (B. Jacobi, personal

communication). Frego suggests that MBL warm-ups and introductory activities should focus on

movement response to what students are hearing. While students are entering the classroom they

might walk to a beat or conduct a meter that the teacher is playing at the piano, that will prepare

them for a certain tempo or meter that will be used in the rest of the lesson, or in a piece of music

(F. Anders, personal communication). Students can also tap rhythms on their legs or with their

hands as a warm-up to prepare for rhythmic passages in a score of music (D. Frego, personal

communication).

Students can use their body to act as a visual and kinesthetic reference during breathing

warm-ups by pushing their hand in front of them while they exhale and bring their hand closer to

their body when they inhale (N. Higgins, personal communication). Students can also use their

entire body as a reference tool in tone-row (series/sets of non-repetitive pitches) or melodic

warm-ups where students step and leap forward and backward as solfege is sung, or intervals are

played on the piano (F. Anders, personal communication and B. Jacobi, personal

communication). These activities might only take a couple of minutes, but they will help engage

students and give them kinesthetic representations of what they are about to do on their

instruments, with their voice, or with further movement activities.

Non-Locomotor Activities. Non-locomotor activities are movement activities that stay

in place, around the axis of the body. These activities are useful because they help teach concepts

in a beneficial way, but are also easy to implement in a setting where students are unable to

move around fully due to constraints in available space (like when students are sitting down in an

39
ensemble set-up with their instruments out). Conducting in-place to a piece of music is one of

these activities that can be used for teaching meter, tempo, dynamics, style, and gesture (F.

Anders, personal communication). Activities that involve clapping or using drumsticks (N.

Higgins, personal communication) or tapping on a neighbors hands can be of further benefit for

teaching rhythms before they have to be sung or played on an instrument (D. Frego, personal

communication). Non-locomotor activities can also include embodying real-world

applications. For example, students can pretend like they are picking sunflower petals to get a

visual and kinesthetic reference on what a staccato articulation should look and feel like (N.

Higgins, personal communication). Jacobi also suggests that activities involving sight-singing,

literacy, and building of the ear for even four minutes a day, serves as a second way to make

Dalcroze effective in the secondary setting. Further activities can have students standing up when

they hear a specific musical component (like an ostinato, melody, or rhythm) and sit back down

when they can no longer hear it (K. Hedrick, personal communication).

Locomotor Activities. Locomotor activities are full-body activities that involve moving

around the room. These activities allow students to express and conceptualize musical concepts

through space. They can be extremely beneficial, but are harder to implement into daily lessons

due to environmental constraints. Students can learn about resistance and intensity (important for

the musicality of low-notes) by pairing up, joining hands, and taking turns pushing one-another

across the room. They can also master phrase musicality by moving with a passage of music and

showing the build-up and climax of a phrase, which gives students a representation of what the

music should sound like as they play it. Anders further suggests teaching the concepts of crucis

(the release of energy usually on a downbeat or climax), metacrucis (the follow-through after a

crucis), and anacrucis (the buildup of energy beforea crucis). Students can learn about the form

40
and direction of a piece of repertoire by choreographing dance routines (K. Hedrick, personal

communication) or engaging in Plastique Anime activities (a third way of making Dalcroze

effective in the secondary setting) (B. Jacobi, personal communication). They can further pair-up

for this purpose, where one student plays a piece of music and the other student moves with what

is being played. Students can also improvise music to how a student is moving (K. Hedrick,

personal communication). Using manipulatives such as bouncing/tossing a ball, or pulling on a

rubber-band/elastic tie can also be effective ways to use locomotor movement to teach concepts

such as steady beat, rhythm, coordination, phrasing, and tension (D. Frego, personal

communication).

III. Activities and Strategies in the Secondary Instrumental Large Ensemble Music
Classroom

This section contains a number of activities sorted by musical concept that can be used in

the secondary instrumental large ensemble. For each concept, there are one to two activities that

can be more easily implemented as they primarily involve non-locomotor movement, or allow

students to stay in their approximate space. There is also one activity per concept that involves

locomotor movement that is very beneficial to students, but might only be used on occasion as

teachers may need to rearrange the room, or rent gym space to execute it. These activities should

only be used once students are more comfortable with MBL. Many of these activities also

require students to put down their instruments, so it is important to establish expectations to best

avoid injury or instrument damage. Activities include examples reported earlier in this work (so

they can be described in more detail), adapted examples from sources such as Findlay (1971),

Lengel (2010), Fritz Anders, David Frego, Natalie Higgins, and Katrina Hedrick, as well as

