Grqmmor Summory

I enses (poges 8-9) wll

We use radll + infinitive without'to' when we want to make:
Present Simpte . a decision at the moment of speaking: I'Il go there ot once.
We use the Present SimpLe to tatk about: . a prediction based on our opinions or betiefs:
o general truths and ru[es: /vlosf beors hibernate in winter. We'll probabLy get home after midnight.
r routines and habits: Do you swim every weekend? . a request: Will you wait for me?
r permanent situations and states: We live in Gilbert Street.
o future facts: Ihe train leaves in twenty minutes. to be going to
We use to be going fo + infinitive without'to'to express:
Present Continuous o an intention:- I'm going to do an Englishsummer course.
We use the Present Continuous to: . a prediction based on something we can obserye:
r talk about act'ivities in progress at the time of speaking: It's going to be hot today.
havng a shower.
Where's Joe? He's
o talk about temporary activities and habits:
I'm looking after Peteft dog while he's owoy. 2 Post Tenses (poges lB-19)
r tatk about personal arrangements for the future:
We're flying bock on Soturday. Apart from the Past Simpte, Past Continuous and Past Perfect
. show irritation about a person's bad hab'it: (see 1 Tenses), we use the fotlowing verb forms to talk about the
You are aLways loosing the keys. past:
. would and used fo + infinitive without'to'to talk about
Present Perfect regular events in the past which no longer happen; we use used
We use the Present Perfect to talk about: to to talk about states and activities and would to tatk onty
r past events and activitjes with consequences in the present: about activities:
0h no! The house has been burgled. Phone the poLice. Eica used to be a champion. (state)
. single or repeated events in the past when it doesn't matter We would (or used to) olways celebrqte together. (activity)
when they happened: r Past Perfect Continuous to tatk about longer activities in the
l

1ii
Hove you ever tried Thai food? past that happened before other past events:
r situations that started in the past and continue up titl now: She was rescued by a man who had been working in a neorby
She's been ill since Thursdoy. g0rqge.

