Theory of Machines - E-Note

1
Gyroscope
Course Contents
1.1 Principle of Gyroscope
1.2 Angular Velocity
1.3 Angular Acceleration
1.4 Gyroscopic Torque (Couple)
1.5 Gyroscopic Effect on Aero-
planes
1.6 Gyroscopic Effect on Naval
Ships
1.7 Stability of an Automobile
1.8 Stability of two-wheel vehicle
1.9 Rigid Disc at an Angle Fixed To
a Rotating Shaft
1.10 Summary
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.1
1. Gyroscope Theory of Machines (2151902)
1.1 Principle of Gyroscope
If the axis of spinning or rotating body is given an angular motion about an axis perpendicular to
the axis of spin, an angular acceleration acts on the body about the third perpendicular axis. The
torque required to produce this acceleration is known as active gyroscopic torque. A reactive
gyroscopic torque or couple also acts similar to the concept of centripetal and centrifugal forces
on a reacting body. The effect produced by the reactive gyroscopic couple is known as gyro-
scopic effect. Thus aeroplanes, ships, automobiles, etc., that have rotating parts in the form of
wheels or rotors of engines experiences this effect while taking turn, i.e., when the axes of spin
is subjected to some angular motion.
1.2 Angular Velocity
The angular velocity of a rotating body is specified by
the magnitude of velocity

the direction of the axis of rotor
the sense of rotation of the rotor, i.e., clockwise or counter-clockwise
Angular velocity is represented by a vector in the following manner:
(i) Magnitude of the velocity is represented by the length of the vector.

(ii) Direction of axis of the rotor is represented by drawing the vector parallel to the axis of the
rotor or normal to the plane of the angular velocity.
(iii) Sense of rotation of the rotor is denoted by taking the direction of the vector in a set rule.
The general rule is that of a right-handed screw, i.e., if a screw is rotated in the clockwise direc-
tion, it goes away from the viewer and vice-versa.
For example, Fig. (a) shows a rotor which rotates in the clockwise direction when viewed from
the end l. Its angular motion has been shown vectorially in Fig. (b). The vector has been taken to

a scale parallel to the axis of the rotor. The sense of direction of the vector is from a to b accord-
ing to the screw rule. However, if the direction of rotation of the rotor is reversed, it would be
from b to a [Fig.(c)].
1.3 Angular Acceleration
Let a rotor spin (rotate) about the horizontal axis Ox at a speed of rad/s in the direction as
shown in Fig.(a). Let oa represent its angular velocity Fig. (b).
Now, if the magnitude of the angular velocity changes to (+) and the direction of the axis of
spin to Ox (in time t). The vector ob would represent its angular velocity in the new position.
Join ab which represents the change in the angular velocity of the rotor. The vector ab can be
resolved into two components:
(i) ac representing angular velocity change in a plane normal to ac or x-axis, and

(ii) cb representing angular velocity change in a plane normal to cb or y-axis.
Change of angular velocity,
= ( + )
Rate of change of angular velocity
( + ) cos
=

Angular acceleration
( + ) cos
lim
0

0, 0 cos 1
+
= lim =
0
Change of angular velocity,
= ( + ) sin
Rate of change of angular velocity
( + ) sin
=

( + ) sin
= lim
0
0, 0 cos
( + )
= lim =
0
Total angular acceleration,

= +

This shows that the total angular acceleration of the rotor is the sum of
1. d/dt, representing change in the magnitude of the angular velocity of the rotor
2. d/dt, Representing change in the direction of the axis of spin, the direction of cb is from
c to b in the vector diagram (being a component of ab), the acceleration acts clockwise in the
vertical plane xy. (When viewed from front along they-axis)

1.4 Gyroscopic Torque (Couple)
Let I be the moment of inertia of a rotor and its angular velocity about a horizontal axis of spin
Ox in the direction as shown in Fig. (a). Let this axis of spin turn through a small angle in the
horizontal plane (xy) to the position Ox' in time t,
Figure (b) shows the vector diagram. oa represents the angular velocity vector when the axis is
ox and ob when the axis is changed to ox'. Then ab represent the change in the angular velocity
due to change in direction of the axis of spin of the rotor. This change in the angular velocity is
clockwise when viewed from a towards b and is in the vertical plane xz. This change results in
angular acceleration, the sense and direction of which are the same as that of the change in the
angular velocity.
Change in the angular velocity,
Angular acceleration,
In the limit,

0, =

Usually, d/dt the angular velocity of the axis of spin is called the angular velocity of precession
and is denoted by p

The torque required to produce this acceleration is known as the gyroscopic torque and is a
couple which must be applied to the axis of spin to cause it to rotate with angular velocity p
about the axis of precession Oz.
Acceleration torque,
= =
For the configuration of Fig.(a)
Ox is known as the axis of spin
Oz is known as the axis of precession
Oy is known as the axis of gyroscopic couple 00
yz is plane of spin
xy is plane of precession
yz is plane of gyroscopic couple
The torque obtained above is that which is required to cause the axis of spin to precess in
the horizontal plane and is known as the active gyroscopic torque or the applied torque. A re-
active gyroscopic torque or reaction torque is also applied to the axis which tends to rotate
the axis of spin in the opposite direction i.e., in the counter-clockwise direction in the above
case. Just as the centrifugal force on a rotating body tends move the body tends to move
the body outwards, while a centripetal acceleration (and thus centripetal force) acts on it in-
wards, in the same way, the effects of active and reactive gyroscopic torques can be un-
derstood.
The effect of the gyroscopic couple on a rotating body is known as the gyroscope effect on the
body. A gyroscope is a spinning body which is free to move in other directions under the action
of external forces.

1.5 Gyroscopic Effect on Aeroplanes
Figure (a) shows an aeroplane in space. Let the propeller be rotating in the clockwise direction
when viewed from the rear end. The angular momentum vector oa due to the angular velocity is
shown in Fig. (b).
If the plane takes a left turn, the angular momentum vector is shifted and may be represented
by the vector ob. The change is shown by the vector ab and is the active gyroscopic couple. This
vector is in the horizontal plane and is perpendicular to the vector oa in the limit. The reactive
vector is given by b'a' which is equal and opposite to the vector ab. The interpretation of this
vector shows that the couple acts in the vertical plane and is counter-clockwise when viewed
from the right-hand side of the plane. This indicates that it tends to raise the nose and depress
the tail of the aeroplane.
Figure (c) shows the gyroscopic effect, when the aeroplane takes the right turn. The change is
shown by the vector cd and is the active gyroscopic couple. It is perpendicular to the vector oc
in the limit in the horizontal plane. The reactive couple is given by d'c'. The couple acts in the
vertical plane and is clockwise when viewed from the right-hand side of the plane. Thus, it tends
to dip the nose and raise the tail of the aeroplane.
If the rotation of the engine is reversed, i.e., it rotates counter-clockwise when viewing from the
rear end, the angular momentum vector is oe as shown in Fig. (d). On taking a left turn, it
changes to of. The active gyroscopic vector is ef and the reactive fe'. Viewing from the right-hand
side of the plane, it indicates that the nose is dipped and the tail is raised. Similarly, when the

plane takes a right tum, the effect is indicated in Fig. (e). The nose is raised and the tail is de-
pressed.
It can be concluded from the above cases that if the direction of either the spin of the rotor or of
the precession is changed, the gyroscopic effect is reversed, but if both are changed, the effect
remains same.
1.6 Gyroscopic Effect on Naval Ships
Some of the terms used in connection with the motion of naval ships or sea vessels are given be-
low.
Bow is the fore or the front end.

Stern or aft is the rear end.
Starboard is the right hand side when looking from stern.
Port is the left-hand side when looking form the stern.
Steering is turning on the side when viewing from the top.
Pitching is limited angular motion of the ship about the transverse axis.
Rolling is limited angular motion of the ship about the longitudinal axis.
Let the plane of spin the rotor and other rotating masses be horizontal and across the breath of
the ship. Assume to the angular velocity of the rotor in the clockwise direction when viewed
from stern.

Gyroscopic Effect during Turning
When the ship turns left the angular momentum vector changes from oa to ob. The reaction cou-
ple is found to be b a which tends to raise the bow and lower the stern. On the turning right the
reaction couple is revered. So that bow is lower and stern is raised.
Gyroscopic Effect on Pitching
Pitching of the ship is usually considered to take place with simple harmonic motion. A simple
harmonic motion is represented by x = X sin 0t
Such a motion is obtain by the projection of a rotating vector X on a diameter while rotating
around a circle with a constant angular velocity 0 and where x is a displacement from the time
mean position in time t. in such the way angular displacement of the axis of the spin from its
mean position is given by
= sin 0
Where = amplitude (angular) of swing or the maximum angle turned from the mean position
in radius
2
0 = =

Angular velocity of precession,

= 0 cos 0

This is maximum when
0 = 1
Therefore, maximum angular velocity of precession
= 0
Gyroscopic Couple,
2
= ( )


When the bow is rising, the reaction couple is clockwise on viewing from top and thus the ship
would move towards right or starboard side. Similarly, when the bow is lowered, the ship turns
toward left or port side.
= 0 2 sin 0
Maximum angular acceleration
= 0 2
Gyroscopic Effect on Rolling
As the axes of the rolling of the ship of the rotor are parallel, there is no precession of the axis of
spin and thus there is no gyroscopic effect.
In the same way, the effect on steering, pitching or rolling can be observed when the plane of the
spin of the rotating masses is horizontal but along the longitudinal axis of the vessel or the axis
is vertical.
1.7 Stability of an Automobile

In case of a four wheeled vehicle, it is essential that that no wheel is lifted off the ground while
the vehicle takes a turn. The condition is fulfilled as long as the vertical reaction of the ground
on any the wheels is positive
Fig. shows a four wheeled vehicle having a mass m. assuming that the weight is equally divided
among the four wheels,

Weight on each wheel = = (downwards)
4 4

Reaction of ground on each wheel, = = (upwards)
4 4
Effect of Gyroscopic Couple
Gyroscopic couple due to four wheels,
2
= 4 = 4

Where
= mass moment of inertia of each wheel

= angular velocity of wheel =

= angular velocity of precession =

= linear velocity of the vehicle
= radius of curvature
Gyroscopic couple due to engine rotating parts,
= =
Where G is the gear ratio,

Total gyroscopic couple,
Positive sign is used when the engine parts rotate in same direction as the wheels and the nega-
tive sign when they rotate in the opposite.
Assuming that CG is positive and the vehicle takes a left turn, the reaction gyroscopic couple on it
is clockwise when viewed from the rear of the vehicle. The reaction couple is provided by equal
and opposite forces on the outer and the inner wheels of the vehicle.

Forces on two outer wheels = (downwards)

Forces on the two inner wheels = (upwards)

Forces on each of the outer wheels = (downwards)

Forces on each of the inner wheels = (upwards)

Thus the forces on each of the outer wheels is similar to the weight. On the inner wheels it is in
the opposite direction. Thus,

Reaction of ground on each outer wheel, = (upwards)
2

Reaction of ground on each inner wheel, = (downward)
2
Effect of Centrifugal Couple
As the vehicle moves on a curved path, a centrifugal force also acts on the vehicle in the outward
direction at the centre of mass of the vehicle.
2 2
Centrifugal force = 2 = ( ) =

This force would tend to overturn the vehicle outwards and the overturning couple will be
2
= 2 =


This is equivalent to a couple to equal and opposite forces on outer and inner wheels.

Forces on each outer wheel = ()
2

Forces on each inner wheel = (upwards)
2
Again, the force on each of the outer wheels is similar to the weight on each of the inner wheels,
it is opposite.

Reaction of ground on each outer wheel, = (upwards)
2

Reaction of ground on each inner wheel, = ()
2

Vertical reaction on each outer wheel = + + (upwards)
4 2 2

Vertical reaction on each inner wheel = + + ()
4 2 2
It can be observed that there are chances that the reaction of the ground on the inner wheels
may not be upwards and thus the wheels are lifted from the ground. For positive reaction, the
Conditions will be
+
0 +
4 2 2 4 2
1.8 Stability of two-wheel vehicle

The case of two-wheel vehicle can be taken in the same way as that of an auto mobile. However,
it easier to tilt such a vehicle inwards to neutralise the overturning effect and the vehicle can
stay in equilibrium while taking a turn.
Let a vehicle take a left turn as shown in fig. (a). The vehicle is inclined to the vertical (inwards)
for equilibrium. The angle of inclination of the vehicle to the vertical is known as the angle of
heel.
Let
= radius of the wheel
= moment of inertia of each wheel
= moment of inertia of rotating parts of the engine
= total mass of the vehicle and the rider
= angular velocity of the wheel
= angular velocity of rotating parts of engine
= ( )
As the axis of spin is not horizontal but inclined to the vertical at an angle and the axis of pre-
cession is vertical, it is necessary to take the horizontal component of the spin vector.
Spin vector (horizontal) = cos = (2 + ) cos
= (2 + ) cos
2
= (2 + ) cos = (2 + ) cos

The reaction couple b a is clockwise when viewed for the rear (back) of the vehicle and tends
to overturn it in the outward direction.

2
= ( )

2 2
Total overturning = (2 + ) cos + cos

2 2 +
= ( + ) cos

() =
2 2 +
For Equilibrium, ( + ) cos = sin

From This Relation, The angle of heel can be determined to avoid skidding of the vehicle.
1.9 Rigid Disc at an Angle Fixed To a Rotating Shaft
Consider a circular disc fixed rigidly to a rotating shaft in such a way that the polar axis of the
shaft makes angel with the axis of the shaft (Fig.). Assume that the shaft rotates clockwise with
angular velocity when viewed along the left end of the shaft.
Let
OX be the axis of the shaft

OP be the polar axis of the disc and
OD the horizontal diametral axis of the disc
Also, let m, r and t be the mass, radius and the thickness of the disc. Then
2
= moment of inertia of disc about polar Axis OP =
2

2 2 2
= moment of inertia of disc about diametral axis = ( + )=( )
12 4 4
(If the disc is thin and t is neglected)
First consider the spinning about the polar axis
Angular velocity of spin = Angular velocity of Disc about the polar axis OP = cos
Angular velocity of precession = Angular velocity of disc about the diametral axis OD = sin
1
= = 2 2
2
Its effect is to rotate the disc counter-clockwise when viewing from the top.
Now consider the spinning about the diametral axis
Angular velocity of spin = Angular velocity of disc about the diametral axis OD = sin
Angular velocity of precession = = Angular velocity o disc about the polar axis OP = cos
1
= = 2 2
2
Its effect is to rotate the disc clockwise when viewing from the top. (Angular velocity of preces-
sion is counter-clockwise when viewing from the right end along OP.)
Resultant gyroscopic couple on the disc,
1 2
1 2 2 2
2 2
= ( ) sin 2 = ( ) sin 2 = sin 2
2 2 2 4 8
1.10 Summary
1. The angular velocity is represented by a vector by drawing the parallel to the axis of the ro-
tor and representing the magnitude by the length of the vector to some scale. Sense of rota-
tion of the rotor is denoted by the rule of a right- handed screw, i.e., if a screw is rotated in
the clockwise direction, it goes away from the viewer and vice-versa.
2. The axis of spin, the axis of precession and the axis of gyroscopic couple are in three perpen-
dicular planes.