41
original examples created for the purpose of this paper. Activities can be simplified, intensified,

and otherwise adapted by the reader as they see fit, as long as the guidelines and strategies for

effective movement mentioned in this paper (and elsewhere) are taken into account. Note: TSE

refers to Time-Space-Energy

Class Cohesion Activities

#1 Balloon Tap Credit: Dr. Erik Johnson, Lengel (2010)
This activity should be used when students are able to move around the room, and requires
balloons.
In this activity, students tap a balloon and try to keep it in the air for as long as possible. Begin
by splitting the classroom into groups consisting of four to five people each. Give each group a
balloon and challenge them to keep it in the air for as long as possible (the group that goes the
longest or has the most taps at the end of a time period wins). For the first round, allow students
to use any part of their body. As rounds progress, make the activity harder by limiting what body
parts students can use. For example, limit students to just their legs and feet, limit them to just
their head, or limit them to using only the air from their lungs. You can also introduce more
balloons to each group or require students to stay in a circle with arms linked while participating
in the activity.
Purpose: This activity allows students the opportunity to work together while engaging in a fun
game. It helps train communication between students which can help students feel more
comfortable with each other and more willing to work together in ensemble settings. This can be
especially useful for leadership teams such as marching band section coaches.

#2 Pass the Clap Credit: Dr. Erik Johnson, Lengel (2010)

For this activity, students need to be able to stand in one big circle in the room.
In this activity, students attempt to pass a clap around the room as quickly as possible. Begin by
forming one giant circle with the ensemble. Have students clap one after the other clockwise
around the circle as fast as they can (they can only clap once the person before them has
clapped). Time how long it takes and challenge students to become faster. This can also be done
with tactile movement in which students tap on each others shoulders around the circle as fast as
they can.
Purpose: This activity promotes teamwork and group communication which are useful for
building student trust and leadership skills. It also requires students to think and react quickly,
which are beneficial skills when playing music, especially fast passages.

42
Miscellaneous Activities
#1 Stretching Credit: numerous sources
Stretching can be best used when students are standing up, or are traveling between
activities/locations.
There are many ways to approach stretching in the classroom. Generally, students should start
with stretching using their gross-motor systems (large muscle groups) and end with stretching
small muscles in the hands and feet (fine-motor system). It is also important to involve cross-
lateral stretching that helps promote communication between different hemispheres of the brain.
Purpose: Stretching helps engage the brain as well as prepare students for movement activities.
Stretching can further work well as an energizer or brain-break activity.

#2 Thunderclap Credit: Findlay (1971)

This exercise can be done when students are in their seats.
This exercise touches on the concept of dynamics, but also works as a fun class cohesion activity
where everyone works together to mimic the sounds of a storm. Begin by teaching students four
different movements: rubbing hands together, snapping fingers, patting legs, and stomping on the
ground. These actions go from softest to loudest. Now, have students recreate the progression of
a thunderstorm passing overhead. First, have students rub their hands together (the wind before a
storm), then slowly point to students (in a wave motion) to have them transition to snapping
(individual raindrops falling on the ground). Next, have students transition to rapidly patting
their legs (lots of rain falling at once). Once the volume of the ensemble is loud enough, have
students stomp on the floor once every time you cue them (not continuous stomping): this
simulates thunder. Finally, go backwards through the movements until the storm dies away.
Purpose: This is a fun class cohesion activity, but it also teaches crescendo, decrescendo, and
climax (thunder). This can also help students better understand the gradual dynamics of a
programmatic piece, where individual dynamics may fluctuate, but there is a definitive decrease
or increase of dynamics over multiple sections.

#3 Dramatic Play Credit: Lengel (2010)

This activity is best used when students are able to move about the room.
In this activity, students recreate the story of a piece through play-acting and dance. First, select
a piece of music that tells a story. The students can then mimic the story or create their own story
to match the music. Assign students characters or elements from the story (or have them create
their own characters that make sense with the music). Then, have the students act out each
character and event of the story that pertains to the music (this can include acting and simple

43
dialogue or dance). Pieces written about historical events, or for plays or operas, can be
especially useful for this activity.
Purpose: This activity helps provide students referential or historical context to the music they
are playing. Students that are more aware of what characters/elements different themes,
melodies, or instruments represent in a piece of music, are better able to approach a piece with
musicality.

Duration Activities
#1 TSE Ensemble Clapping Credit: Fritz Anders
This activity can be used when students are sitting or standing.
In this activity, students clap to learn about the time, space, and energy required for different
note durations. First, have students clap with two fingers in the palm of their hand to a slow and
steady quarter-note beat (you can start with a metronome, but students should be able to
internalize this as an end-goal). Next, introduce half-notes and have students focus on the
continuous flow between notes. Introduce whole notes next and have students create an outward
circular motion with their hands between each whole note. Do they notice how much space and
energy they have to use in order to avoid rushing? Next, introduce eighth notes (students clap
with two fingers but use up less space and more energy) and 16th notes (students clap on their left
hand with the thumb and pinky of their right hand by rotating their wrist back and forth). Have
each section clap a different duration while keeping with a steady tempo. You can also
incorporate a quick reaction activity, by having them switch to smaller subdivisions or larger
macro beats at a visual or aural cue. After this activity, have students associate the space and
energy needed for each duration in their hands, with the space and energy needed to tongue,
bow, or otherwise articulate notes.
Purpose: This activity is useful for teaching the association between different durations and the
space and energy required to express each. This is especially important in beginning instrumental
secondary students. Students can often fail to realize that playing shorter notes requires less
space and more energy of the tongue or hand. Giving students a visual and kinesthetic
representation can help students execute different durations on their instruments without
speeding up or slowing down.