Present Perfect Continuous

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to tatk about: 3 Relotive And Porticiple Clcuses
e continuous or repeated activities that started in the past and
(poges 32-33)
aren't finished:
I've been doing o lot of oveftime recently to save money for
o hoLiday. Retative clauses
r continuous or repeated activities from the recent past which There are two types of retative ctauses: defining and
have consequences in the present: non-defining. We use:
You Look exhausted! . defining relative ctauses to identifo the person or thing we
What have you been doing? are talking about:
I only pierce young peopLe who come with their porents.
Past Simpte (Note that we do not put a comma before the defining relative
We use the Past Simpte to talk about singte or repeated events in c[ause.)
the past when we know when they happened: . non-defining retative ctauses to give extra information about
I bought same nice things at the market at the weekend. the person or thing, which is not necessary to identily this
I qte a lot of chocolate when I wos o student. person or thing and can be left out:
Mick Shannon, who is a qualfied body piercer, took me to hs
Past Continuous solon.
We use the Past Continuous to talk about: Mck showed me his certificote, which was on the wall.
o activities that continued for some time in the past, especiatly
(Note that we atways put a comma before a non-defining
to show a longer activity that was interrupted by a shorter relative ctause.)
one: -I ryas making dinner when the phone rang.
o activities that form the background, especia[y to set a scene: We cannot not use the pronoun that or omit the relative pronoun
We were walkng olong the beach chatting to one another. in non-defining relative clauses.
SuddenLy, we heard a coLL for help.
We use a special type of non-definjng retative clauses to add
Past Perfect a comment to what was said in the first part of the sentence:
We use the Past Perfect to tatk about events or situations in the They don't cleon their equipment, which shows they dont know
past which happened before other past events: whot they're doing.
When we got home, Jane had already left so we didn't monoge to In these ctauses, we always use a comma and the retative
say goodbye to her. pronoun whch (not whot).
 Participle ctauses
Instead of a full relative clause we can sometimes use 6 Conditionols And
a participte clause. We use:
. a present participte to say what the person/thing is doing: Mixed Conditionols (poges c:-:
You can see many peopLe weoring rings everywhere. There are four basic types of conditional sentenc=:
e a past participle to say what is/was done to :-* -.
the person/thing Conditiona[, First Conditiona[, Second Conditiona: :-: -"-
mentioned: Third Conditionat.
I was looking at the walls covered with photos of clients. (For more information about these types of conditior.. ::. .
see the Mini-Grammar in the Matura powerbook.)
4 The Pqssive (poges 42-43)
The term 'mixed conditionats' comes from the fact that s - . :
conditionaI sentences combine different conditionaL structL.:.
We use the Passive when:
r the doer of the action is unknown: We use mixed conditionals to talk about:
The bus stop hos been vqndalised. r imaginary past events that coutd have some consequences
o we want to focus attention on the action rather in the present:
than the doer:
The whole gang was arrested yesterday. If he hod broken the record, he would be
famous now (but he
o we want to put special attention on the doer: didn't break the record in the past so he isn,t famous now)
AII these projects hove been managed by the BuLgaion artist If they hadn't invited me to the pqfty, I wouldnt be here.
Chisto. (but they invited me to the party so I.m here now)
r we want to avoid a very long subject of the sentence:
His projects are financed by the sale of his drawings through Form: If + Past Perfect, would + infinitive without,to,
galleies qnd the Internet.
(as
IIconditional)
in 3rd (as in 2nd conditional.)
The Passive is used mainty in formal and written language.
It is very typical of the language used in newspapers and . unreaI present situations. usuatty imaginary states, which
by journatists. could have had some consequences in the past:
If he wos/were a more skilfuL playen he would have scored
Apart from passive forms of tenses, we can use some other more points. (but he isn't a skitful. player so he didn't score
passive forms: points)
r passive infinitive: It's nice to be tqken seiously. Ifshe didn't speak a few languages, she wouldn't hove got
r passive gerund: We aLI enjoyed being praised by the teacher. that job. (but she speaks a few [anguages so she got tne
. passive perfect infinitive: ioO;
The train may have been delayed by the storm. Form: If + Past Simpte. would + perfect infinitive

(as
IIconditionat)
in 2nd (as in 3rd conditional)
5 The tuture (poges 56-5/)
Apart from wilL / may / might + infinitive without,to,, 7 Verb Pollerns: '-ng' Form
the Present Continuous, to be going fo and the present Simpte. we
use the fottowing tenses and verb forms to tal.k about the future: and lnfinitive (poges 80-Sl)
. Future Continuous
used to, be used fo and get used to
We usethe Future Continuous to tatk about activities that wiLl. We use:
be in progress at a certain time in the future:
o used to + infinitive without to, to tal.k about
At 9 a.m. on Saturdoy, I'll be listening to Duke Willard. states
or activitjes that happened regularty in the past but they
I'lI be working all evening so I won't be able to see you. are
no [onger true:
o Future Perfect We used to go camping a Lot.
We use the Future Perfect to tatk about actions that wiLl" be He used to be a doctor
compteted before a certain time in the future: c be used to +'-in( form of the verb or a noun
to say that we
By the end of the century, we will have colonised our are very familiar with something:
soLar system. We're used to getting up eorLy.
He wll have written two books by next summer She's not used to the cold climate.
c get used to +'-ing'form of the verb or a noun
o Time clauses to describe
the process of getting famitiar with something:
When we refer to the future in time clauses, after when, We got used to eating ice when we lived in Asia.
os soon as, until, before and ofter we do not use ryill. We use How Long did it take you to get used to the
the Present Simpte: food here?
When you get home, you'LL receive good news.
If we want to emphasise the fact that an activity witt be
finished before the other one happens, we use the present
Perfect instead of the Present Simpte:
After you've done the shopping, you,ll have a pleosant surpise.
I'll heLp you 0s soon as I've finshed the washing up.