3. The torque required to cause the axis of spin to process in a plane is known as the active gy-
roscopic torque or the applied torque.
4. A reactive gyroscopic torque or reaction torque tends to rotate the axis of spin in the oppo-
site direction.
5. The effect of the gyroscopic couple on a rotating body is known as the gyroscopic effect on
the body.
6. A gyroscopic is a spinning body which is free to move in other directions under the action of
external forces.
7. A four-wheel vehicle tends to turn outwards when taking a turn due to the effect of gyro-
scopic couple and the centrifugal force.
8. A two-wheel vehicle stabilises itself by tilting towards inside while taking a turn to nullify
the effects of gyroscopic couple and the centrifugal force.

2
FRICTION DEVICES:
CLUTCHES, BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction to Clutch
2.2 Classification of Clutches
Positive Contact Clutch
Friction Clutch
2.3 Brakes
2.4 Classification of Brakes
2.5 Energy Equations
Block or Shoe Brake
Band Brake
Band and Block Brake
Internal Expanding Brake
2.6 Braking of Vehicle
2.7 Dynamometer
2.8 Types of Dynamometer
Prony Brake Dynamometer
Rope Brake Dynamometer
Belt Transmission Dynamometer
Epicyclic Train Dynamometer
Bevis Gibson Torsion
Dynamometer
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Vimal Limbasiya

2. Friction Devices: Clutches, Brakes and Dynamometers Theory of Machines (2151902)
2.1 Introduction to clutch

The clutch is a mechanical device, which is used to connect or disconnect the source of
power from remaining parts of power transmission system at the will of the operator.
An automotive clutch can permit the engine to run without driving the car. This is
desirable when the engine is to be started or stopped, or when the gears are to be
shifted.
Very often, three terms are used together, namely, couplings, clutches and brakes.
There is a basic difference between the coupling and the clutch.
A coupling, such as a flange coupling, is a permanent connection. The driving and
driven shafts are permanently attached by means of coupling and it is not possible to
disconnect the shafts, unless the coupling is dismantled.
On the other hand, the clutch can connect or disconnect the driving and driven shafts,
as and when required by the operator. Similarly, there is a basic difference between
initial and final conditions in clutch and brake operations.
In the operation of clutch, the conditions are as follows:
(i) Initial Condition The driving member is rotating and the driven member is at rest.
(ii) Final Condition Both members rotate at the same speed and have no relative motion.
In the operation of brake, the conditions are as follows:
(i) Initial Condition One member such as the brake drum is rotating and the braking
member such as the brake shoe is at rest.
(ii) Final Condition Both members are at rest and have no relative motion.
Functions of clutches
(i) It maintains constant load on shaft
(ii) It transmits or starts high inertia load of the machine with a small motor.
(iii) It acts like emergency device to disengage the shaft of the machine from the shaft of
the motor in case of condition of machine jam.
2.2 Classification of clutches
Clutches are classified into the following four groups:
(i) Positive contact Clutches: They include square jaw clutches; spiral jaw clutches and
toothed clutches. In these clutches, power transmission, is achieved by means of
interlocking of jaws or teeth. Their main advantage is positive engagement and once
coupled, they can transmit large torque with no slip.
(ii) Friction Clutches: They include single and multi-plate clutches, cone clutches and
centrifugal clutches. In these clutches, power transmission is achieved by means of
friction between contacting surfaces.
(iii) Fluid Clutches and Couplings: In these clutches, power transmission is achieved by
means of hydraulic pressure. A fluid coupling provides extremely smooth starts and
absorbs shock.
Prepared By: Vimal G. Limbasiya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 2.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Theory of Machines (2151902) 2. Friction Devices: Clutches, Brakes and Dynamometers
(iv) Electromagnetic Clutches: They include magnetic particle clutches, magnetic

hysteresis clutches and eddy current clutches. In these clutches, power transmission
is achieved by means of the magnetic field. These clutches have many advantages,
such as rapid response time, ease of control, and smooth starts and stops.
Positive Contact Clutches
The simplest form of positive contact clutches is the square jaw clutch as shown in Fig.
2.1. It consists of two halves carrying projections or jaws. One clutch half is fixed and
the other can move along the axis of the shaft over either a feather key or splines by
means of shift lever.
During the engagement, the jaws of the moving half enter into the sockets of the
mating half. The engaging surfaces of jaw and socket form a rigid mechanical junction.
Jaw clutches can be used to connect shafts, when the driving shaft is stationary or
rotating at very low velocity. There are two types of jaws, namely, square and spiral.
The spiral jaws can be engaged at slightly higher speed without clashing. Frequent
engagement results in wear of jaws.
The jaw clutches have the following advantages:
(a) They do not slip and engagement is positive.
(b) No heat is generated during engagement or disengagement.
Fig. 2.1 Square Jaw Clutch

The jaw clutches have the following drawbacks:
(a) Jaw clutches can be engaged only when both shafts are stationary or rotate with very
small speed difference.
(b) They cannot be engaged at high speeds because engagement of jaws and sockets
results in shock.
In general, positive contact clutches are rarely used as compared with friction
clutches. However, they have some important applications where synchronous
operation is required like power presses and rolling mills.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Vimal G. Limbasiya

Friction Clutches
Single Plate Clutch
A single plate friction clutch consisting of two flanges is shown in Fig. 2.2. One flange is
rigidly keyed to the driving shaft, while the other is connected to the driven shaft by
means of splines.
The splines permit free axial movement of the driven flange with respect to the driven
shaft. This axial movement is essential for engagement and disengagement of clutch.
The actuating force is provided by a helical compression spring, which forces the
driven flange to move towards the driving flange.
Power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the driving flange by means of the key.
Power is then transmitted from the driving flange to the driven flange by means of
frictional force.
Finally, power is transmitted from the driven flange to the driven shaft by means of
the splines. Since the power is transmitted by means of frictional force between the
driving and driven flanges, the clutch is called 'friction' clutch.
In order to disengage the clutch, a fork is inserted in the collar on the driven flange to
shift it axially to the right side. This relieves the pressure between the driving and the
driven flanges and no torque can be transmitted.
In the working condition, the clutch is in an engaged position under the action of
spring force. Levers or forks are operated to disengage the clutch.
Fig. 2.2 Single Plate Clutch

Advantages of Friction Clutch
The main advantages of friction clutch are as follows:
(i) The engagement is smooth.
(ii) Slip occurs only during engaging operation and once the clutch is engaged, there is
no slip between the contacting surfaces. Therefore, power loss and consequent heat
generation do not create problems, unless the operation requires frequent starts
and stops.

(iii) In certain cases, the friction clutch serves as a safety device. It slips when the torque
transmitted through it exceeds a safe value. This prevents the breakage of parts in
the transmission chain.
Depending upon the number of friction surfaces, the friction clutches are classified as
single-plate or multi-plate clutches.
Depending upon the shape of the friction material, the clutches are classified as disk
clutches, cone clutches or expanding shoe clutches.
The following factors should be considered while designing friction clutches:
(i) Selection of a proper type of clutch that is suitable for the given application
(ii) Selection of suitable friction material at the contacting surfaces
(iii) Designing the clutch for sufficient torque capacity
(iv) Engagement and disengagement should be without shock or jerk
(v) Provision for holding the contacting surfaces together by the clutch itself and
without any external assistance
(vi) Low weight for rotating parts to reduce inertia forces, particularly in high-speed
applications
(vii) Provision for taking or compensating wear of rubbing surfaces
(viii) Provision for carrying away the heat generated at the rubbing surfaces
Torque Transmitting Capacity
A friction disk of a single plate clutch is shown in Fig 2.3. The following notations are used in
the derivation:
rO = outer diameter of friction disk (mm)
ri = inner diameter of friction disk (mm)
p = intensity of pressure at radius r (N/mm2)
W = total operating force (N)
Ft = frictional force applied on plate
T = torque transmitted by the clutch (N-mm)
Fig. 2.3 Friction Disk

Assume elemental ring at radius r whose thickness is dr.
dW = axial force on elemental ring
dW = p x 2r dr

Elemental area = 2r dr
Elemental axial force = p (2r dr)
rO
Total axial force, W dW

ri
rO
Total axial force, W p (2r) dr

ri
rO
Total axial force, W 2p r dr

ri
Two theories are used to obtain the torque capacity of the clutch. They are called uniform
pressure theory and uniform wear theory.
(i) Uniform Pressure Theory: In case of new clutches employing a number of springs, the
pressure remains constant over the entire surface area of the friction disk. With this
assumption, p is assumed to be constant. This constant pressure distribution is illustrated in
Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Pressure Distribution

Axial force on elemental ring
rO
W 2p r dr
ri
rO
W 2p
2
r
2 ri
W p rO2 ri2
W
p (i)
rO2 ri2
Total torque transmitted,
rO rO rO
Mt T dT dFt r dW r
ri ri ri
rO
p 2r2 dr
ri

rO
2p r2 dr
ri
rO
2p
3
r
3 ri
2
p rO3 ri3
3
Substituting value of p from equation (i)
2 O
r 3 ri3
2 W
T
3 rO ri
2
2 rO3 ri3
T W 2 2 .(ii)
3 rO ri
2 rO ri
3 3
Mt = T = .W.rm Where, rm
3 rO2 ri2
The above equations have been derived for a single pair of contacting surfaces. When there
are a number of friction surfaces in contact, as in the case of the multi-disk clutch, Eq. (ii)
should be multiplied by the number of pairs of contacting surfaces to obtain the resultant
torque transmitting capacity.
(ii) Uniform Wear Theory: According to the second theory it is assumed that the wear is
uniformly distributed over the entire surface area of the friction disk. This assumption is used
for worn-out clutches. The axial wear of the friction disk is proportional to the frictional work.
The work done by the friction force at radius r is proportional to the frictional force (p) and
rubbing velocity (2rn) where n is speed in rev/min.
Fig. 2.5 Pressure Distribution

Wear (p) (2r n)
Assuming speed n and the coefficient of friction as constant for a given configuration,
Wear pr
When the wear is uniform,
pr = constant

The pressure distribution according to uniform wear theory is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. In this
case, p is inversely proportional to r. Therefore, pressure is maximum at the inner radius and
minimum at the outer periphery. The maximum pressure intensity at the inner radius ri is
denoted by pa. It is also the permissible intensity of pressure.
rO rO
Total axial force, W p (2r) dr 2pr dr 2c r

rO
ri
ri ri
W 2c rO ri
W
c ..(iii)
2 rO ri
Total torque transmitted,
rO rO
Mt T dT dFt r
ri ri
rO
dW r
ri
rO
p 2r2 dr
ri
rO
(2r)p r dr
ri
rO
2c
2
r
2 ri
2c
r O
2
ri2
2
c rO ri2 2
Substituting value of c from equation (iii)

W
2 rO ri
rO2 ri2
(rO r)
W i
2
(rO r)
Mt = T = .W.rm Where, rm i
2
Conclusions
(i) The uniform-pressure theory is applicable only when the friction lining is new.
(ii) The uniform-wear theory is applicable when the friction lining gets worn out.
(iii) The friction radius for new clutches is slightly greater than that of worn-out clutches.
(iv) The torque transmitting capacity of new clutches is slightly more than that of worn-
out clutches.

(v) A major portion of the life of friction lining comes under the uniform wear criterion.
(vi) It is more logical and safer to use uniform-wear theory in the design of clutches.
Therefore, the torque transmitting capacity can be increased by three methods:
(a) Use friction material with a higher coefficient of friction ()
(b) Increase the plate pressure (p)
(c) Increase the mean radius of the friction disk (rm)
In design of clutches, the following factors should be considered:
(a) Service Factor In order to start the machine from rest and accelerate it to the rated
speed, the clutch should have torque capacity substantially higher than the nominal
torque rating.
In most of the cases, the accelerating or starting torque is much more than the
running torque. If the clutch is not designed for this increased torque, it will slip under
the load and no power can be transmitted.
There is another factor to account for additional torque. In many applications, the
torque developed by the prime mover fluctuates and also, the torque requirement by
driven machinery fluctuates as in the case of presses. These two factors are accounted
by means of service factor.
(b) Location of clutch Let us consider a mill driven by a diesel engine. The optimum
operating speed of the engine is too high for direct connection to the mill shaft.
Therefore, a gearbox is provided to reduce the speed.
In this set-up, a clutch is also required so that the engine can be started and brought
up to the full speed before connecting to the mill shaft.
In such applications, the question arises about the location of clutch-whether the
clutch should be located between the engine and the gearbox or between the gearbox
and the mill?
The clutch is required to transmit a given power. The power transmitted by the clutch
is the product of torque and speed. Therefore, greater the speed, lower is the torque
to be transmitted. It is, therefore, logical to place the clutch at the high-speed side,
that is, between the engine and the gearbox.
Since the torque capacity is low, the cost of the clutch is also low. On the other hand,
the speed is low between the gearbox and the mill and, the clutch will have to
transmit high torque, increasing the cost.
(c) The coefficient of friction for automotive clutches, which use asbestos lining in contact
with a cast iron surface, is taken from 0.3 to 0.4.The allowable pressure on the friction
lining varies from 0.1 N/mm2 for large heavy-duty double-plate clutches to 0.25
N/mm2 for an average passenger car clutch. The allowable pressure for clutches with
metal plates is from 0.7 to 1.05 N/mm2.

Multi-Disk Clutches
A multi-disk clutch, as shown in Fig. 2.6, consists of two sets of disks A and B. Disks of
Set A are usually made of hardened steel, while those of set B are made of bronze.
Disks of Set A are connected to the driven shaft by means of splines. Because of
splines, they are free to move in an axial direction on the splined sleeve. There are
four through bolts, which pass through the holes in the disks of Set B.
A clearance fit between the bolt and the holes in the plates allows disks of Set B to
move in an axial direction. The bolts are rigidly fixed to a rotating drum, which is keyed
to the driving shaft.
The axial force P (or W), which is required to hold the disks together, is provided by
means of levers or springs. When the driving shaft rotates, the drum, along with bolts
and disks of Set B, also rotate.
Power is transmitted from the disks of Set B to those of A by means of friction. When
the disks of Set A rotate, they transmit the power to the driven shaft through splined
sleeve.
Fig. 2.6 Multi-Disk Clutch

Equations derived for torque transmitting capacity of the single plate clutch are modified to
account for the number of pairs of contacting surfaces in the following way:
For the uniform pressure criterion,
2 rO3 ri3
T Wn 2 2
3 rO ri
For the uniform wear criterion,
(rO r)
T Wn i
2
Where n is the number of pairs of contacting surfaces.