#2 Duration Association Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity works best when students are able to move around the room.
In this activity, students move around the room clapping and stepping to different durations and
subdivisions. Begin by having students create a circle in the room. Choose a direction for
students to move in (clockwise/counter-clockwise) and have them walk and clap to quarter notes.
Next, have students clap different durations than they are stepping with their feet. Say hands-

44
hip to have students switch to the next subdivision (clap eighth notes instead of quarter notes)
and say hands-hop to have students move to half-notes or longer durations. In order to have
students change the stepping durations, say feet-hip or feet-hop. Furthermore, have students
switch clapping durations with stepping durations by saying change.
Purpose: This activity not only teaches the relationship between durations and their subdivisions
(useful for beginning secondary instrumentalists), but also teaches students the ability to multi-
task between different parts of their body. This can be especially useful for percussionists that
need to simultaneously play with multiple body parts, or for marching band students that need to
learn how to march and play at the same time.

Rhythm Activities
#1 Rhythmic Systemization Credit: Dittus (2015)
This activity can be done while students are in their seats.
In this activity, students learn new rhythms and rhythm combinations by clapping
systemizations. Begin by writing a four measure pattern (sixteen beats) on the board that uses
rhythms that students are learning, and those that they already know. Have them clap the pattern
starting on beat one. Next, have students clap the pattern again, but take away a beat from both
ends of the pattern (students start on beat two of the first measure, and end on beat three of the
last measure). Continue to do this without giving time for students to calculate where the next
pattern will start. Once you take away every beat but two, you can add beats back. You can also
speed up the tempo or start in different places to make this exercise harder. Students can also use
their feet instead of their hands. Once students are able to clap the systemization, have them play
it on their instruments.
Purpose: This activity gives students the opportunity to learn new rhythms in context with other
rhythms. Clapping through a four-bar phrase can show how different rhythms feel and
systemizations help give students more content and more practice within one four-bar phrase.
This can be particularly useful for teaching students how to sight-read new rhythms in context.

#2 Rhythm Cards Credit: numerous sources

This activity can be done while students are sitting in their seats.
In this exercise, students clap to a progression of rhythm cards. First, construct a number of
rhythm cards (sheets of paper) that include rhythms you are teaching your students as well as
other rhythms including rests. These cards should be big enough for the entire ensemble to see
(or you can do this in groups using smaller sheets of paper). Slowly flip through the cards and

45
have your students follow along by clapping their hands, or tapping two fingers into one of their
palms. At first, switch to the next card when students reach beat four of the current card, then
switch at beat three, beat two, and finally beat one (this makes students read further ahead than
where they are playing/clapping). Once students are comfortable clapping/tapping in this
exercise, have them repeat this activity on their instruments. Students can also repeat this activity
using their feet instead of their hands.
Purpose: This activity uses movement to help students practice anticipating rhythms, which can
be extremely useful when reading music. Students that are able to stay at least one measure
ahead of where they are playing in a piece of music will be better able to create flow between
measures and phrases. This also gives students a chance to practice reading rhythms before
incorporating them on their instruments.

#3 Rhythm and Arrhythmic Dance Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity is best executed when students can move around the space near them.
In this activity, students create complimentary rhythmic and arrhythmic (non-rhythmic) musical
and movement patterns. Begin by separating students into pairs. Have one student play a drum
(or clap their hands) while the other moves to what is being played. Next, allow the student with
the drum to make up different rhythmic patterns (in time) on the drum. They can use different
parts of the drum (head, sides, underside) and different parts of their hand(s) (such as knuckles,
palm, finger tips, back of hand) to create different sounds as they see fit. Whatever this student
plays needs to be replicated through the movement of the other student. This activity can also be
done with arrhythmic patterns. After a specified amount of time have the students switch places.
Purpose: This activity helps students discern between rhythmic and arrhythmic elements. It also
gives students a chance to experiment with rhythms and durations that are being taught in class
through music and movement in an improvisation setting.
Tempo Activities
#1 Beat Replacement Credit: Yelin (1994)
This activity can be done while students are seated or standing up.
This activity includes clapping rhythms and beats to a steady tempo and replacing beats with
rests. Begin by having students clap two- or four-bar rhythmic phrases. These phrases should
contain a variety of rhythms that students are working on. Once students are comfortable with
the pattern, begin replacing beats with rests until there are large sections of rest in the pattern.
Students need to internalize the beat as best they can in order to reenter as an ensemble.
Purpose: This replacement activity helps students internalize steady beat. Students can speed up
or slowdown in tempo when there is nothing to lead them, like a metronome, conductor, or other
musicians. Training students to maintain steady internal beat can help students track where they

46
are in music they are playing, and be better prepared to communicate and execute entrances
between individuals and sections.