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Verbs of senses
With verbs of senses such as see, hear, watch, notice we can use
I Complex Senlences (l): Persuasion
two patterns, We use: (poges 104-105)
c see / heor wotch / notice somebody do something when we
/
want to say that we observed the whole action (and we know We usualty use different forms in written formaL Engtish and
how it ends): spoken informat Engl.ish to tetl people what we think they shoutd
I watched the children cross the street. (1 saw them as they do.
reached the other side.)
We heard John sing our nationaL anthem. (We heard the whole
Written Eng[ish
song. ) We use the fotlowing expressions to make strong suggestions
t see / hear / watch / notice somebody dong somethng when when we wrjte in a formal style:
we want to say that we observed the action in progress:
c should + infinitive without 'to':
We watched the whales swimming off the coast of Patagonia. We should remember that'beng' is more impoftant that'having'.

I saw them sunbathing on the balcony. . ought fo + infinitive without 'to':

The government ought to do something about unenploynent.
. demand / insist / suggest + (that) + subject + should
I Reporting (poges 90-91) do something
+ (that) + subject + present tense
+ (that) + subject + subjunctive
We can use the foltowing verbs (with the patterns given) (same form as infinitive)
to report what a person has sajd: They are suggesting that o new school should be built in
t verb + that: this oreo.
He complained that he was poid too littLe. I insist that the money is transferred into my account
The foltowing verbs can be used with this pattern: immediateLy.
add, admit, lgree, announce, beLieve, boast, claim, complain, The protesters demanded that the supermarket be closed.
deny, decLare, expLain, insist, remind, suggest, warn. . It's high time (that) + subject + past tense
It's high time the counciL stsrted to think about LocaL
r verb + somebody + that: businesses.
They warned us that we might be stopped at the gate.
The following verbs can be used with this pattern: worn, remind. Spoken English
o verb + somebody to do something: We use the foltowing expressions to make weak, tentative
suggestions when we tatk to someone we know:
We advised him to chonge banks.
. I I were you, I'd + infinitive without'to':
The fotl.owing verbs can be used with thjs pattern:
If I were you, I'd stop using so much make-up.
advise, beg, order, promise.
To make a slightty stronger suggestion, we use:
. verb + to do something: . I think you should + infinitive without 'to':
He threatened to toke LegaL action.
The foltowing verbs can be used with this pattern:
I think you should toke up some evening cLasses.
.I think you ought to + infinitive without 'to':
agree, offer, refuse, threoten.
I think you ought to give away your old school books.
. verb + '-in{ form:
We use the following expressions to criticjse, reproach or advise
Isuggested going to the presentation.
somebody in a strong way. These expressions are often used by a
The fottow'ing verbs can be used with thjs pattern:
person in authority, e.g. teacher taLking to a student, parent
admit, deny, suggest.
taLking to a chil.d.
o verb + if/whether: . It's about time + subject + psst tense:
She qsked if it to see the patient.
was possible It's about time you got down to work.
The following verbs can be used with this pattern: inquire, ask. . I'd (= I would) rather + subject + past tense:
I'd rather you didn't go there.
. verb + preposition +'-iny' form: ('I'd rather you'is usuatly foLlowed by a negative verb form)
He hos been accused of pick-pocketng. . You'd (= You had) better + infinitive without'to':
The fottowing verb can be used with this pattern: accuse of. You'd better start thinking about your exams.
'You'd better'coutd atso be used to a friend to encourage
We do not change the tense in the reported sentence when:
r or to persuade:
the reporting verb is in the present:
'I feeL feverish.' + You'd better hurry up or you'll be late.
She soys she feels
feveish.
. we report something which is sti[[ true. e.g. a general truth: The expression I'd sooner you + past tense is not used very
'Kangaroos live in AustraLia.' -+ The teacher ssid that kangaroos much any more; we use I'd rather instead. Both structures are
lve in Australia. usuatly fottowed by a negative form:
. we report something which is stitl in the future at the moment I'd sooner you didn't tell anyone about it.
of reporting:
'The documents wilL be pubLished in 2020.' ) The ministry
spokesperson announced that the documents will be published
in 2020.
 ,hi,urn' ff (.ut' t,' :., i

l0 (omplex Sentences (21: [mphosis longuuge Awqreness 2 (poge 25)