Fig. 2.7 Number of Disks

In the design of multi-disk clutches, very often it is required to determine the number
of disks rather than the number of pairs of contacting surfaces.
In multi-disk clutch, illustrated in Fig. 2.6, there are two types of disks called disks of
Set A and disks of Set B.
We can use steel disks for Set A and bronze disks for Set B. Or, we can use plane steel
disks for Set A and Set B consisting of steel disks with asbestos lining.
Let us consider 5 disks 3 disks of Set A and 2 disks of Set B. As shown in Fig 2.7, the
number of pairs of contacting surfaces is 4. Therefore,
Number of disks = Number of pairs of contacting surfaces +1 = n + 1 .(a)
Suppose,
n1= number of disks on driving shaft
n2= number of disks on driven shaft
Substituting in (a),
n1+ n2 = Number of pairs of contacting surfaces + 1
or number of pairs of contacting surfaces = n1+ n2 1
It should be noted that the two outer disks have contacting surface on one side only.
Difference between Single and Multi-Plate Clutches
The difference between single and multi-plate clutches is as follows:
(i) The number of pairs of contacting surfaces in the single plate clutch is one or at the
most two. There are more number of contacting surfaces in the multi-disk clutch.
(ii) As the number of contacting surfaces is increased, the torque transmitting capacity is
also increased, other conditions being equal. In other words, for a given torque
capacity, the size of the multi-plate clutch is smaller than that of the single plate
clutch, resulting incompact construction.
(iii) The work done by friction force during engagement is converted into heat is
generated in the multi-plate clutch due to increased number of contacting surfaces.
Heat dissipation is a serious problem in the multi-plate clutch. Therefore, multi-plate
clutches are wet clutches, while single plate clutches are dry.

(iv) The coefficient of friction decreases due to cooling oil, thereby reducing the torque
transmitting capacity of the multi-plate clutch. The coefficient of friction is high in
dry single plate clutches.
(v) Single plate clutches are used in applications where large radial space is available,
such as trucks and cars. Multi-disk clutches are used in applications where compact
construction is desirable, e.g., scooter and motorcycle.
Difference between Dry and Wet Clutches
The difference between dry and wet clutches is as follows:
(i) A dry clutch has higher coefficient of friction. In wet clutches, the coefficient of
friction is reduced due to oil. The coefficient of friction for dry operation is 0.3 or
more, while it is 0.1 or less for wet operation.
(ii) The torque capacity of dry clutch is high compared with the torque capacity of wet
clutch of the same dimensions.
(iii) For dry clutch, it is necessary to prevent contamination due to moisture or near by
lubricated machinery, by providing seals. Such a problem is not serious in wet
clutches.
(iv) Heat dissipation is more difficult in dry clutches. In wet clutches, the lubricating oil
carries away the frictional heat.
(v) Rate of wear is far less in wet clutches compared to dry clutches. The wear rate in
wet clutches is about 1% of the rate expected in dry clutches.
(vi) The engagement in wet clutch is smoother than in the case of dry clutch.
(vii) In wet clutches, the clutch facings are grooved to provide for passage of lubricant.
This reduces the net face area for transmitting torque.
Friction Material
For light loads and low speeds, wood, cork and leather are used as friction materials. The
present trend for high speeds and heavy loads has given a stimulus to the development of
new friction materials, which are capable of withstanding severe service conditions.
The desirable properties of a good friction material are as follows:
(i) It should have high coefficient of friction.
(ii) The coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire range of,
temperatures encountered in applications.
(iii) It should have good thermal conductivity.
(iv) It should remain unaffected by environmental conditions like moisture, or dirt
particles.
(v) It should have high resistance to abrasive and adhesive wear.
(vi) It should have good resilience to provide good distribution of pressure at the
contacting surfaces.

The coefficient of friction depends upon a number of factors. They include materials of
contacting surfaces, surface finish, surface temperature, rubbing speed, foreign
particles on rubbing surfaces and atmospheric conditions like moisture.
There are two types of friction materials in common use asbestos-base and sintered
metals.
There are two types of asbestos friction materials-woven and moulded. A woven
asbestos friction disk consists of asbestos fiber woven around brass, copper or zinc
wires and impregnated with rubber or asphalt.
Asbestos material whether woven or moulded is anorganic material and is subject to
destruction by heat at comparatively low temperature. Sintered-metal friction materials solve
this difficulty.
There are two varieties of friction disks made from sintered metals bronze-base and iron-
base, depending upon the major constituents. The advantages of sintered-metal friction disks
are as follows:
(i) They have higher wear resistance.
(ii) They can be used at high temperatures.
(iii) The coefficient of friction is constant over a wide range of temperature and pressure.
(iv) They are unaffected by environmental conditions, such as dampness, salt water or
fungi.
Sintered-metal friction materials offer an excellent design with lighter, cheaper and
compact construction. The maximum permissible intensity of pressure for woven and
moulded asbestos materials is 0.3 N/mm2 and 1 N/mm2 respectively, while for sintered
metals it can be taken between 1 and 2 N/mm2.
It has been found that if asbestos dust is inhaled, it may lead to cancer. The body cells
which come in contact with asbestos particles are agitated and develop into cancer
cells. Lung cancer is common among operators working in atmospheres of asbestos.
There are federal regulations in a number of countries, which prohibit the use of
asbestos in clutch or brake linings. Nowadays, metallic or semi-metallic fibres or
powder is used in place of asbestos fibres.
Modern friction lining consists of four basic ingredients, namely, fibres, filler, binder
and friction modifiers. Fibres provide rigidity and strength for the friction lining
Nowadays, steel wool or aramid is used as fibre material instead of asbestos.
A filler fills the space between the fibres and extend the lining life. Filler materials are
barytes, clay and calcium carbonate. In case of metallic lining, fine metal power is used
as filler material.
Binder is a glue that holds the lining ingredients together. Phenolformaldehyde is
extensively used as binder material. Friction modifier improves frictional and wear
properties. Brass and zinc particles are added as friction modifiers to control the
abrasive properties of the lining.

Centrifugal Clutches
Whenever it is required to engage the load after the driving member has attained a
particular speed, a centrifugal clutch is used. The centrifugal clutches permit the drive-
motor or engine to start, warm up and accelerate to the operating speed without
load.
Then the clutch is automatically engaged and the driven equipment is smoothly
brought up to the operating speed. These clutches are particularly useful with internal
combustion engines, which can not start under load.
The centrifugal clutch works on the principle of centrifugal force. The centrifugal force
increases with speed. Construction of centrifugal clutch is shown in Fig. 2.8.
It consists of a spider, which is mounted on the input shaft, and which is provided with
four equally spaced radial guides. A sliding shoe is retained in each guide by means of
a spring.
The outer surface of the sliding shoe is provided with a lining of friction material like
asbestos. The complete assembly of spider, shoes and springs is enclosed in a coaxial
drum, which is mounted on the output shaft.
As the angular speed of the input shaft increases, the centrifugal force acting on the
sliding shoes increases, causing the shoes to move in a radially outward direction. The
shoes continue to move with increasing speed until they contact the inner surface of
the drum.
Power is transmitted due to frictional force between the shoe lining and the inner
surface of the drum. The clutch is disengaged automatically. When the angular
velocity of the shoes decreases, the centrifugal force decreases.
This reduces the normal farce between the friction lining and the drum. The friction
force, which is proportional to normal force, also reduces. The lining slips with respect
to the drum and no torque can be transmitted.
Fig. 2.8 Centrifugal Clutch

Fig. 2.9 Forces on Shoe

The forces acting on the shoe are shown in Fig. 2.9, where following notations are used:
m = mass of each shoe in kg
r = distance of centre of gravity of shoe from centre of spider at the time of
engagement in m
R = inner radius of rim in m
z = No. of shoes
N = driving speed in rpm
= angular speed of driving shaft (rad/s)
g = angular speed at time of engagement (rad/s)
x = g /
= angle subtended by each shoe at centre of spider
FC = centrifugal force in N
FS = spring force in N
F = outward force on each shoe in N
FF = Friction force in N
T = Mt = torque transmitted
l = contact length
b = face width
Centrifugal force, FC = mr2
Spring force, FS = mrg2
Total or Net outward force on shoe, F = FC FS
= mr2 mrg2
= mr (2 g2)
g 2
F mr 1
2

F mr2 1 x 2
Tangential frictional force, FF = x F
= mr2 (1 x2)
Torque transmitted, T = FF x R x z
= mr2 z R (1 x2) (If not given, assume r R and = 60)

Example 1:- A single plate clutch with both sides effective is to transmit 75 kW at 900
rpm. The axial pressure is limited to 0.07 MPa. The coefficient of friction may be taken as
0.25. The ratio of face width to mean radius is 0.25. Determine the outer and inner radii of
clutch plate.
Solution: P = 75 KW N = 900 rpm
p = 0.07 MPa = 0.25
b/rm = 0.25
2NT
Power, P
60
2 900 T
75 103
60
T = 795.77 N.m
Assuming uniform wear theory,
T W rm n
T (A p) rm n
T (2rm b p) rm n
rm
T 2rm p rm n
4

T rm3 p n
2

795.77 103 0.25 rm3 0.07 2
2
rm = 243.706 mm
rO ri
rm
2
r r
243.706 O i
2
rO + ri = 487.412 mm .(i)
face width of plate is equal to difference of outer and inner radii
b = r O ri
b
0.25
rm
b = 60.926 mm
rO ri = 60.926 mm .(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
ri = 213.24 mm
rO = 274.17 mm

Example 2:- Design a single plate clutch considering uniform wear criterion and effective
two pair of contacting surfaces from the following specification:
Power to be transmitted = 40 kW
Speed = 1560 r.p.m.
Service factor = 1.25
Permissible pressure for the lining = 0.4 MPa
Coefficient of friction = 0.30
Outer diameter = 300 mm
Permissible stress for shaft material = 45 MPa
Solution: P = 40 KW N = 1560 rpm
p = 0.4 MPa = 0.03
dO= 300 mm = 45 MPa
2NT
Power, P
60
2 1560 T
40 103
60
T = 244.85 N.m
T W rm n
T (A p) rm n
T (2rm b p) rm n
r r r r
T 2 O i rO ri O i p n
2 2
r 2 r2
244.85 103 2 O i rO ri p n
4

244.85 103 0.31502 ri2 150 ri 0.4 2
2
ri = 142.4 mm
Example 3:- A car engine has a maximum torque of 100 N.m. The clutch is a single plate
with two acting surfaces; the axial pressure is not to exceed 0.85 bar. The ratio of outer
diameter to inner diameter can be considered as 1.2. Find the dimensions of friction plate &
axial force required by springs. Assume = 0.3.
Solution: T = 100 N.m
n=2
p = 0.85 bar = 0.85 x 105 N/m2
dO/di = 1.2
= 0.3


T W rm n
r r
100 0.3 W O i 2
2
W rO ri 333.33
r
Wri O 1 333.33
ri
Wri 2.2 333.33
Wri 151.51 (i)
W 2c rO ri
c = p x ri
= 85000 x ri
i i 1.2 1
W 2(85000 r)r
W 106814.15 ri2 (ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
106814.15 ri3 151.51
ri = 0.1123 m
rO = 0.1348 m
W = 1347.06 N
Example 4:- A multiple disc clutch is to transmit 4 kW at 750 rpm. Available steel and
bronze discs are 40 mm inner radius and 70 mm outer radius are to be assembled alternately
in appropriate numbers. The clutch is to operate in oil with an expected coefficient of friction
of 0.1 and maximum allowable pressure is not to exceed 350 KPa. Assume uniform wear
condition to prevail and specify the number of steel (driving) and bronze (driven) discs
required. Also determine what axial force is to be applied to develop the full torque.
Solution: P = 4 kW N = 750 rpm
ri = 40 mm = 0.1
rO = 70 mm p = 350 KPa
2NT
Power, P
60
2 750 T
4 103
60
T = 50.93 N.m
T W rm n

70 40
50.93 103 0.1 W n
2
Wn = 9260 (i)
W 2c rO ri
i rO ri
W 2(pmax r)
W 2 0.35 40 70 40
W = 2638.94 N
Wn = 9260
n = 3.5
n4
No. of plates required = n + 1
=5
No. of steel (driving) discs = 3
No. of bronze (driven) discs = 2
Example 5:- A multiplate clutch is used to transmit 5 kw power at 1440 rpm. The inner &
outer diameters of contacting surfaces are 50 mm and 80 mm respectively. The coefficient of
friction and the average allowable pressure intensity for the lining may be assumed as 0.1 and
350 kPa respectively. Determine
(i) Number of friction plates & pressure plates
(ii) Axial force required to transmit power
(iii) The actual average pressure
(iv) Actual maximum pressure intensity after wear.

di= 50 mm = 0.1
dO= 80 mm p = 350 KPa
2NT
Power, P
60
2 1440 T
5 103
60
T = 33.157 N.m
T W rm n
40 25
33.157 103 0.1 W n
2
Wn = 10202.15 (i)
W 2c rO ri

W 2(p ravg ) rO ri
0.042 0.0252
W 2 350 10 3

2
W = 1072.068 N
Wn = 10202.15
n 10
No. of plates required = n + 1= 11
Plates on drivingshafts = 6
Plates on driven shafts = 5
Actual number of active surfaces = 10
T Wact rm n
33.157 0.1 Wact 0.0325 10
Wact = 1020.215 N
Wact 2c rO ri
1020.215 2c 0.04 0.025
c = 10824.817
c = pavg x ravg
10824.817 = pavg x 0.0325
pavg = 333071.3 N/m2
c = pmax x ri
10824.817 = pmax x 0.025
pmax = 432992.68 N/m2
Example 6:- A Centrifugal clutch is to be designed to transmit 15 kW at 900 rpm. The

shoes are four in number. The speed at which the engagement begins is 3/4 th of the running
speed. The inside radius of the pulley rim is 150 mm. The shoes are lined with Ferrodo for
which the coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.25.
Determine: (i) Mass of the shoes and
(ii) Size of the shoes.
z=4 g =
R = 150 mm = 0.25
Assume, r =120 mm
2NT
Power, P
60
2 900 T
15 103
60
T = 159.15N.m

2N 2 900
94.26 rad / sec
60 60
T mr2zR(1 x2 )
3 2
159.15 0.25 m 120 (94.26) 4 150 1
2
4
m = 2.27 kg
Assuming that the arc of contact of the shoes subtend an angle of = 60 at the centre of the
spider, therefore,
Contact length, l R

l 60 150
180
= 157 mm
Assuming intensity of pressure (pn) exerted on shoes is 0.1 N/mm2
F mr2 (1 x2 )
pn
lb lb
3 2
2.27 0.12 (94.26)2 1
4
0.1 106
lb
l x b = 0.01058
b = 0.06744 m
Example 7:- A centrifugal clutch consists of four shoes, each having a mass of 2 Kg. Inner
radius of the drum is 140 mm in the engaged position. The distance of C.G. of the shoe from
the axis of rotation of the spider is 115 mm. = 0.2. The spring force at the beginning of the
engagement is 1400 N.
Calculate (i) The speed at which the engagement begins
(ii)The power transmitted by the clutch at 1200 rpm.
Solution: z=4 m = 2 kg
R = 140 mm r = 115 mm
= 0.2 FS = 1400 N
N = 1200 rpm
Engagement occurs only whenever the spring force is overcomes by centrifugal force.
FS = mrg2
1400 = 2 x 0.115 x g2
g = 78.019 rad/sec
2N 2 1200
125.66 rad / sec
60 60
78.019
x g 0.6208
125.66