#2 TSE Ball Bouncing Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity involves moving around the room as well as the use of a bouncy ball big enough for
students to catch easily.
In this activity, students learn about time, space, and energy by bouncing a ball with a partner.
Begin by pairing off students and having them face one another in two parallel lines. Give each
pair a ball and have them bounce the ball to one-another to a steady two-beat pattern (bounce on
beat one, catch on beat two). Do this at faster and slower tempos. Students should notice that
they have to get closer to one-another when the tempo gets faster and have to spread out more
when the tempo gets slower. You can further address gradual accelerandos and ritardandos and
watch as students have to adapt their space and energy to accommodate the change in time. You
can also address meters 3/4 and 4/4 through patterns: bounce-catch-catch, and bounce-catch-toss-
catch.
This activity can also be done individually, which may be more practical when space is limited.
Instead of manipulating space between partners during tempo changes, students will change the
space in-between them and the floor. During faster tempos, students will get closer to the floor to
bounce quicker; in slower tempos, students may have to bounce the ball over their head to
compensate.
Purpose: This is particularly useful for secondary middle school students developing on their
instruments. Similar to durations, playing at quicker tempos requires more energy and less space.
Orchestra students that take up too much space while bowing and band students that have too
much movement in their tongue and/or fingers, will be unable to play at faster tempos. Likewise,
if students use too much energy or too little space when playing at slower tempi, then the music
will be rushed.

Meter Activities
#1 Conducting Credit: numerous sources
This exercise can be used when students are standing up or sitting down.
In this exercise, students learn about and conduct different metrical patterns. Begin by teaching
students the 2/4 conducting pattern, followed by 4/4 and 3/4 patterns. Once students are
comfortable with these patterns, play a piece of music on the piano or through a recording, and
have students conduct along with it. Once students are comfortable with this, have them
simultaneously sing and conduct a piece they are working on.
Purpose: This activity teaches students how to conduct different meters, but also forces them to
multi-task between conducting and singing their part. Students that can do both will have a much

47
easier time keeping track of where they are when performing the music. Having students further
learn how to conduct patters such as 5/4, 5/8, and 7/8 in multiple patterns (e.g. 3+2) can also help
them better understand what to look for in the conducting of the teacher.

#2 Meter with Partners Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity involves standing and moving between partners. While this can be done while
students are in the approximate area of their seats, more room can also be beneficial.
In this activity, students associate partners with different meter clapping patterns. Begin by
introducing a 2/2 (or 2/4) meter or melody on the piano (accent the downbeat). Have students
turn to a neighbor for the first clapping pattern: students pat their own legs on beat one
(signifying the downbeat as it is lower on the body) and clap both of their hands with their
partner on beat two. Then, introduce 3/4 and 4/4 meters and continue to accent the downbeat on
the piano. For 3/4 time, have students turn to a new neighbor and follow the pattern: pat (on
legs), clap right, clap left. For 4/4 time, have students turn to another new neighbor and follow
the pattern: pat, clap right, clap left, clap with both hands. Then on the piano, switch in-between
meters on the fly and have students follow the patterns with their respective partners (when
students hear 2/4 meter they turn to their 2/4 partner, 3/4 to their 3/4, and 4/4 to their 4/4 meter
partner). This can be further developed for more complex meters such as 5/8 (3+2 and 2+3
patterns) and 7/8 (2+2+3 and 3+2+2 patterns) by adapting the 2/4 and 3/4 patterns.
Purpose: This activity helps students recognize different meters which can be used to recognize
and learn different styles of music such as marches (usually 2/2 time) or waltzes (3/4 time). This
activity also works well as an assessment, as students unable to determine what meter is being
played will often turn in wrong directions to meet the wrong partners. Adapting this activity for
meters such as 5/8 time will also help students better discern when to use 2+3 or 3+2 patterns.
Students who do not understand this relationship will have a hard time following the conductor
or piece of music using these time signatures.

#3 Meter Ball-Bouncing Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity can be done while students are standing up, sitting down, or moving around the
room. This activity requires a tennis, racket, or other bouncy ball manipulative.
In this activity, students bounce balls to learn about meter and downbeats. Much like the last
activity, introduce different meter patterns on the piano or other instrument and have students
follow along by bouncing their tennis/racket ball. Students should bounce on beat one and catch
on all other beats. For example, 4/4 time would have students bounce on beat one, catch in their
right hand on beat two, move the ball to their left hand to catch on beat three, and back to their
right hand to catch on beat four. As students progress through each measure, have them make
themselves taller to better accent the downbeat and add levity to the other beats (anacrucis,
crucis, and metacrucis). Switch between meters at will and have students follow you.

48
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is similar to the previous activity. It helps students discern
between different meters and gives them a visual and kinesthetic reference on how downbeats
should be emphasized in relation to other beats.