(poges ll4-l l5) Continuous and Simple Tenses
To make something sound stronger and more emphatic, we use a We use continuous rather than simpte tenses when:
negative word (e.9. seLdom, rarely, never, neither no sooner . we want to say that an activity is not finished:
(than), not onLy) at the beginning of the sentence ptus The doctor wos wting a note. (she was in the process of
inversion, i.e. the word order of a question. We usualLy use this writing it)
kind of jnversion in forma[ written Engtish: The doctorwrote a note. (the note was ready)
I've been reading this book for weels. (I'm stil.l. reading it)
He has never known anything like it. +
Never has he known fve reod this book. (I've finished reading it)
anything like it.
The poLice arived just ofter the robbers had Left. +
No sooner
. we want to suggest that an activity is temporary rather than
hod the robbers Ieft than the police arrived. permanent:
Snakes are not only unpleasant but they are dangerous as well. q You're breothing quite heavily. (for some time onty. because
Not only ore snakes unpleasant but they are dangerous as welL. you're exhausted or itt)
People with a heart condition often breath quite heavily.
We can atso use emphatic jnversion in third conditional" (that's a common characteristic)
sentences. Note that we drop fin
the inverted form. This My aunt was living here. (for some t'ime only)
structure js common in both formaI and informa[ [anguage: My aunt lived here. (permanently)
If I had known they were in town, I wouLd have phoned them. +
Had I known they were in town, I would have phoned them. r we refer to a protonged or repeated action rather than a
singte event:
In both formal and informal language, we can use these The man was looking at his watch. (continuously or repeatedl"y)
structures to put more emphasis on some words: The mqn looked at his wotch. (once)
He is interested in money. 1
It's money that he's interested in. She dived into the pool. (once)
(we put emphasis on 'money') She's been diving nto the pooL. (many times)
I'm reaLLy upset obout the noise you're making. +
Whqt fm upset
about is the noise you're making. (we put emphasis on 'noise') The foltowing verbs are not used in continuous tenses: knor.v,
+
I only need some rest. AU I need s some rest. (we put Iike, understand, belong, resemble, realise.
emphasis on 'rest')

lunguoge Aworeness 3 (pog e 49)

[unguoge Awareness I (poge 14)
Reference (2): Pronouns
Reference (1): Determiners Pronouns are words that we can use instead of a noun in
We use the following determiners in front of: a sentence so that we do not repeat the noun too often.
. singular countable nouns: afan, the, another, the other. Engtish has the fotlowing pronouns:
r uncountable nouns: the, some, ony, no, a Lot of, nuch, . personal pronouns:
aLL (of the). a) subject pronouns: I, you, h.e, she, it, we, they.
o ptural countabte nouns: the, some, ony, no, many, several, b) object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, then.
a Lot of, aLL (ofthe), (the) other. r indefinite pronouns: someonq something, anywhere, nobody,
nothing, elc.
We use a/an when: r possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
e we mentjon something for the first time: o demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those.
There is o new shop assistqnt in the bakery. . reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
r it does not matter whichparticular person/thing we are tatking ou rseLves, yo u rselves, them seLves.
about, e.g. when we mention this person/thing as an exampl.e o relative pronouns: who, which, that, whose, whom.
of a group or category:
Can I hove an orange? Possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) are not
pronouns because they cannot replace a noun.
We use tfe when the person we are talking to knows precisely
which person/thing we are talking about and can easity identify one vs. yorl
them/it: We use the pronouns one andyou when we make statements
Let's hove breakfast outside on the terrace. about peopte in generat, and they mean'anyone, at any time'.
One is used in forma[ [anguage, whereas you is informat:
One has got (or You hove got) more chance of finding an
interesting job abroad nowadays.
How do you get to Wembley from here?