T mr2zR(1 x2 )
T 0.2 2 0.115 (125.66)2 4 0.14 1 0.62
2

= 250.4 N.m
2NT
Power, P
60
2 900 250.4
P
60
P = 31.46kW
Example 8:- Find out mass of a shoe, volume of a shoe and maximum load of a spring of a
centrifugal clutch for following data:
No. of shoes =4
Engagement begins at 75 % of the Running Speed
Inside diameter of pulley rim = 32.5 cm
Distance of C.G. of shoe from the centre of the spider = 120 mm
Coefficient of friction the shoe and drum = 0.25
Running Speed = 720 r.p.m.
Shoe is made up of C.I. for which the density is 7260 Kg/m3
Solution: P = 15 kW z=4
x = 0.75 D = 32.5 cm
r = 120 mm = 0.25
N = 720 rpm = 7260 Kg/m3
2NT
Power, P
60
2 720 T
15 103
60
T = 198.94 N.m
2N 2 720
75.398 rad / sec
60 60
T mr2zR(1 x2 )
198.94 0.25 m 0.12 (75.398)2 4 0.1625 1 0.75
2

m = 4.1 kg
m 4.1
Volume, V
7260
= 5.65 x 104 m3
g = 0.75
= 56.548 rad/sec

FSmax = mrg2
FSmax = 4.1 x 0.12 x 56.548
= 1573.25 N
Example 9:- The following specification refers to a centrifugal clutch:

No. of shoes =4
Running Speed = 950 r.p.m.
The speed at which the engagement starts is 80 % of the Running Speed
Inner radius of drum = 120 mm
The radial distance of centre of gravity from the axis of spider is 100 mm
The normal intensity of pressure between friction lining and the drum = 0.2 MPa
The arc of contact subtended by friction lining of shoe at centre of spider is 60 0
The material of friction lining is Ferrodo with coefficient of friction = 0.25
Find (i) capacity of the clutch Mass of each shoe and (ii) size of each shoe.
Solution: P = 30 kW z=4
N = 950 rpm x = 0.8
R = 0.12 m r = 0.1 m
p = 0.2 MPa = 60
= 0.25
2NT
Power, P
60
2 950 T
30 103
60
T = 301.5 N.m
2N 2 950
99.48 rad / sec
60 60
T mr2zR(1 x2 )
301.5 0.25 m 0.1 (99.48)2 4 0.12 1 0.8
2

m = 7.05 kg
Contact length, l R

l 60 0.12
180
= 0.125 m
F mr2 (1 x2 )
pn
lb lb
7.05 0.1 (99.48)2 1 0.8
2
0.2 106
lb
l x b = 0.0125
Face width, b = 0.099 m

2.3 Brakes
A brake is defined as a mechanical device which is used to absorb the energy
possessed by a moving system or mechanism by the friction.
The primary purpose of the brake is to slow down or completely stop the motion of
moving system such as rotating drum, machine or vehicle. It is also used to hold the
parts of the system in position at rest.
An automobile brake is used either to reduce the speed of the car or bring it to rest. It
also used to keep the car stationary on the downhill road.
The energy absorbed by the brake can be either kinetic or potential or both. In
automobile application, the brake absorbs kinetic energy of moving vehicle.
In hoists and elevators, the brake absorbs the potential energy released by the object
during the braking period. The energy absorbs by the brake converts into heat energy
and dissipated to surrounding. Heat dissipation is a serious problem in brake
application.
2.4 Classification of brakes
Brakes are classified into the following three groups:
(a) Mechanical brakes which is operated by mechanical means such as levers, springs and
pedals. Depending upon the shape of the friction material, the mechanical brakes are
classified as Block brakes, Band Brakes, Block and Band Brake and internal or
external shoes brakes.
(b) Hydraulic brakes and pneumatic brakes which are operated by fluid pressure such as
oil pressure or air pressure.
(c) Electrical brakes which are operated by magnetic force and which include magnetic
particle brakes, hysteresis brakes and eddy current brakes.
Brake capacity depends upon the following factor.
(i) The unit pressure between braking surface.
(ii) The contacting area of braking surface.
(iii) The radius of the brake drum
(iv) The coefficient of friction
(v) The ability of the brakes to dissipate heat that is equivalent to the energy being
absorbed.
2.5 Energy Equations
The first step in the design of a mechanical brake is to determine the braking-torque capacity
for the given application. The braking-torque depends upon the amount of energy absorbed
by the brake. When a mechanical system of mass m moving with a velocity v1 is slowed down
to the velocity v2during the period of braking, the kinetic energy absorbed by the brake is
given by

KE m v12 v22
1
2 ..(i)
Where, KE = kinetic energy absorbed by the brake (J)
m = mass of the system (kg)
v1 and v2 = initial and final velocities of the system (m/s)
Similarly, the kinetic energy of the rotating body is given by
KE I 12 22
1
2 ..(ii)
KE mk2 12 22
1
2 .(iii)
2
where, I =mass moment of inertia of the rotating body (kg-m )
k = radius of gyration of the body (m)
1, 2 = initial and final angular velocities of the body (rad/s)
In certain applications like hoists, the brake absorbs the potential energy released by the
moving weight during the braking period. When a body of mass m falls through a distance h,
the potential energy absorbed by the brake during the braking period is given by
PE =mgh .(iv)
where, g =gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
Depending upon the type of application, the total energy absorbed by the brake is
determined by adding the respective quantities of Eqs (i) to (iv). This energy is equated to the
work done by the brake.
Therefore,
E = Tb
where, E = total energy absorbed by the brake (J)
Tb = braking torque (N-m)
= angle through which the brake drum rotates during the braking period (rad)
Block or Shoe Brake:

Fig. 2.10 Block or Shoe Brake

A block or shoe brake consists of a block or shoe which is pressed against a rotating drum.
The force on the drum is increased by using a lever [Fig. 2.10(a)]. If only one block is used
for the purpose, a side thrust on the bearing of the shaft supporting the drum will act.
This can be prevented by using two blocks on the two sides of the drum [Fig.2.10(b)]. This
also doubles the braking torque.
A material softer than that of the drum or the rim of the wheel is used to make the blocks
so that these can be replaced easily on wearing. Wood and rubber are used for light and
slow vehicles and cast steel for heavy and fast ones.
Let
r Radius of drum
Co efficient of friction
Fr Radial force applied on the drum
Rn Normalreaction on the block
F Force applied at the lever end
Ff Frictional force Rn
Assuming that normal reaction Rn and frictional force Ff act at the mid point of the block.
Breaking Torque Frictional force Radius
Rn r
The direction of the frictional force on the drum is to be opposite to that of its rotation
while on the block it is in the same direction. Taking moments about the pivot O [Fig.
2.10(a)],
F a Rn b Rn c 0
Fa
Rn
b c
b c
F Rn _________(1)
a
When b c , F = 0 which implies that the force needed to apply the brake is virtually
zero, or that once contact is made between the block and the drum, the brake is applied
itself. Such a brake is known as a self locking brake.

As the moment of the force Ff about O is in the same direction as that of the applied force
F, Ff aids in applying the brake. Such a brake is known as a self enegised brake.
If the rotation of the drum is reversed, i.e., it is made clockwise,
F Rn b c / a
which shows that the required force F will be far greater than what it would be when the
drum rotates counter clockwise.
a
If the pivot lies on the line of action of Ef , i.e., at O, c = 0 and F Rn ,
b
which is valid for clockwise as well as for counter clockwise rotation.
If c is made negative, i.e., if the pivot is at O,
b c
F Rn for counter clockwise rotation
a
and
b c
F Rn for clockwise rotation
a
In case the pivot is provided on the same side of the applied force and the block as shown
in Fig. 2.10 (c), the equilibrium condition can be considered accordingly.
In the above treatment, it is assumed that the normal reaction and the frictional force act
at the mid point of the block. However, this is true only for small angles of contact.
When the angles of contact is more than 40, the normal pressure is less at the ends than
at the centre. In that case, has to be replaced by an equivalent coefficient of friction
given by

4 sin 2
'
sin

Band Brake:
Fig. 2.11 Band Brake

It consists of a rope, belt or flexible steel band (lined with friction material) which is
pressed against the external surface of a cylindrical drum when the brake is applied. The
force is applied at the free end of a lever (Fig.2.11).
Brake torque on the drum = ( T1 T2) r
where r is the effective radius of the drum.
The ratio of the tight and slack side tensions is given by T1 / T2 e on the assumption
that the band is on the point of slipping on the drum.
The effectiveness of the force F depends upon the
direction of rotation of the drum
ratio of length a and b
direction of the applied force F.
To apply the brke to the rotating drum, the band has to be tightened on the drum. This is
possible if
1. F is applied in the downward direction when a > b
2. F is applied in the upward direction when a < b
If the force applied is not as above, the band is further loosened on the drum which
means no braking effect is possible.
1. a > b, F Downwards
(a) Rotation Counter Clockwise
For counter clockwise rotation of the drum, the tight and the slack sides of the band will be
as shown in Fig. 2.11.
Considering the forces acting on the lever and taking moments about the pivot,
F l T1 a T2 b 0
or
T1 a T2 b
F _________(1)
l
As T1> T2 and a > b under all conditions, the effectiveness of the brake will depend upon the
force F.
(b) Rotation Clockwise
Fig. 2.12

In this case, the tight and the slack sides are reversed as shown in Fig. 2.12.
Now,
F l T2 a T1 b 0
or
T2 a T1 b
F _________(2)
l
As T2< T1 and a > b, the brake will be effective as long as T2. a is greater than T1. b
Or
T2 b
T2 a T1 b or
T1 a
i.e., as long as the ratio of T2 to T1 is greater than the ratio b/a.
T2 a

When T1 b , F is zero or negative, i.e., the brake becomes self locking as no force is
needed to apply the brake. Once the brake has been engaged, no further force is required to
stop the rotation of the drum.
2. a < b, F upwards
Fig. 2.13
(a) Rotation Counter Clockwise

The tight and the slack sides will be as shown in Fig.2.13(a).
Therefore,
F l T1 a T2 b 0
or
T2 b T1 a
F
l
As T2< T1 and b > a, the brake is operative only as long as
T a
T2 b T1 a or 2
T1 b
Once T2 / T1 becomes equal to a/b, F required is zero and the brake becomes self locking.

(b) Rotation Clockwise

The tight and the slack sides are shown in Fig. 2.13(a).
T1 b T2a
From Fig. 2.13(b), F l T1 b T2 a 0 or F
l
As T1> T2 and b > a, under all conditions, effectiveness of the brake will depend upon the
force F.
When a = b, the band cannot be tightened and thus, the brake cannot be applied.
Fig. 2.14
The band brake just discussed is known as a differential band brake. However, if either a
or b is made zero, a simple band brake is obtained. If b = 0 (Fig. 2.14) and F downwards,
F l T1 a 0
or
a
F T1
l
Similarly, the force can be found for the other cases.
Note that such a brake can neither have self energising properties nor it can be self
locked.
The brake is said to be more effecctive when maximum braking force is applied with the
least effort F.
For case (i), when a > b and F is downwards, the force (effort) F required is less when the
rotation is clockwise assuming that the brake is effective.
For case (ii), when a < b and F is upwards, F required is less when the rotation is counter
clockwise assuming that the brake is effective.
Thus, for the given arrangement of the differential brake, it is more effective when
(a) a > b, F downwards, rotation clockwise
(b) a > b, F upwards, rotation counter clockwise.
The advantages of self locking is taken in hoists and conveyers where motion is
permissible in only one direction. If the motion gets reversed somehow, the self locking
is engaged which can be released only by reversing the applied force.

It is seen that a differential band brake is more effective only in one direction of rotation
of the drum.
Fig. 2.15
However, a two-way band brake can also be deigned which is equally effective for both
the directions of rotation of the drum (Fig. 2.15). In such a brake, the two lever arms are
made equal.
For both directions of rotation of the drum,
F l T1 a T2 a 0
or

F T1 T2 al
Band brake offers the following advantages:

(i) Band brake has simple construction. It has small number of parts. These features
reduce the cost of band brake.
(ii) Most equipment manufacturers can easily produce band brake without requiring
specialized facilities like foundry or forging shop. The friction lining is the only part
which must be purchased from outside agencies.
(iii) Band brake is more reliable due to small number of parts.
(iv) Band brake requires little maintenance.
The disadvantages of band brake are as follows:

(a) The heat dissipation capacity of a band brake is poor.
(b) The wear of friction lining is uneven from one end to the other.
Band brakes are used in applications like bucket conveyors, hoists and chain saws. They are
more popular as back-stop devices.

Band and Block Brake:
Fig. 2.16 Band and Block brake

A band and block brake consists of a number of wooden blocks secured inside a flexible
steel band. When the brake is applied, the blocks are pressed against the drum. Two sides
of the band becomes tight and slack as usual. Wooden blocks have a higher coefficient of
friction. Thus, increasing the effectiveness of the brake. Also, such blocks can be easily
replaced on being worn out [ Fig.2.16(a)].
Each block subtends a small angle of 2 at the centre of the drum. The frictional force on
the blocks acts in the direction of rotation of the drum. For n blocks on the brake,
Let
T0 Tension on the slack side.
T1 Tension on the tight side after one block.
T2 Tension on the tight side after two blocks.
Tn Tension on the tight side after nblocks.

Coefficient of friction.
Rn Normalreaction on the block.
Resolving the forces horizontally and vertically.
T
1
T0 cos Rn ________(1)
T
1 T0 sin R n ________(2)
T1 T0 cos Rn

T1 T0 sin Rn

T 1 T0
tan
T1 T0 1

T T T T
1 0 1 0

tan 1
T T T T
1 0 1 0
tan 1

2T1 1 tan

2T0 1 tan
T1 1 tan

T0 1 tan
Similarly
T2 1 tan
and so on
T1 1 tan

Tn 1 tan

Tn1 1 tan
Tn Tn Tn1 T2 T1

T0 Tn1 Tn2 T1 T0
n
1 tan

1 tan
Internal Expanding Brake

The construction of an internal expanding brake is shown in Fig. 2.17. It consists of a
shoe, which is pivoted at one end and subjected to an actuating force P at the other
end. A friction lining is fixed on the shoe and the complete assembly of shoe lining and
pivot is placed inside the brake drum.
Fig.2.17 Internal Expanding Brake

Internal shoe brakes, with two symmetrical shoes, are used on all automobile vehicles.
The actuating force is usually provided by means of a hydraulic cylinder or a cam
mechanism. The analysis of the internal shoe brake is based on the following
assumptions:
(a) The intensity of normal pressure between the friction lining and the brake drum at any
point is proportional to its vertical distance from the pivot.
(b) The brake drum and the shoe are rigid.
(c) The centrifugal force acting on the shoe is negligible.
(d) The coefficient of friction is constant.