Dynamics Activities
#1 Dynamics Conducting Credit: numerous sources
This exercise can be done while students are sitting or standing.
In this exercise, students take turns playing for and conducting each other. Begin by having
students pair-up or separate into groups. One student will have the role of conducting and the
other(s) will have the role of playing a chorale, melody, or improvising with the pentatonic scale
(or other scale students are working on). The conducting student gets to decide the dynamic level
the other(s) should play at. If the student conducts using smaller gestures, then the performer(s)
need to play at softer dynamics and vice versa. You can also have performers lead and
conductors follow so that the instrumentalists have a visual representation of different dynamic
levels. Have students switch roles and then follow the teacher in a full ensemble version of this
activity.
Purpose: This activity gives students a visual representation of different dynamic levels they are
playing. Students can have trouble following expressive conducting of the teacher, and this
activity requires them to communicate with and watch the conductor. This also gives them the
opportunity to lead other individuals and groups.

#2 Elastic Band/Hoberman Sphere Credit: David Frego

This exercise can be done when students are standing up or sitting down.
In this exercise, students use elastic ties or expandable spheres (such as the Hoberman sphere) to
represent and guide dynamics. Begin by giving elastic bands to student pairs. As you play a
recording, play a piece of music on the piano, or have some of the ensemble play through a
piece, have students with elastic bands show the changes in dynamics by stretching and
constricting the elastic band with their partner (students stretch the band as the music gets louder,
and relax it as the music gets softer). Have students play through the associated piece on their
instruments afterwards and use an elastic band or Hoberman Sphere as an alternate way of
conducting the dynamics for the piece.
Purpose: This activity gives students a visual and kinesthetic representation of dynamic changes
in repertoire. Students may have trouble interpreting extremes in dynamic contrast (their idea of
fortissimo is actually mezzo forte and their idea of pianissimo is actually mezzo piano to the
audience). Using manipulatives such as elastic bands can help this. If students pull the elastic
bands as far apart as they can for a mezzo forte dynamic, then the band could snap when they try
to follow music that gets even louder. This makes students pay more attention to the space and

49
energy they associate with different dynamic levels which can be translated into their
instrumental playing.

#3 Follow Activity Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity works best when students are able to move around the room.
In this activity, students follow the dynamic changes and contrast expressed by the piano or the
movements of others. Begin by playing a melody or piece on the piano and have students move
in dance-like fashion to what you are playing. As the music gets softer, have students move with
more levity (students use less space and stay on their toes). As the music gets louder, have
students add more weight to their movements (taking up more space through movements such as
lunging). Then, allow every student to make up their own dance. Choose one student and follow
them (getting softer and louder on the piano based on their movements). Have students guess
who the lead student was afterwards.
Purpose: This activity gives students a visual and kinesthetic reference on different dynamic
levels and different dynamic changes. Finding the leader of the follow activity also helps
encourage student awareness which helps communication between the students and the
conductor in an ensemble setting.

Melody and Harmony Activities

#1: Ensemble Melody Identification Credit: Katrina Hedrick, Kathy Wagner
This activity can be done while students are in their seats, but does involve standing and sitting.
In this activity, students identify melody in their and others parts by standing up and sitting
down. Begin by selecting repertoire that you want your students are familiar with (they have
sight-read it or have worked on it briefly before). Next, have students sing through their parts as
an ensemble. Have individuals/sections stand up whenever they have the melody and sit back
down when they no longer have the melody. As students become comfortable with the piece and
this exercise, you can have them identify ostinato or countermelody figures by repeating this
exercise, or adding more elements by having them raise their hand when they sing an ostinato
pattern, and put their hands on their head when they sing a countermelody figure. You can also
have students conduct, sing, or identify multiple parts at once (e.g. sing their part but conduct the
melody in a different section).
Purpose: This activity allows students to identify which ensemble members have the melody
and when they have it. Sometimes while playing through a piece, students will not be aware as to
what the melody is, or who is playing it at any given time. This means that melodies or other
important figures can often be lost to less important parts. This activity lets students know when
and by whom the melody is being played, so they can adjust their performance (bringing out the

50
melody, or playing background figures softer). This movement activity also allows you to easily
assess whether students know what the melody is.

#2: Moving with the Chord Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity involves standing up and sitting down.
In this activity, students move through different standing positions to represent different chords.
Begin by playing two chords on the piano: the I and the IV chord of the key you choose (choose
a key that is being covered in the repertoire). Have students sit down when they hear the I chord
and stand up when they hear the IV chord. Next, introduce the V chord: students should stand on
one leg (this represents the desire for the V chord to go back to the tonic I chord). Introduce the
vi chord next: students turn to their left and hunch over (which helps represent the deceptive
cadence). You can further introduce the ii (students barely shift their weight off of the chair), the
iii (students stand with a bent knee), and vii chords (students stand on one leg with arm raised) as
they become more advanced. You can also introduce the minor key by having students turn
around when they hear they are in minor. Have students play through these progressions or
related repertoire afterward.
Purpose: This activity gives students a visual and kinesthetic representation of chord
progressions. This is useful because students may have trouble identifying individual chords and
how they work in conjunction. Students that are able to identify chords in the music they play are
better able to play chord tones and resolutions appropriately. For example, if students know that
the ensemble is playing a IV chord, they can better adjust the volume relationships between the
root, third, and fifth, and adjust the intonation of the third, by lowering it. This activity is also an
easy way to assess student knowledge of what chord is being played.