149
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Jranna Qnnnuq

Longuoge Awureness 4 (poge /3) longuoge Aworeness 5 (poge97)

Modal Verbs and Expressions
We use modal verbs and expressions
o talk about obligations and necessity:
You must clean your teeth after every meoL.
We hsve to leave eorlier to arive on time.
I hqd to walk ten miLes to get home.
Did you have to pay to go in?
o tatk about permission and prohibition:
You can go in now.
We mustn't disturb them.
They can't tell me what to do.
ImpersonaI Report Structures
to: When we report what people generatly betieve or say we can use
the subject.tt + the passive of verbs like soy, know, beLieve,
claim, suppose, think, fea predict:
It is sqid that dolphins are very fiendly animals.
It was feored that the plone would crash into a sl<yscraper.
We can atso start the sentence from the person/thing that the
information concerns and use the structure
subject + the passive + infinitive:
It is known that storlcs live in a clean environment. ) Storks qre
known to live in a cLean environment.

. tatk about Lack of obtigation: We use an ordinary jnfinitive if the action reported is para[te[
We didn't hove to pay for the beer, it was free. with the time of reporting:
We don't have to think about onything, the tour operator does It was said that Elvis Presley was the king of rock and roll. )
it qLL. Elvs Presley was ssid to be the king of rock snd rolL.
You needn't worry, everything will be aLL ight. It is cloimed thot police fficer occept bibes. Police fficers
You don't need to bing any food, there'LL be enough. ore claimed to qccept bibes.

e tatk about abitities: We use a perfect infinitive if the action happened before the time
My Little daughter con sing and dance. of reporting:
Ican't speok French. It is supposed thot the plane was hijacked. + fhe plane s
Icould talk when I wqs two. supposed to hqve been hijscked.
Con you roLLer blade? It wos said that the minister hsd been involved in organised crime
+ The minister was said to hsve been involved in organised
r tatk about possibility: crime.
I con't get through to then, the Line is busy.
I could go there and teLl them what I think.
John couldn't see us in the crowd.
[onguoge Aworeness 6 (poge l2l)
. make a guess and to speculate:
He will be cooking lunch now. Perfective Verb Forms
They must have found out about the article.
She nght be Russian. We use perfective verb forms to say that something happened
He could be at the library. before a certain time:
What could I have done? I ve been staying with my family on the coast. (before /until now)
They had finished dinner when we come. (before a point in
. make predictions: the past)
He'll be late, as usuaL. Jim wiII have written the essay by 10 p.n. (before a point in the
They moy win if they try hard. future)
They wont come. Having spent every summer there, I knew everyone in the village.
(before a time jn the past)
o make decisions:
They may hqve esten lunch at school and aren't hungry.
I'll talk to Jim about it.
(before a time in the present)
I won't go there.
We can use the fottowing perfective verb forms:
didn't need to vs. needn't . Present Perfect: I've seen the Mona Lisa twice.
We use didn't need to + infinitive without'to' to say that . Present Perfect Continuous: I've been reparing my bike.
someone did not do something because it was not necessary: r Past Perfect; She died after she hod contracted tuberculosis.
She didn't need to ploy because the match was cancelled. r Past Perfect Continuous: They were very difty becouse
He was so ich he didnt need to worry about money. they'd been ploying footboll in mud.
. Future Perfect: We will have moved out by the end of next yean
We use needn't + perfect infinitive to say that someone did o perfect infinitive: They may hove lost their way.
something atthough it was unnecessary: She must have been invited by Jonothon.
We neednt have brought any food to the pafty - there was r perfective'-in( form:
pLenty ,aLready. I remembered hoving met the man a Long time ago.
Having porked the car on the side of the road, he went to sleep
for an hour.