2.6 Braking of Vehicle:

In a four wheeled moving vehicle, the brakes may be applied to
1. The rear wheels only,
2. The front wheels only, and
3. All the four wheels.
In all the above mentioned three types ofbraking, it is required to determine theretardationof
the vehicle when brakes are applied. Since thevehicle retards, therefore it is a problem of
dynamics. But it may be reduced to an equivalentproblem of statics byincluding the inertia
force inthe system of forces actually applied to the vehicle.The inertia force is equal and
opposite to thebraking force causing retardation.
Fig. 2.18
Consider a vehicle moving up an inclined plane shown in Fig.2.18.
Let
Angle of inclination of the plane to the horizontal.
m mass of vehicle (Such that its weight mg inNewton).
h Height of C.G. of the vehicle above the road surface (mtr).
x Perpendicular dis tance of C.G. from the rear axle (mtr).
L Dis tan ce between centre of rear and front wheel (wheel Base)(mtr).
RA , RB Reactions of the ground on the front & rear wheel (N).
Coefficient of frictionbetween tyre androad surface.
a Retardation of the vehicle (m / s2 ).
a. Brakes applied to Rear wheel only:

It is a common way of braking a vehicle in which the braking froce acts at the rear wheel.
Resolving the forces
FB m g sin m a _____(1)
RA RB m g cos _____(2)

FB Totalbreaking force acting at

the rear wheel due to application of brakes
RB

Taking moment about G..
FB h RB x RA L x
RB h RB x (m g cos RB ) L x
FB RB

RA m g cos RB
RB h x m g cos L x RB L x
RB h x L x m g cos L x
m g cos L x
RB
L h
and
RA m g cos RB
m g cos L x
m g cos
L h
m g cos x h
RA
L h
From equation (1)
FB m g sin m
FB m g sin
a
m
F
B g sin
m
RB
a g sin Putting value of RB in equation
m
m g cos (L x)

L h g sin
a
m
g cos (L x)
a g sin
L h
Note : (1) On Road level = 0 so..

g (L x)
a
L h
(2) When vehicle moves down a plane

equation (1) becomes FB m g sin m a

FB
a g sin
m
RB
g sin
m
g cos (L x)
a g sin
L h
b. Brake applied to Front wheels only:

It is a very rare way of braking the vehicle, in which the braking froce acts at the front
wheels only.
Let
FA Braking force acting at the front wheel.
RA
Resolving the forces horizontally and vertically..

FA m g sin m a _______(1)
RA RB m g cos _______(2)
Taking moments about G

FA h RB x RA (L x )
FA RA

RB m g cos RA
Putting values....

RA h m g cos RA x RA L x
RA h m g cos x RA L
RA L h m g cos x
m g cos x
RA
L h
From equation (2)
RA RB m g cos
RB m g cos R A
m g cos x
m g cos
L h
x
m g cos 1
L h
L h x
RB m g cos
L h
From equation (1)
FA m g sin m a

FA m g sin
a
m
RA m g sin
Putting Value of RA
m
m g cos x
m g sin
L h

m
g cos x
a g sin
L h
Note : (1) On a Road level = 0

m g cos x m g x
RA
L h

L h
cos 0
1
L h x m g L h x
RB m g cos
L h L h
g cos x cos 0 1
a g sin
sin 0 0

L h
gx

L h
(2) When vehicle moves down the plane..

FA m g sin m a
FA m g sin
a
m m
R
A g sin
m
g cos x
g sin
L h
c. Brakes applied to all four wheels

This is the most common way of braking the vehicle, in which the braking force acts on
both the rear and front wheels.
FA Braking force for front wheels RA
FB Braking force for rear wheels RB
Note : A little consideration will show that whenthe brakes are applied to all the four wheels,
thebraking distance (i.e. the distance in which thevehicle is brought to rest after applying
thebrakes) will be the least. It is due to this reasonthat the brakes are applied to all the four
wheels.
Resolving the forces.
FA FB m g sin m a ________(1)
RA RB m g cos ________(2)

Taking moment about G..
FA FB h RB x RA (L x ) _______(3)
FA RA
FB RB

RB m g cos RA
Putting values in eq.(3)....
RA RB h m g cos RA x RA (L x )
RA m g cos RA h m g cos RA x RA (L x )
m g cos h x
RA _______(4)
L
RB m g cos RA
h x
m g cos m g cos
L
L h x
m g cos _______(5)
L
From equation (1)
FA FB m g sin m a
RA RB m g sin m a
m g cos m g sin m a RA RB m g cos
a g cos sin ______(6)
Note : (1) On a Road level = 0

m g cos h x mg h x
RA
L L
L h x
RB m g
L
ag
(2) If vehicle moves down the plane, then equation (1) may be written as..
FA FB m g sin m a
RA RB m g sin m a
m g cos m g sin m a RA RB m g cos
a g cos sin

2.7 Dynamometer
A Dynamometer is a brake but in addition it has a device to measure the frictional resistance.
Knowing the frictional resistance, may obtain the torque transmitted and hence the power of
the engine.
2.8 Types of Dynamometers:

There are mainly two types of dynamometers:
1. Absorption Dynamometers: In this type, the work done is converted into heat by friction
while being measured. They can be used for the measurement of moderate powers only.
Examples are prony brake dynamometer and rope brake dynamometer.
2. Transmission Dynamometers: In this type, the work is not absorbed in the process, but is
utilised after the measurement. Examples are the belt transmission dynamometer and
the trosion dynamometer.
Prony Brake Dynamometer:
Fig. 2.19 Prony Brake Dynamometer

A prony brake dynamometer consists of two wooden blocks clamped together on a
revolving pulley carrying a lever (Fig. 2.19).
The friction between the blocks and the pulley tends to rotate the blocks in the
direction of rotation of the shaft. However, the weight due to suspended mass at the
end of the lever prevents this tendency. The grip of the blocks over the pulley is
adjusted using the bolts of the clamp until the engine runs at the required speed.
The mass added to the scale pan is such that the arm remains horizontal in the
equilibrium position; the power of the engine is thus absorbed by the friction.
Frictional torque Wl Mg l
2 N
Power of the machine under test T M g l
60
MNk
where k is a constant for a particular brake.
Note that the expression fro power is independent of the size of the pulley and the coefficient
of friction.

Rope Brake Dynamometer:

In a rope brake dynamometer (Fig. 2.20), a rope is wrapped over the rim of a pulley
keyed to the shaft of the engine. The diameter of the rope depends upon the power of
the machine.
The spacing of the ropes on the pulley is done by 3 to 4 U-shaped wooden blocks
which also prevent the rope from slipping off the pulley. The upper end of the rope is
attached to a spring balance where as the lower end supports the weight of
suspended mass.
Power of the machine T
Ft r
2 N
M g s r
60
Fig. 2.20 Rope Brake Dynamometer
If the power produced is high, so will be the heat produced due to friction between
the rope and the wheel, and a cooling arrangement is necessary.
For this, the channel of the flywheeel usually has flanges turned inside in which water
from a rope is supplied. An outlet pipe with a flattenend end takes the water out.
A rope brake dynamometer is frequently used to test the power of engines. It is easy
to manufacture, inexpensive, and requires no lubrication.
If the rope is wrapped several times over the wheel, the tension on the slack side of
the rope, i.e., the spring balance reading can be reduced to a negligible value as
compared to the tension of the tight side (as T 1 / T2 = e and is increaased). Thus,
one can even do away with the spring balance.

Belt Transmission Dynamometer:
Fig. 2.21 Belt Transmission Dynamometer
The belt transmission dynamometer occupies a prominent position among

transmission dynamometers. When a belt transmits power from one pulley to
another, there exists a difference in tensions between the tight and slack sides. A
dynamometer measures directly the difference in tensions (T 1 T2) while the belt is
running.
Fig. 2.21 shows a Tatham dynamometer. A continuous belt runs over the driving and
the driven pulleys through two intermediate pulleys. The intermediate pulleys have
their pins fixed to a lever with its fulcrum at the midpoint of the two pulley centres.
As the lever is not pivoted at its midpoint, a mass at the left end is used for its initial
equilibrium. When the belt transmits power, the lever tends to rotate in the counter
clockwise direction due to the difference of tensions on the tight and slack sides.
To maintain its horizontal position, a weight of the required amount is provided at the
right end of the lever. Two stops, one on each side of the lever arm, are used to limit
the motion of the lever.
Taking moments about the fulcrum,
M g l 2 T1a 2 T2a 0
M g l 2a T1 T2 0
Mgl
T1 T2
2a
Power,P T1 T2 v
where v =belt speed in metres per second.

Epicyclic - Train Dynamometer:

An epicyclic train dynamometer is another transmission type of dynamometer. As
shown in Fig. 2.22, it consists of a simple epicyclic train of gears. A spur gear A is the
driving wheel which drives an annular driven wheel B through an intermediate pinion
C.
Fig. 2.22 Epicyclic - Train Dynamometer
The intermediate gear C is mounted on a horizontal lever, the weight of which is

balanced by a counterweight at the left end when the system is at rest.
When the wheel A rotates counter clockwise, the wheel B as well as the wheel C
rotates clockwise.
Two tangential forces, each equal to F, act at the ends of the pinion C, one due to the
driving force by the wheel A and the other due to reactive force of the driven wheel B.
Both forces are equal if friction is ignored.
This tends to rotate the lever in the counter clockwise direction and it no longer
remains horizontal. To maintain it in the same position as earlier, a balancing weight
W is provided at the right end of the lever.
Two stops, one on each side of the lever arm, are used to limit the motion of the lever.
For the equilibrium of the lever,
Wl
2 F a W l or F
2a
and torque transmitted = F . r where r is the radius of the driving wheel

Thus power,
2 N
P T F r
60

Bevis Gibson Torsion Dynamometer:
Fig. 2.23 Bevis Gibson Torsion Dynamometer

A Bevis Gibson torsion dynamometer consists of two discs A and B, a lamp and a
movable torque finder arranged as shown in Fig. 2.23(a). The two discs are similar and
are fixed to the shaft at a fixed distance from each other.
Thus, the two discs revolve with the shaft. The lamp is masked and fixed on the
bearing of the shaft. The torque finder has an eyepiece capable of moving
circumferentially.
Each disc has a small radial slot near its periphery. Similar slots are also made at the
same radius on the mask of the lamp and on the torque finder.
When the shaft rotates freely and does not transmit any torque, all the four slots are
in a line and a ray of light from the lamp can be seen through the eyepiece after every
revolution.
When a torque is transmitted, the shaft twists and the slot in the disc B shifts its
position. The ray of light can no longer pass through the four slots. However, if the
eyepiece is moved circumferentially by an amount equal to the displacement, the
flash will again be visible once in each revolution of the shaft.
The eyepeice is moved by a micrometer spindle. The angle of twist may be measured
up to one hundredth of the degree.
In case the torque is varied during each revolution of the shaft as in reciprocating
engines and it is required to measure the angle of twist at different angular position,
then each disc can be perforated with several slots arranged in the form of a spiral at
varying radii [Fig. 2.23(b)].
The lamp and the torque finder have to be moved radiallly to and from the shaft so
that they come opposite each pair of slots in the discs.

Example 10:- A brake as shown in Fig. 2.24 is fitted with a C.I. brake shoe.
The braking torsional moment = 360N.m
The drum diameter = 300mm
The coefficient of friction = 0.3
Find: (i) force P for counter clockwise rotation
(ii) force P for clockwise rotation
(iii) where must pivot be placed to make brake self locking with clockwise rotation?
Fig. 2.24
Solution:
Tb = 360 N.m
d = 300 mm
= 0.3
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.25
for the clockwise rotation of the brake drum, the frictional force or the tangential force (F t)
acting at the contact surfaces is shown in Fig. 2.25 (a)
Braking torque, Tb = Ft x r
= RN x r
360 = 0.3 x RN x 0.15
Normal force, RN = 8000 N
Now taking moments about the fulcrum O
P (600 + 200) + Ft x 50 = RN x 200
P x 800 + (0.3 x 8000) 50 = 8000 x 200
P x 800 = 1480 x 103
P = 1850 N

for the counter clockwise rotation of the brake drum, the frictional force or the tangential
force (Ft) acting at the contact surfaces is shown in Fig. 2.25 (b)
Now taking moments about the fulcrum O,
P (600 + 200) = Ft x 50 + RN x 200
P x 800 = (0.3 x 8000) 50 + 8000 x 200
P x 800 = 1720 x 103
P = 2150 N
Location of the pivot or fulcrum to make the brake self-locking
The clockwise rotation of the brake drum is shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). Let x be the distance of the
pivot or fulcrum O from the line of action of the tangential force (F t). Taking moments about
the fulcrum O,
P (600 + 200) + Ft x x RN x 200 = 0
In order to make the brake self-locking, Ft x x must be equal to RN x 200, so that the force P is
zero.
Ft x x = RN x 200
2400 x x = 8000 x 200
x = 667 mm
Example 11:- A simple band brake is shown in Fig. 2.26 is applied to a shaft carrying a
flywheel of mass 400 kg. The radius of gyration of the flywheel is 450 mm and runs at 300
rpm. The co-efficient of friction is 0.2 and the brake drum diameter is 240 mm. Take b = 120
mm, l = 420 mm, = 210, then find out the followings:
(i) The torque applied due to hand load of 100 N
(ii) The number of turns of the flywheel before it is brought to rest
(iii) The time required to bring it to rest from the moment of the application of the brake.
Fig. 2.26
Solution: m = 400 kg k = 450 mm
N = 300 rpm = 0.2
d = 240 mm = 210 = 3.665 rad

Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

T1 x b = P x l
T1 x 0.12 = P x 0.42
T1 x 0.12 = 100 x 0.42
T1 = 350 N
T1 0.23.665
Now, T e e
2
T1
2.081
T2
T 350
T2 1
2.081 2.081
T2 = 168.188 N
= (T1 T2) x r
= (350 168.188) x 0.12
= 21.817 N.m
Work done against friction due to absorption of K.E.
1
Ft S mv2
2
1
Ft S m (r)2
2
2
m dN
S
Ft 2 60
2
400 0.24 300
S
181.81 2 60
= 15.63 m
S=Dxn
S
No. of turns, n
D
15.63