#3: Tone Row/ Melody Floor Manipulation Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity requires linear locomotor movement throughout the room.
In this activity, students create a diagram on the floor through movement, and step and sing
transitions between intervals used in melodies, tone rows, and scales. To start, have students
create 1-2 lines parallel with the front of the classroom. In early sessions, have students step
forward to the first three notes of a major scale (do, re, mi) with their natural step size, then
introduce the fourth interval, fa, and have students move forward by half of a step (to represent
the half-step interval between mi and fa). Fill out the rest of the diagram on the floor to the major
scale. Elementary teachers may position hula-hoops to help students visualize these intervals, but
secondary students will be better able to visualize it in their brain (tape can also be used as a
marker on the floor). Once students know the positions of all the notes, sing using solfege or play
melodies on the piano and have students follow you by moving forward and backward on their
diagram (while singing when they are comfortable). You can also write a melody or tone row on
the board and have students follow it forward, backward, or starting at different points. Keep in

51
mind, students can only leap so far forward or backward. You can further use this activity to
introduce/represent different scales or modes (like the Dorian scale), or accidentals. Once you
have students move to a scale, melody, or pattern, have them play it on their instruments.
Purpose: This activity can give students a visual and kinesthetic representation of scales, modes,
intervals, and melodies. This can be particularly useful when introducing new repertoire that
includes a scale or melody with which students are not yet familiar and could benefit from
moving and singing so they can better understand and translate feeling and sound to their
instruments.

Style and Expression Activities

#1 Ancillary Ensemble Movement Credit: numerous sources
This exercise can be done when students are playing in their seats.
In this exercise, students lead and communicate with the ensemble using ancillary movement.
Begin by selecting a student in the front row to lead the ensemble. This student will determine
the engagement of the first note, and the tempo/dynamics of the piece/section being played
(chorales are good for this, as anyone can lead). Students can be moved around to give those
usually near the back an opportunity to lead the ensemble. Have this student begin the
piece/section by breathing and moving (ancillary movement) without the help of the conductor.
Have all students move with the breath of the leader, as this will help students further away
breathe together. Once students can successfully start a piece together, have the leader move with
the tempo (pulsing their body to determine it) and move with the dynamics of the piece (using
lower/hunched over movements for soft dynamics, and tall/upright movements for louder
dynamics). Others in the ensemble should mimic the movements of the leader.
Purpose: This activity helps encourage communication throughout the ensemble. Without the
help of the conductor, students have to rely on dialogue between each other, which can be
communicated through movement. This will also encourage students to listen to one-another
instead of simply watching the conductor for tempo and stylistic information.

#2 Laban Reverse Charades Credit: Natalie Higgins, Fritz Anders

This activity can be done while students are standing or sitting down.
In this activity, students use the eight different Laban efforts to express articulations. If you
havent already, begin by teaching students the eight Laban efforts: float, punch, glide, slash,
dab, wring, flick, and press. Associate these movements with different articulations; for example:
float=slurred, punch=marcato/accent, glide=legato, dab=portato, flick=staccato, and
press=tenuto. Break students off into pairs and have one student play their instrument, while the
other uses Laban efforts. Have the instrumentalist pick an articulation and play it using repeated
quarter notes, while the other student chooses the Laban movement associated with it. For

52
example, if the instrumentalist plays staccato notes, then the moving student should be flicking.
Have students go through all of the main articulations and switch roles.
Purpose: This activity gives students a visual and kinesthetic representation of articulations.
This feedback is particularly useful for the students playing instruments. For example, a student
may think they are playing staccato, but their partner is showing them a glide motion. This may
mean the student is confused on what staccato means, or they arent putting enough space
between each note they are playing.

#3 Plastique Anime Credit: Dalcroze, Fritz Anders

This activity is best executed when students are able to move around the room.
In this activity, students express the style of a piece through improvised full-body movement.
Begin by choosing a piece of music for students to move to (recording or improvisation on the
piano). Allow students to move around the room in response to the music. They should consider
adjusting their movements to portray the dynamics, articulations, tempo, melodic direction, and
other style characteristics of the piece. Record student movement and play it back for them so
they can assess the purpose of each of their movements. You can also have half of the ensemble
play a piece of music while the other half improvises movement to go with what is being played.
Purpose: This activity gives students the opportunity to freely express themselves through
movement improvisation, which can be translated to instrumental improvisation. Having half the
ensemble play while the other half of the ensemble moves can be especially beneficial to
developing musicality. If students play boringly or without enthusiasm, then students who are
improvising will move the same way. This can show students how their music and movements
are being perceived by others and whether they are effective in communicating musicality.