0.24
= 20.73
Tb = I
= (mk2)
21.817 = (400 x 0.4502)
= 0.269
= o + t
2N
0 t
60

2 300
0 0.269 t
60
t = 116.78 sec
Example 12:- A band brake shown in Fig. 2.27 is used to balance a torque of 980 N-m at
the drum shaft. The drum diameter is 400 mm (rotating in clockwise direction) and the
allowable pressure between lining and drum is 0.5 MPa. The coefficient of friction is 0.25.
Design the steel band, shaft, brake lever and fulcrum pin, if all these elements are made from
steel having permissible tensile stress 70 MPa and shear stress 50 MPa.
Fig. 2.27
Solution:
Tb = 980 N.m d = 400 mm
p = 0.5 MPa = 0.25
t = 70 MPa = 50 MPa
= 120 = 2.094 rad
= (T1 T2) x r
3
980 x 10 = (T1 T2) x 200
T1 T2 = 4.9 x 103 (i)
T1
e e0.252.094
Now, T
2
T1
1.688
T2 (ii)
1.688 T2 T2 = 4.9 x 103
T2 = 7122.09 N
T1 = 12022.09 N
Taking moments about the fulcrum O,
T2 x 80 = P x 600
7122.09 x 80 = P x 600
P = 949.612 N

Design of Shaft
Since the shaft has to transmit torque equal to braking torque

Tb dS3
16

980 103 dS3 50
16
dS = 46.388 mm
Shaft diameter, dS 50 mm
Design of Lever
t1 = thickness of the lever
B = width of the lever
Maximum bending moment at fulcrum O due to force P
M = P x l = 949.612 x 600
= 569767.2 N.mm
Section modulus,
1 1
Z t1 B2 t1 (2t1 )2 (Assuming B = 2t1)
6 6
= 0.67 t1 mm3
3
M
Bending stress
Z
569767.2
70
0.67 t13
t1 = 22.988 mm
23 mm
B = 2t1 = 46 mm
Design of Pins
d1 = diameter of pins
l1 = length of pins = 1.25 d1
The pins are designed for maximum tension in the band (i.e. T1 = 12022.09 N)
Considering bearing of the pins, maximum tension (T1),
12022.09 = d1.l1.p = d1 x 1.25 d1 x 0.5
d1 = 138.69 mm
d1 140 mm
l1 = 1.25 d1 = 1.25 x 140
= 175 mm
Check the pin for induced shearing stress. Since the pin is in double shear, therefore
maximum tension (T1),

12022.09 2 (d12 ) 2 (140)2
4 4
30787.6

12022.09

30787.6
= 0.39 MPa
This induced stress is quite within permissible limits.
The pin may be checked for induced bending stress.
5 5
Maximum bending moment, M W.l1 12022.09 175 (W= T1)
24 24
= 438305.36 N-mm
3
section modulus, Z (d1 ) (140)3 269391.57mm3
32 32
M 438305.36
Bending stress
Z 269391.57
= 1.627 MPa
The induced bending stress is within safe limits of 70 MPa.
The lever has an eye hole for the pin and connectors at band have forked end.
l1 175
Thickness of each eye, t2 87.5mm
2 2
Outer diameter of the eye, D= 2d1 = 2 x 140 = 280 mm
A clearance of 1.5 mm is provided on either side of the lever in the fork.
A brass bush of 3 mm thickness may be provided in the eye of the lever.
Diameter of hole in the lever = d1 + 2 x 3 = 140 + 2 x 3 = 146 mm
The boss is made at pin joints whose outer diameter is taken equal to twice the diameter of
the pin and length equal to length of the pin.
The inner diameter of the boss is equal to diameter of the hole in the lever.
Outer diameter of the boss = 2d1 = 2(140) = 280 mm
Length of the boss = l1 = 175 mm
Check the bending stress induced in the lever at the
fulcrum.
Maximum bending moment at the fulcrum,
M = P x l = 949.612 x 600
= 569767.2 N-mm
1
175 2803 1463
Section modulus, Z 12
280 / 2
= 1962485.83 mm3
M 569767.2
Bending stress 0.29 MPa
Z 1962485.83
The induced bending stress is within safe limits of 70 MPa. Fig. 6.28

Example 13:- A differential band brake has a drum with a diameter of 800 mm. The two
ends of the band are fixed to the pins on the opposite sides of the fulcrum of the lever at
distances of 40 mm and 200 mm from the fulcrum. The angle of contact is 270 and the
coefficient of friction is 0.2. Determine the brake torque when a force of 600 N is applied to
the lever at a distance of 800 mm from the fulcrum.
Solution:
d = 800 mm = 270
= 0.2 F = 600 N
l = 800 mm
Fig.2.29
Assuming a = 200 mm, b = 40 mm, i.e., a > b, F must act downward direction to apply the
brake (Fig. 2.29).
T1
270

e e 180

T2

T1 2.57
T2
(a) Anticlockwise Rotation
Taking moment about fulcrum O.
F l T1 a T2 b 0 (Fig.2.29)
600 800 (2.57 T2 ) 200 T2 40 0
480000 514 T2 40 T2 0
474 T2 480000
T2 1012.658 N and
T1 2602.53N

Braking Torque, TB T1 T2 r
2602.5 1012.7 0.4
635.92 N m
(b) Clockwise Rotation
Taking moment about fulcrum O. (Fig.2.30)

F l T1 b T2 a 0
600 800 2.57 T2 40 T2 200 0
T2 4938 N and
T1 2.57 T2
12691N
Fig.2.30

12691 4938 0.4
3101N m
Assuming a = 40 mm, b = 200 mm, i.e., a < b, F must act upward to apply the brake.
(a) Anticlockwise Rotation
Fig.2.31

F l T1 a T2 b 0
600 800 2.57 T2 (40) T2 200 0
T2 4938 N and
T1 12691N

12691 4938 0.4
3101N m

(b) Clockwise Rotation
Fig.2.32

F l T2 a T1 b 0
600 800 T2 40 2.57 T2 200 0
T2 1012.7 N and
T1 2602.5N

1012.7 2602.5 0.4
636 N m
Note: The above results show that the effectiveness of the brake in one direction of rotation
is equal to the effectiveness in the other direction if the distance of the pins on the opposite
sides of the fulcrum are changed and the force is applied in the proper direction so that the
band is tightened.
Example 14:- A simple band brake (Fig.2.33) is applied to a shaft carrying a flywheel of
250 kg mass and of radius of gyration of 300 mm. the shaft speed is 200 rpm. The drum
diameter is 200 mm and the coefficient of friction is 0.25. Determine the
1. brake torque when a force of 120 N is applied at the lever end
2. number of turns of the flywheel before it comes to rest
3. time taken by the flywheel to come to rest.
Solution:
Fig.2.33

m 250 kg k 300 mm
N 200 rpm d 200 mm

0.25 360 135 225 3.93rad
180
1. Taking moment about O.

F l T1 a
T1 0.25 3.93
120 280 T1 100 e e
T2
T1 336 N
T1 2.67
T1 T2
T2 125.8 N
2.67

336 125.8 0.1
21 N m
2. K.E of flywheel
2
1 2 1 2N
I m k2
2 2 60
2
1 2 200
250 0.32
2 60
4935 N m
This K.E is used to overcome the work done by the braking torque in n revolutions.
K. E of flywheel TB Angular displacement
4935 21 2 n
n 37.4 Revolution
3. For uniform retardation,
200
Average speed 100 rpm
2
n 37.4
Time taken min.
N 100
37.4
=
100 / 60
22.44 sec
Example 15:- A simple band brake is applied to a drum of 560 mm diameter which
rotates at 240 rpm. The angle of contact of the band is 270. One end of the band is fastened
to a fixed pin and the other end to the brake lever, 140 mm from the fixed pin. The brake
lever is 800 mm long and is placed perpendicular to the diameter that bisects the angle of
contact. Assuming the coefficient of friction as 0.3, determine the necessary pull at the end of
the lever to stop the drum if 40 kW of power is being absorbed. Also, find the width of the
band if its thickness is 3 mm and the maximum tensile stress is limited to 40 N/mm 2.

Solution:
d 560 mm N 240 rpm
270 a 140 mm ,
l 800 mm 0.3
P 40 kW
thickness t 3mm 40 N / mm2
Fig.2.34
Note: It can be observed from the figure that to tighten the band, the force is to be applied
upwards. If the drum rotates counter clockwise, the tight and slack sides will be as shown.
P TB
2N
T1 T2 r
60
2 240
40 103 T1 T2 0.28
60
T1 T2 5684 ________(1)
and

T1 0.3 270
e e 180
4.11 _______(2)
T2
From equation (1) & (2)
T2 1828 N
T1 7514 N
Taking the moment about O
F l T2 140 cos 45
F 800 1828 140 cos 45
F 226.2 N
Let maximum tension
T1 b t
7514 40 b 3
b 62.6 mm

Note: If drum rotates clockwise, the brake is less effective as in that case tight and slack sides
are interchange and the force requied to apply the same braking torque is more.
F l T1 140 cos 40
F 800 7514 140 cos 40
F 930 N
Example 16:- A crane is required to support a load of 1.2 tonnes on the rope round its
barrel of 400 mm diameter (Fig.2.35). The brake drum which is keyed to the same shaft as the
barrel has a diameter of 600 mm. The angle of contact of the band brake is 275 and the
coefficient of friction is 0.22. Determine the force required at the end of the lever to support
the load. Take a = 150 mm and l = 750 mm.
Fig.2.35
Solution:
W 1.2 1000 9.81N
R 300 mm r 200 mm
0.22 275
For equilibrium position..

T 1
T2 R W r
2.87 T2
T2 300 1.2 1000 9.81 200
T2 4197 N m
and T1 12045N m
T1
0.22 275

e e 180
2.87
T2
Taking moment about O..
F l T1 a
F 750 12045 150
F 2409 N

Example 17:- A band and block brake has 14 blocks. Each block subtends an angle of 14
at the centre of the rotating drum. The diameter of the drum is 750 mm and the thickness of
the blocks is 65 mm. The two ends of the band are fixed to the pins on the lever at distances
of 50 mm and 210 mm from the fulcrum on the opposite sides. Determine the least force
required to be applied at the lever at a distance of 600 mm from the fulcrum if the power
absorbed by the blocks is 180 kW at 175 rpm. Coefficient of friction between the blocks and
drum is 0.35.
Solution:
n 14 blocks 2 14
d 750 mm t 65 mm
a 210 mm , b 50 mm
l 600 mm P 180 kW
N 175 rpm 0.35
F?
Let
P T14 T0 v
DN
T14 T0
60
180 103 T14 T0

0.75 2 0.065 175
60
T14 T0 22323 N _____(1)
Let
n
T14 1 tan

T0 1 tan
14
T14 1 0.35 tan7

3.334 _______(2)
T0 1 0.35 tan7
From equation (1) and (2)
T0 9564 N
T14 31887 N
Assume a > b, F must be downward and clockwise rotation for maximum braking torque.
Moment about O. (Fig. in theory)
F l T0 a T14 b 0
F 600 9564 210 31887 50 0
F 690 N

Example 18:- A band and block brake having 12 blocks, each of which subtends an angle
of 16 at the centre, is applied to a rotating drum with a diameter of 600 mm. The blocks are
75 mm thick. The drum and the flywheel mounted on the same shaft have a mass of 1800 kg
and have a combined radius of gyration of 600 mm. The two ends of the band are attached to
pins on the opposite sides of the brake fulcrum at distances of 40 mm and 150 mm from it. If
a force of 250 N is applied on the lever at a distance of 900 mm from the fulcrum, find the
1. Maximum braking torque
2. Angular retardation of the drum
3. Time taken by the system to be stationary from the rated speed of 300 rpm.
Solution:
16 n 12 blocks
d 600 mm t 75mm
m 1800 kg k 600 mm
a 150 mm , b 40 mm
F 250 N l 900 mm
N 300 rpm 0.3
Refer the Fig.1.7

1.
n
T12 1 tan

T0 1 tan
12
T14 1 0.3 tan8

T0 1 0.3 tan8
2.752
Assume a = 150 mm, b = 40 mm as a > b, F must be downwardsand rotation is clockwise.

Taking moment about fulcrum O.
F l T0 a T12 b 0
250 900 T0 (150) T12 40 0
T0 150 2.752 40 250 900
T0 5636 N
T12 15511N
Maximum Braking torque.

TB T12 T0 r
0.6 0.075 2 d d 2 t
15511 5636 r
2 2 2
3703N m

2. Let Braking torque

TB I m k2
3703 1800 0.6
2
5.71 rad / sec2
4. Initial Angular Speed

Final Angular speed 0

2 N 2 300 31.4 rad / sec

0
60 60

0 t
0 31.4 5.71 t
t 5.5 sec
Example 19:- A car moving on a level road at a speed 50 km/h has a wheel base
2.8metres, distance of C.G. from ground level 600 mm, and the distance of C.G. from rear
wheels 1.2metres. Find the distance travelled by the car before coming to rest when brakes
are applied,
1. to the rear wheels,
2. to the front wheels, and
3. to all the four wheels.
The coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road may be taken as 0.6.
Solution:
u 50 km / hr 13.89 m / sec
L 2.8 m h 600 mm
x 1.2 m 0.6
1. Rear Wheels
Here vehicle moves on a level road, so retardation of car is..
g (L x) 0.6 9.81 2.8 1.2
a 2.98 m / sec2
L h 2.8 0.6 0.6
If retardation is uniform
v2 u2 2 s a
0 u2 2 s a
u2 13.892
s 32.4 m
2 a 2 2.98
2. Front Wheels
Here vehicle moves on a level road, so retardation of car is.
gx 0.6 9.81 1.2

a 2.9 m / sec2
L h 2.8 0.6 0.6

For uniform retardation.

u2
s
2a
13.892
s
2 2.9
33.26 m
3. All the four wheels
Here vehicle moves on a level road, so retardation of car is..
a = g = 9.81 x 0.6
= 5.886 m/sec2
u2 13.892
s
2 a 2 5.886
16.4 m
Example 20:- A vehicle moving on a rough plane inclined at 10 with the horizontal at a
speed of 36 km/h has a wheel base 1.8 metres. The centre of gravity of the vehicle is 0.8
metre from the rear wheels and 0.9 metre above the inclined plane. Find the distance
travelled by the vehicle before coming to rest and the time taken to do so when
1. The vehicle moves up the plane, and
2. The vehicle moves down the plane.
The brakes are applied to all the four wheels and the coefficient of friction is 0.5.
Solution:
10 u 36 km / h 10 m / sec
L 1.8 m x 0.8 m
h 0.9 m 0.5
1. The vehicle moves up (All Four wheels)

a g cos sin
9.81 0.5 cos 10 sin10
6.53 m / sec2
u2 102
s
2 a 2 6.53
7.657 m
Final velocity of vehicle.
v uat ve sign due to retardation
0 10 6.53 t
t 1.53 sec
2. The vehicle moves down the plane (All Four wheels)

a g cos sin
9.81 0.5 cos 10 sin10
3.13 m / sec2
u2 102
s 16 m
2 a 2 3.13
Final velocity of vehicle.
v uat
0 10 3.13 t
t 3.2 sec
Example 21:- The following data refer to a laboratory experiment with a rope brake:
Diameter of the flywheel = 800 mm
Diameter of the rope = 8 mm
Dead weight on the brake = 40 kg
Speed of the engine = 150 rpm
Spring balance reading = 100 N
Find the power of the engine.
Solution:
2 N
P M g s r
60
2 150
40 9.81 100 0.4 0.004
60
1855.6 W
Example 22:- In a belt transmission dynamometer, the driving pulley rotates at 300 rpm.
The distance between the centre of the driving pulley and the dead mass is 800 mm. The
diameter of each of the driving as well as the intermediate pulleys is equal to 360 mm. Find
the value of the dead mass required to maintain the lever in a horizontal position when the
power transmitted is 3 kW. Also, find its value when the belt just begins to slip on the driving
pulley, being 0.25 and the maximum tension in the belt 1200 N.
Solution:
N 300 rpm a 0.36 m
l 0.8 m P 3000 W
(i) P T1 T2 v
Mgl
r
2a
M g l 2 N
r
2a 60
M 9.81 0.8 2 300
3000 0.18
2 0.36 60
M 48.7 kg

(ii) T1 1200 N, 0.25, rad

T1
e e0.25 2.19
T2
1200
T2 548 N
2.19
Mgl
T1 T2
2a
M 9.81 0.8
1200 548
2 0.36
M 59.8 kg
Example 23:- A torsion dynamometer is fitted to a propeller shaft of a marine engine. It is

found that the shaft twists 2o in a length of 20 meters at 120 r.p.m. If the shaft is hollow with
400 mm external diameter and 300 mm internal diameter, find the power of the engine. Take
modulus of rigidity for the shaft material as 80 GPa.
Solution:
l 20 m N 120 rpm
D 400 mm d 300 mm

G 80 GPa 2 2 0.035rad
180
Polar moment of Inertia of the shaft,

J (D4 d4 )
32

J [(0.4)4 (0.3)4 ]
32
J = 0.0017 m4
T G

J l
G
T J
l
80 109 0.035
T 0.0017
20
Torque applied to the shaft, T = 238 x 103 N.m
2NT
P
60
2 120 238 103
P
60
Power of the engine, P = 2990 kW

3
Flywheels
Course Contents
3.1 Turning-Moment Diagram
3.2 Single-Cylinder Double-Acting
Steam Engine
3.3 Single cylinder Four Stroke En-
gine
3.4 Multi Cylinder Engines
3.5 Fluctuation of energy
3.6 Flywheel
3.7 Dimensions of Flywheel Rim
3.8 Punching Press
3.9 Summary

3. Flywheels Theory of Machines (2151902)
3.1 Turning-Moment Diagrams
During revolution of the crankshaft of a steam engine or IC engine, the torque on it varies and is
given by,
sin 2
= = (sin + )
22 sin 2
Where F is the net piston effort.
A plot of T vs is known as the turning-moment diagram. The inertia effect of the connecting
rod is, usually ignored while drawing these diagrams, but can be taken into account if desired.
As T=Ft x r, a plot of Ft vs (known as crank effort diagram) is identical to a turning-moment

diagram. The turning-moment diagram for different types of engines are being given below:
3.2 Single-Cylinder Double-Acting Steam Engine
Figure shows a turning-moment diagram for a single-cylinder double-acting steam engine. The
crank angle is represented along x-axis & the turning-moment along y-axis. It can be observed
that during the outstroke (ogp) the turning moment is maximum when the crank angle is a little
less than 90. & zero with the crank angle is zero & 180. A somewhat similar turning moment di-
agram is obtained and the angle turned.
Note that the area of the turning-moment diagram is proportional to the work done per revolu-
tion as the work is the product of the turning-moment diagram and the angle turned.
The mean torque against which the engine works is given by

=
2

Where oe is the mean torque & is the mean height of the turning-moment diagram.
When the crank turns from the angle oa to ob, the work done bt the engine is represented by the
area afghb. But the work done against the resisting torque is represented by afhb. Thus, the en-
gine has work done more work than what has been taken from it. The excess work is repre-
sented by the area fgh. This excess work increases the speed of the engine & is stored in the fly-
wheel.
During the crank travel from the ob or oc, the work needed for the external resistance is propor-
tional to bhjc whereas the work produced by the engine is represented by the area under hpj.
Thus, during this period, more work has been taken from the engine that is produced. The loss
is made up by the flywheel which gives up some of its energy& the speed decreases during this
period.
Similarly, during the period of crank travel from oc to od, excess work is again developed and is
stored in the flywheel & the speed of the engine increases. During the crank travel from od to oa,
the loss of work is made up by the flywheel and the speed again decreases.
The areas fgh, hpj, jkl & lqf represent fluctuations of energy of the flywheel. When the crank is at
b, the flywheel has absorbed energy while the crank has moved from a to b & thereby, the speed
of the engine is maximum. At c, the flywheel has given out energy while the crank has moved
from b to c & thus the engine has a maximum speed. Similarly, the engine speed is again maxi-
mum at d & minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum & two minimum speeds for the turn-
ing-moment diagram.
The greatest speed is the greater of the two maximum speeds & the least speed is the lesser of
the two minimum speeds.
The difference between the greatest & the least speeds of the engine over one revolution is
known as fluctuation of speed.
3.3 Single cylinder Four Stroke Engine

3.4 Multi Cylinder Engines
3.5 Fluctuation of energy
Let a1, a2, and a5 be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean torque ab of the
turning moment diagram (fig.). These areas represent quantities of energies added to flywheel.
Similarly, areas a2, a4 and a6 below ab represent quantities of energies taken from the flywheel.
The energies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as follows:
Crank position Flywheel energy

+ 1
+ 1 2
+ 1 2 + 3
+ 1 2 + 3 4
+ 1 2 + 3 4 + 5
+ 1 2 + 3 4 + 5 6
From the two values of the energies of the flywheel corresponding to the position c, it is con-
cluded that
+ 1 2 + 3 4 + 5 6 = 0
The greatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the flywheel and for the corre-
sponding crank position, the speed is maximum.
The least of these energies is the least kinetic energy of the flywheel and for the corresponding
crank position, the speed is minimum.

The different between the maximum and minimum kinetic energies of the flywheel is known as
the maximum fluctuation of energy whereas the ratio of this maximum fluctuation of energy to
the work done per cycle is define as the coefficient fluctuation of energy.
The different between the greatest speed and the least speed is known as the maximum fluctua-
tion of speed and the ratio of maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is the coefficient
of fluctuation of speed.
3.6 Flywheel
A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle of an engine. A flywheel of
suitable dimensions attached to the crankshaft, makes the moment of the rotating part quite
large and thus, acts as a reservoir of energy. During the periods when the supply of energy is
more than required, it stores energy and during the periods the requirements is more than the
supply, it release energy.
1 =
2 =
E =
1 2
= =

Maximum fluctuation of energy,
1 1 1 1 + 2
= 1 2 2 2 = (1 2 2 2 ) = ( ) (1 2 )
2 2 2 2
1 2
= (1 2 ) = 2 ( ) = 2

= = =
2 1
2 2 2
2

3.7 Dimensions of Flywheel Rims
The inertia of a flywheel is provided by the hub, spokes and the Rim. However, as the inertia due
to the hub and the spokes is very small, usually it is ignored. In case it is known, it can be taken
into account.
Consider a rim of flywheel as shown in Fig
Let
Consider an element of the rim,
Centrifugal force on the element/unit length =
= [ ( ) ] 2
Total vertical force /unit length

2 2 2 2
= sin = . . . sin
0 0

= 2 2 ( cos ) 0 = 2 2 2

Let
(Circumferential stress is also known as hoop stress.)
Then for equilibrium,
(2) = 2 2 2
= 2 2 = 2
The above relation provides the limiting tangential velocity at the mean radius of rim of the fly-
wheel. Then the diameter can be calculated from the relation,
= /60
Also, mass = density volume = density circumference cross-sectional area
The relation can be used to find the width and the thickness of the rim.
3.8 Punching Press
From the previous discussion, it can be observed that when the load on the crankshaft is con-
stant or varies and the input torque varies continuously during a cycle, a flywheel is used to re-
duce the fluctuation of speed. A flywheel can perform the same purpose in a punching press or a
riveting machine in which the torque available is constant but the load varies during the cycle.

Figure shows the sketch of a punching press. It is a slider crank mechanism in which a punch re-
places the slider. A motor provides a constant torque to the crankshaft through a flywheel. It
may be observed that the actual punching process is performed only during the downward
stroke of the punch and that also for a limiting period when the punch travels through the thick-
ness of the plate. Thus, the load is applied during the actual punching process only and during
the rest of the downward stroke and the return stroke, there is no load on the crankshaft. In the
absence of a flywheel, the decrease in the speed of the crankshaft will be very large during the
actual punching period whereas it will increase to a much higher value during the no-load pe-
riod as the motor will continue to supply the energy all the time.
3.9 Summary
1. Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. As all machines have some
accelerating parts, dynamic forces are always present when the machines operate.
2. D' Alembert's principle states that the inertia forces and couples, and the external forces
and torques on a body together give statically equilibrium.
3. In graphical solutions, it is possible to replace inertia force and inertia couple by an
equivalent offset inertia force which can account for both. This is done by displacing the
line of action of the inertia force from the centre of mass.
4. The sense of angular acceleration of the connecting rod is such that it tends to reduce
the angle of the connecting rod with the line of stroke.
5. The piston effort is the net or effective force applied on the piston.
6. Inertia force on the piston,
cos 2
= = 2 (cos + )

7. Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at the crankpin perpendicular to the crank
which gives the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
8. Turning moment due to force F on the piston
sin 2
= (sin + )
22 sin 2
9. A dynamically equivalent system means that the rigid link is replaced by a link with two
point masses in such a way that it has the same motion as the rigid link when subjected
to the same force, i.e., the centre of mass of the equivalent link has the same linear
acceleration and the link has the same angular acceleration.
10. The distributed mass of a rod can be replaced by two point masses to have the same

dynamical properties if the sum of the two masses is equal to the total mass, the
combined centre of mass coincides with that of the rod and the moment of inertia of two
point masses about the perpendicular axis through their combined centre of mass is
equal to that of the rod.
11. In the analysis of the connecting rod, the two point masses are considered to be located
at the center of the two end bearings and then a correction is applied for the error
involved.
12. A plot of T vs. is known as the turning- moment diagram.
13. The difference between the maximum and minimum kinetic energies of the flywheel is
known as the maximum fluctuation of energy.
14. The difference between the greatest speed and the least speed is known as the
maximum fluctuation of speed.
15. A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle of an engine.
16. Coefficient of fluctuation of speed is given by

= 2=
2

4
Governors
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction.
4.2 Types of Governors.
4.3 Terms used in Governor.
4.4 Watt Governor.
4.5 Porter Governor.
4.6 Proell Governor.
4.7 Terms related with
Governor.
4.8 Controlling Force.
4.9 Problems.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia

4. Governors Theory of Machines (2151902)
4.1 Introduction
Function of Governor:
The function of a governor is to regulate the meanspeed of an engine, when there are
variations in the load e.g.when the load on an engine increases, its speed
decreases,therefore it becomes necessary to increase the supply of workingfluid. On the
other hand, when the load on the enginedecreases, its speed increases and thus less
working fluid isrequired. The governor automatically controls the supply ofworking fluid to
the engine with the varying load conditionsand keeps the mean speed within certain limits.
A little consideration will show, that when the loadincreases, the configuration of the
governor changes and avalve is moved to increase the supply of the working fluid
;conversely, when the load decreases, the engine speed increasesand the governor
decreases the supply of workingfluid.
4.2Types of Governors
1. Centrifugal Governor.
2. Inertia Governor.
Centrifugal Governor
Pendulum type Loaded Type
Watt Governor
Dead Weight Spring Controlled

Governor Governor
Porter Governor Proell Governor
Hartnell Hartung Wilson Hartnell Pickering

Governor Governor Governor Governor
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering

Theory of Machines (2151902) 4. Governors
Centrifugal Governor
Fig. 4.1 Centrifugal Governor

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating
balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force. It consists of two
balls of equal mass, which are attached to the arms as shown in figure. These balls are
known as governor balls or fly balls. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the
engine through bevel gears. The upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that
the balls may rise up or fall down as they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are
connected by the links to a sleeve, which is keyed to the spindle. This sleeve revolves with
the spindle; but can slide up and down. The balls and the sleeve rise when the spindle speed
increases, and falls when the speed decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve in
upward and downward directions, two stops S, S are provided on the spindle. The sleeve is
connected by a bell crank lever to a throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid decreases
when the sleeve rises and increases when it falls.
When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the governor speed decreases. This
results in the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move inwards and
the sleeve moves downwards. The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle
valve at the other end of the bell crank lever to increase the supply of working fluid and thus
the engine speed is increased. In this case, the extra power output is provided to balance
the increased load. When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the governor
speed increases, which results in the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls
move outwards and the sleeve rises upwards. This upward movement of the sleeve reduces
the supply of the working fluid and hence the speed is decreased. In this case, the power
output is reduced.

4.3Terms used in Governor

1. Height of governor (h): It is the verticaldistance from the centre of the ball to a
pointwherethe axes of the arms (or arms produced) intersecton the spindle axis. It is usually
denoted by h.
2. Equilibrium speed: It is the speed atwhich the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to moveupwards or downwards.
3. Mean equilibrium speed: It is the speedat the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.
4. Maximum and Minimum equilibrium speed: The speeds at the maximum and minimum
radius of rotation of the balls, without tending tomove either way are known as maximum
and minimumequilibrium speeds respectively.
5. Sleeve lift: It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium
speed.
4.4Watt Governor
Fig. 4.2 Watt Governor

The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor, as shown in Figure. It is
basically a conical pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms
of thegovernor may be connected to the spindle in the following three ways :
1. The pivot (P), may be on the spindle axis as shown in figure 4.2 (a).
2. The pivot (P), may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced intersect
at O, as shwon in figure 4.2 (b).
3. The pivot (P), may be offset, but the arms cross the axis at O, as shown in figure 4.2 (c).
Let
m Mass of ballkg,
w Weight of ball innewtons mg,
T Tension in the arm innewtons,

Angular velocity of the arm & ball about the spindle axis inrad / s,
r Radius of the path of rotation of the ball i.e. Horizontal dist. from centre of the
ball to the spindle axis inmetres,
FC Centrifugal force acting on the ball innewtons m 2 r, and
h Height of governor inmetres.
It is assumed that the weight of arms, link & sleeve are negligible as comparedto the
weight of the balls.
Governor ball is equilibrium under the following
1. Centrifugal force FC
2. Tension (T)
3. Weight of ball (w)
Taking moment about O.