Phrase and Form Activities

#1 Breathing with Movement Credit: Natalie Higgins
This exercise should be done while students are standing up to encourage the best breath support,
but should then be translated to their instruments while sitting down.
Begin by having students stand up and engage in different breathing patterns (e.g. breathe in for
four, breathe out for four, eight, or sixteen). As students are doing this, have them visually and
kinesthetically represent their breathing by drawing their hand towards themselves on the inhale,
and away from themselves on the exhale, pointing forward to get all of the air out. Students can
also mimic the expansion of their lungs and the lowering of their diaphragm to represent
breathing exercises. Have students work on phrasing and breathing on their instruments
afterwards.
Purpose: Using movement to express breathing exercises allows students to better conceptualize
and feel where they are breathing from and what direction their air should go in. This can help

53
students that normally breathe by raising their shoulders, to breathe correctly from their
diaphragm. This also helps students push through the ends/climaxes of phrases without
interrupting them with a breath.

#2 Hand Pressing Credit: Fritz Anders

This activity can be used when students are sitting down or standing up.
In this activity, students work with a partner to express phrasing by pushing hands together.
Begin by having students turn to a neighbor/partner. As you begin to play a piece of music on the
piano or through a recording, have partners lightly join in pressing against each others hands
(one person with their right and one person with their left so no one has to reach across their
body). Have partners switch off every time they hear a new phrase. For example, student one
will lead and push against the hand of student two during the first phrase, and vice versa during
the second phrase. During this activity, students should do their best to represent the music in the
movement of their hands. If the music includes a descending line then students should push their
hands closer to the ground. If the music includes an ascending line, students should push their
hands higher in the air. Furthermore, if a piece is speeding up, then students should speed up
their movement and vice versa if a piece is slowing down. Dynamics can be expressed as well.
Purpose: This activity gives students a better understanding of where phrases begin and end,
which is especially useful when listening to pieces using rubato, a tempo nuance in which the
performer can speed up or slow down freely. This movement will also help them understand
phrases and the conversation between multiple phrases or sections.

#3 Movement Compositions Credit: Katrina Hedrick

This activity works best when students are able to move around the room.
In this activity, students create a dance following the form of a piece of music. Begin by splitting
students into groups of four to five students and have them establish the form of the piece (which
could include binary, ternary, rondo, theme and variations, programmatic, 32 bar form, and
twelve-bar blues). Next, have groups choreograph movements to the first section of the piece.
These movements should reflect the character of the section. For example, if the section is slow
and lyrical, students should use movements including float, glide, and press to create flow. If the
section is livelier, more energetic, and more articulate, then students can use movements such as
flick, punch, and slash in their movements. Once the first section is choreographed, have students
move onto the rest of the piece. Sections should be complimentary to each other. For forms that
have repeated sections (like ABA) each section should use the same movements, but can
incorporate more energy as the piece progresses/reaches a climax. Programmatic movements
should reflect the story being told by the piece of music, and sections of theme and variations
should include dance moves that are similar but changed to match the variation (e.g., reversed for
a theme in retrograde). Once groups have established their dance to the given form of music,

54
have them present to the class. Finally, have them play the piece of music using the represented
form.
Purpose: This activity gives students a chance to experiment with and compose forms of music
through movement. This can be of benefit to students that learn more kinesthetically and do not
benefit from written analysis of musical form.

Conclusion

Overview of Findings
As a music educator, it is important to continuously seek out new approaches for

effective learning. Such learning is reliant on cognitive and socio-emotional factors such as

engagement, retention, and emotional regulation. Movement-based learning is an approach that

helps tune these factors by strengthening neural connections, engaging multiple body systems,

connecting multiple parts of the brain, regulating neurotransmitters and neurotrophins, and using

implicit learning. MBL has found its way into elementary music through Dalcroze Eurhythmics

and other applications, but is yet to be widely used in the secondary setting, despite the benefits

of movement on the brains and bodies of developing adolescent students. Teachers can use the

evidence of movement-based cognitive and socio-emotional development, strategies and

limitations, and the activities described in this thesis as an introductory launching point for

utilizing and discovering effective ways to implement MBL in their classrooms. These strategies

and activities fall in line with the literature being presented, the approach of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, and the experiences/philosophies of select in-the-field teachers. They have to be

adapted to the limitations and character of the teacher, students, and learning environment, but

provide a good starting point for teachers wanting to try MBL in their classrooms.

55
Status and Limitations of Current MBL Research in Education

Current MBL or movement related research is focused on the relationship of movement

and exercise with brain development and learning in the general classroom. While there are

examples on how movement can benefit engagement, retention, and emotional regulation in the

classroom, examples on how MBL can be implemented are primarily geared towards content

areas such as math, science, or history, or are created for the purpose of energizers, brain-breaks,

or class cohesion activities. MBL research and applications in music mainly focus on approaches

such as Dalcroze Eurhythmics, which is primarily used in the elementary setting. There is little

to no apparent research on the effects and implementations of MBL in the secondary

instrumental large music ensemble. Because of this, experiences of in-the-field teachers who

have used MBL in the secondary setting are relied upon to fill this gap. While these teachers are

professional in what they are doing, their methods might not have the same scientific approach

and experimentation to prove MBL is beneficial, or better than other teaching methods. In order

to best understand MBLs influence on secondary instrumental large ensemble students, further

experiments comparing the cognitive, socio-emotional, and musical understanding of students

who engage in MBL and those who do not, need to be conducted.

Further Directions

For a more comprehensive understanding of MBL benefits and applications, future

research could address teachings that use MBL other than Dalcroze, such as the Kodly and Orff

methods/approaches. It would also be beneficial to further explore avenues of dance and music

therapy to better understand how movement and music together affect the brain. In the future, it

would also be useful to take the strategies and applications discussed in this thesis as a basis to

create a study to determine which strategies and applications are more effective than others.

56
 References:

Abril, C. R. (2011). Music, Movement, and Learning. In MENC Handbook of Research on Music
Learning (Vol. 2, pp. 92-129). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Anders, F. (2017, July 24). [Personal interview].

Brice, M. (2004). The Unfolding Human Potential: Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Geneve, Suisse:
Editions Papillon.

Boucher, H., & Ryan, C. (2011). Performance Stress and the Very Young Musician. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 58(4), 329-345. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40961658

Cadoz, C., & Wanderly, M. M. (2000). Gesture -- Music. In Trend in Gestural Control of Music
(pp. 71-94). Paris, France: Ircam - Centre Pompidou.

Caldwell, T. (1995). Expressive Singing: Dalcroze Eurhythmics for Voice. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.

Dahl, S., & Friberg, A. (2007). Visual Perception of Expressiveness in Musicians' Body
Movements. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24(5), 433-454.
doi:10.1525/mp.2007.24.5.433

Dittus, J. (2015). Embodying Music: A Textbook for Dalcroze Teacher Training. (3rd ed.).
Dalcroze School of the Rockies.

Farber, A., & Thomsen, K. (Eds.). (2017). What is Dalcroze? Retrieved July 10, 2017, from
http://www.dalcrozeusa.org/about-us/history

Findlay, E. (1971). Rhythm and Movement: Applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Van Nuys,
CA: Alfred Publishing.

Frego, D. (2017,July 21). [E-mail interview].

Gardner, H. (n.d.). Frequently Asked Questions -- Multiple Intelligences and Related

Educational Topics.

Gardner, H., Christodoulou, J., Seider, S., & Davis, K. (n.d.). The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences. Harvard/Boston University.

Hall, M., & Brier, G. (2007). From Frustrating Forgetfulness to Fabulous Forethought: Current
research on the adolescent brain may provide insight on how to create a more fruitful
learning environment. The Science Teacher,74(1), science and the brain, 24-27.
Retrieved July 26, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24140394

57
Hedrick, K. (2017, July 12). [Personal interview].

Higgins, N. (2017, February 20). [Telephone interview].

Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the Brain in Mind (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Jensen, E. (2000). Learning with the body in mind: The scientific basis for energizers, movement,
play, games, and physical education. San Diego, CO: The Brain Store Inc.

Krumhansl, C. L., & Schenck, D. L. (1997). Can dance reflect the structural and expressive
qualities of music? A perceptual experiment on Balanchine's choreography of Mozart's
Divertimento No.15. Musicae Scientiae, 1(1), 63-85. Retrieved July 10, 2017, from
http://music.psych.cornell.edu/articles/performance/Can_dance_reflect_the%20structural
_and_expressive%20qualities_of_music.pdf

Lengel, T., & Kuczala, M. (2010). The Kinesthetic Classroom: Teaching and Learning Through
Movement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Company.

MacLennan, D. S. (2015). Mapping How Students Conceptualize Ancillary Movements in

Instrumental Music Performance (Doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia,
2015). Vancouver: The University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0167271

Mead, V. (1986). More than Mere Movement: Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Music Educators Journal,
72(6), 42-46. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3401276

Nusseck, M., & Wanderley, M. (2009). Music and MotionHow Music-Related Ancillary Body
Movements Contribute to the Experience of Music. Music Perception: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 26(4), 335-353. doi:10.1525/mp.2009.26.4.335

Ratey, J. J. (2013). Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York,
NY: Little, Brown and Company.

Roach, D. (1980). Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Active Musicianship Training. American Music

Teacher, 29(3), 42-44. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43538268

Sansom, A. (2011). CHAPTER THREE: What Is Dance and Why Dance? Counterpoints, 407,
25-38. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42981149

Skoning, S. N. (2008). Movement and Dance in the Inclusive Classroom. TEACHING

Exceptional Children Plus, 4(6), 1-11. Retrieved July 10, 2017, from
files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967723.pdf.

Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning and Memory: The Brain in Action. Alexandria, VA, USA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

58
Yelin, J. C. (1994). Movement that fits: Dalcroze eurhythmics and the Suzuki method. Alfred
Music.

59