FC h w r
(m r )h m g r
2
g where g gravitational force 9.81m / s2

h 2 2N

60
9.81 895
h 2
metres
2N N2

60
4.5Porter Governor
Fig. 4.3 Porter Governor

The Porter governor is a modification of a Watts governor, with central load attached to
the sleeve as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a). The load moves up and down the central spindle. This

additional downward force increases the speed of revolution required to enable the
balls to rise to any predetermined level.
Consider the forces acting on one half of the governor as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b).
Let
m Mass of eachball in kg,
w Weight of eachball in newtons mg,
W Weight of Centralload in newtons mg,
r radius of rotation in metres,
h Height of governor in metres,
N Speed of the balls in r.p.m.,
Angular speed of the balls in rad / s 2N/ 60,
FC Centrifugal force acting on the ball m 2 r,
T1 Force in the arm in newtons,
T2 Force in the link in newtons,
Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the vertical, and
Angle of inclination of the link (or lower link) to the vertical.
Though there are several ways of determining the relation between the height of the
governor (h) and the angular speed of the balls (), yet the following two methods are
important from the subject point of view:
1. Method of resolution of forces; and
2. Instantaneous centre method.
1. Method of resolution of forces

Considering the equilibrium of the forces acting at D,
W M g
T2 cos
2 2
M g
or T2 ................(i)
2 cos
Again, considering the equilibrium of the forces acting on B. the point B is in equilibrium
under the action of the following forces, as shown in figure 4.3(b).
i. The weight of ball (w = m . g),
ii. The centrifugal force (FC),
iii. The tension in the arm (T1), and
iv. The tension in the link (T2).
Resolving the forces vertically,
M g
T1 cos T2 cos w m g .........(ii)
2

M g
T cos
2 2
w m g
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T1 sin T2 sin FC
Mg Mg
T1 sin sin FC T2
2 cos 2 cos
Mg
T1 sin tan FC
2
Mg
T1 sin FC tan ..............(iii)
2
Dividing equation (3) by equation (2)

M g tan
FC
T1 sin 2

T1 cos Mg
mg
2
Mg M g tan
m g tan FC
2 2
M g tan tan
Mg F Take q,tan r
mg C tan 2 h
2 tan 2 tan F m r
C
Mg m 2 r Mg
mg q
2 r
h
2
Mg
m 2 h m g 1 q
2
Mg
m g 2 1 q
h .................(iv)
m 2
M g 1 q
m g
2

2
h m
2
g 1 q
m M
h m 2

2
2N g M

60 h m m 2 1 q
2
60
N2
g
2 h m
M
m 2 1 q Take g 9.81m / s
2
895 M
N2
hm m 2 1 q ............(v)
Note: 1. When the length of arms are equal to the length of links and the points P & D lie on
the same vertical line, then
tan tan
tan
then q 1
tan
Therefore, the equation (5) becomes

895
N2 (m M) ..............(vi)
hm
2.When the loaded sleeve moves up & down the spindle, the frictional force acts on it in a
direction opposite to that of the motion of sleeve.
If F = Frictional force acting on the sleeve in newtons, then the equations (5) and (6) may be
written as
895 Mg F
N2 mg 1 q
hm g 2
The + sign is used when the sleeve moves upwards or the governor speed increases and
negative sign is used when the sleeve moves downwards or the governor speed decreases.
2. Instantaneous centre method

In this method, equilibrium of the forces acting on the link BD
are considered. The instantaneous centre I lies at the point of
intersection of PB produced and a line through D
perpendicular to the spindle axis, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Taking moments about the point I,
W
FC BM w IM ID
2
Fig. 4.4 Instantaneous centre method
Mg
FC BM mg IM IM MD
2

IM Mg IM MD
FC mg
BM 2 BM BM
Mg IM MD
FC mg tan tan tan tan , tan
2 BM BM
Dividing the equation by tan

FC Mg tan
mg 1
tan 2 tan
m 2r Mg
r
mg 1 q
2
h
tan
q, tan r ,FC m 2r
tan h
Mg
m 2 h mg 1 q
2
Mg
mg 1 q
h 2
m 2

1 q
g M
h m
m 2 2
m M When tan tan

hg then q tan 1
m 2
tan
4.6Proell Governor
The Proell governor has the balls fixed at B and C to the extension of the links DF and EG,
as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). The arms FP and GQ are pivoted at P and Q respectively.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces on one-half of the governor as shown in Fig. 4.5
(b).
The instantaneous centre (I) lies on the intersection of the line PF produced and the line
from D drawn perpendicular to the spindle axis. The perpendicular BM is drawn on ID.

Fig. 4.5 Proell Governor
Taking moment about I

W
FC BM w IM ID
2
Mg
FC BM mg IM IM MD .........(i)
2
IM Mg IM MD
FC mg
BM 2 BM BM
FM IM Mg IM MD
mg Multiplying and dividing by FM
BM FM 2 FM FM
FM
tan tan IM
Mg MD
mg tan tan , tan
BM 2 FM FM
FM Mg tan
tan mg 1
BM 2 tan
tan
Putting q , tan r , FC m 2r
h
tan
FM r
1 q
Mg
m 2r mg
BM h 2
FM g M
2 m 1 q ...........(ii)
BM hm 2
2N
, g 9.81m / s2
60
FM 895 M
N2 m 1 q ...........(iii)
BM mh 2
4.7 Terms related with Governor

1. Sensitiveness of Governors
Consider two governors A and B running at the same speed. When this speed increases
or decreases by a certain amount, the lift of the sleeve of governor A is greater than the lift
of the sleeveof governor B. It is then said that the governor A is more sensitive than the
governor B.
In general, the greater the lift of the sleeve corresponding to a given fractional change
in speed, the greater is the sensitiveness of the governor.It may also be stated in another
way that for agiven lift of the sleeve, the sensitiveness of the governor increases as the
speed range decreases. Thisdefinition of sensitiveness may be quite satisfactory when the
governor is considered as an independentmechanism. But when the governor is fitted to an
engine, the practical requirement is simply that thechange of equilibrium speed from the
full load to the no load position of the sleeve should be as smalla fraction as possible of the
mean equilibrium speed. The actual displacement of the sleeve is immaterial,provided that
it is sufficient to change the energy supplied to the engine by the required amount. Forthis
reason, the sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the difference between the maximum
andminimum equilibrium speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.
Let
N1 Minimum equilibrium speed,

N2 Maximum equilibrium speed,
N Mean equilibrium speed
N1 N2
.
2
N2 N1 2 N2 N1
Sensitiveness
N N2 N1
2 2 1
......(In terms of angular speeds)
1 2
2. Stability of Governors
A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a
definite configuration i.e. there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at
which the governor is in equilibrium.
For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius ofgovernor balls
must also increase.
A governor is said to be unstable, if the radius of rotation decreases as the speed
increases.

3. Isochronous Governors
A governor is said to be isochronous when the equilibrium speed is constant (i.e.
range of speed is zero) for all radii of rotation of the balls within the working range,
neglecting friction. The isochronism is the stage of infinite sensitivity.
Let us consider the case of a Porter governor running at speeds N 1 and N2 r.p.m.
895 M
N12
h m m 2 1 q ........(i)
895 M
N22
h m m 2 1 q .........(ii)
For isochronism, range of speed should be zero i.e. N 2 N1 = 0 or N2 = N1. Therefore

from equations (i) and (ii), h1 = h2, which is impossible in case of a Porter governor.
Hence a Porter governor cannot be isochronous.
Now consider the case of a Hartnell governor running at speeds N 1 and N2 r.p.m.
M g S1
y FC1 x
2
x 2N12 x
M g S1 2 FC1 2 m r1 .......(iii)
y 60 y
M g S2
y FC2 x
2
x 2N22 x
M g S2 2 FC2 2 m r2 .......(iv)
y 60 y
For isochronism, N2 = N.Therefore from equation (iii) and (iv),
M g S1 r1
(condition of Isochronous governor)
M g S2 r2
4. Hunting
A governor is said to be hunt if the speedof the engine fluctuates continuously above
andbelow the mean speed. This is caused by a toosensitive governor which changes the fuel
supplyby a large amount when a small change in thespeed of rotation takes place. For
example, whenthe load on the engine increases, the engine speeddecreases and, if the
governor is very sensitive,the governor sleeve immediately falls to its lowestposition. This
will result in the opening of thecontrol valve wide which will supply the fuel to the engine in
excess of its requirement so that theengine speed rapidly increases again and the governor
sleeve rises to its highest position. Due to thismovement of the sleeve, the control valve will
cut off the fuel supply to the engine and thus the enginespeed begins to fall once again. This
cycle is repeated indefinitely.
Such a governor may admit either the maximum or the minimum amount of fuel. The
effectof this will be to cause wide fluctuations in the engine speed or in other words, the
engine will hunt.
4.8 Controlling Force

We have seen earlier that when a body rotates in a
circularpath, there is an inward radial force or centripetal force
acting on it.In case of a governor running at a steady speed, the
inward forceacting on the rotating balls is known as controlling
force. It is equaland opposite to the centrifugal reaction.
Controlling force, FC = m.2.r Fig. 4.6 Controlling force diagram
The controlling force is provided by the weight of the sleeve and balls as in Porter governor
and by the spring and weight as in Hartnell governor (or spring controlled governor).
When the graph between the controlling force (FC) as ordinate and radius of rotation of the
balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the graph obtained is known as controlling force diagram.
This diagram enables the stability and sensitiveness of the governor to be examined and
also shows clearly the effect of friction.
1. Controlling Force diagram for Porter Governor

The controlling force diagram for a porter governor is a curve as shown in Fig. 4.12.
2
2N
FC m r m
2
r
60
Or
2 2
1 60 F 1 60 FC
N C tan
2
tan
m 2 r m 2 r
1
60 tan 2
N
2 m
Where is the angle between the axis of radius of rotation and a line joining a given
point(say A) on the curve to the origin O.
2. Controlling Force diagram for Spring - controlled Governors

The controlling force diagram for the spring controlled governors is a straight line, as
shownin Fig. 4.7. We know that controlling force,
FC m 2 r or FC lr m 2
The following points, for the stability of spring controlled governors, may be noted:
1. For the governor to be stable, the controlling force (FC) must increase as the radius of
rotation(r) increases, i.e. FC / r must increase as r increases.
Hence the controlling force line AB when produced must
intersect the controlling force axis below the origin, as
shown in Fig. 4.7.
The relation between the controlling force (FC) and the
radius of rotation (r) for the stability of spring controlled
governors is given by the following equation
FC a r b .......(i)
Where a and b are constants. Fig. 4.7

2. The value of b in equation (i) may be made either zero or positive by increasing the initial
tension of the spring. If b is zero, the controlling force line CD passes through the origin and
the governor becomes isochronous because FC /r will remain constant for all radii of
rotation.
The relation between the controlling force and the radius of rotation, for an isochronous
governor is, therefore,
FC a r .......(ii)
3.If b is greater than zero or positive, then FC /r decreases as r increases, so that the
equilibrium speed of the governor decreases with an increase of the radius of rotation of
balls, which is impracticable.
Such a governor is said to be unstable and the relation between the controlling force and
the radius of rotation is, therefore
FC a r b .......(iii)

4.9 Problems
Problem 1:-Calculate the vertical height of a Watt governor when it rotates at 60 r.p.m.
Also find the change in vertical height when its speed increases to 61 r.p.m.
Solution:
N1 60 rpm
N2 61rpm
Let
895 895
h1 0.248 m
N12 602
895 895
h2 0.240 m
N22 612
Change inheight 0.248 0.240 0.008 m
Problem 2:-The arms of a Porter governor are each 250 mm long and pivoted on the
governor axis. The mass of each ball is 5 kg and the mass of the central sleeve is 30 kg. The
radius of rotation of the balls is 150 mm when the sleeve begins to rise and reaches a value
of 200 mm for maximum speed.
Determine the speed range of the governor. If the friction at the sleeve is equivalent of 20 N
of load at the sleeve, determine how the speed range is modified.
Solution:
BP BD 250 mm
m 5kg
M 30 kg
r1 150 mm, r2 200 mm
F 20 N (Friction)
For Minimum Speed

895 M
N12 m 2 1 q
h1 m
895
1 1
30
5
0.2 5 2
31325
N1 177 rpm
Arms are same length andmounted
on the same axis
tan
q 1
tan

h1 250 150 200mm 0.2 m
2 2
For Maximum speed

895 M
N22 m 2 1 q
h2 m
895
1 1
30
5
0.15 5 2
41766.67
N2 204.4 rpm
tan
Here q tan 1

h2 2502 2002 150mm 0.15m

Speed range of governor

N2 N1 204.4 177 27.4 rpm
(a) Considering friction F(N) for minimum speed.

895 Mg F tan
N12 mg 1 q q 1
h1m g 2 tan
895
mg Mg F
h1m g
895
5 9.81 30 9.81 20
0.2 5 9.81
29500
N1 172 rpm

(b) Considering friction F = 20N for maximum speed.
895
N22 mg Mg F
h2m g
895
5 9.81 30 9.81 20
0.15 5 9.81
44200
N2 210 rpm
Speed range of governor

N2 N1 210 172 38 rpm
Problem 3:-In an engine governor of the Porter type, the upper and lower arms are
200mmand 250 mm respectively and pivoted on the axis of rotation. The mass of the central
load is 15 kg, the mass of each ball is 2 kg and friction of the sleeve together with the
resistance of the operating gear is equal to a load of 24 N at the sleeve. If the limiting
inclinations of the upper arms to the vertical are 30 and 40, find, taking friction into
account, range of speed of the governor.
Solution:
PB 200
BD 250
M 15 kg
m 2 kg
F 24 N
For Minimum Condition Figure (a)

895 Mg F
N12 mg 1 q1
h1m g 2
895 15 9.81 24
2 9.81 1 0.753
0.1732 2 9.81 2
N1 183.3rpm

From fig.

cos30 h1 h1 0.1732m
200

r1 200 173.20 100.00mm 0.1m
2 2

tan 1 tan30 0.5774
100
sin1 1 23.578
250
tan1 tan23.578 0.4364

q tan1 0.753
1
tan 1
For Maximum Condition Figure (b)

895 Mg F
N22 mg 1 q2
m g h2 2
895 15 9.81 24
2 9.81 1 0.703
2 9.81 0.1532 2
49236
N2 222 rpm
From fig.

cos40 h2 h1 0.1532m
200
tan2
q2
tan 2
Here tan tan40 0.8390
2

r2
sin40 200 r2 0.1286 m

sin 0.1286 30.957
2
0.250

tan2 tan30.957 0.590
tan2 0.59
q2 0.703
tan 2 0.8390
Range of speed N2 N1 222 183.3 38.7rpm

Problem 4:-The arms of a Porter governor are 300 mm long. The upper arms are pivoted
on the axis of rotation. The lower arms are attached to a sleeve at a distance of 40 mm from
the axis of rotation. The mass of the load on the sleeve is 70 kg and the mass of each ball is
10 kg.
Determine the equilibrium speed when the radius of rotation of the balls is 200 mm. If the
friction is equivalent to a load of 20 N at the sleeve, what will be the range of speed for this
position?
Solution:
BP BD 300 mm
DH 40 mm
M 70 kg
m 10 kg
r 200 mm N ?
F 24 N N2 N1 ?
(1) Equilibrium speed at r = 200 mm

895 M
N2 m 2 1 q
h m

1 0.705
895 70
10
0.224 10 2
27840
N 167 rpm
From figure....

h 300 200 0.224 m
2 2

q tan ,tan 200 0.893
tan 224

DF 3002 1602 254 mm 0.254 m

160 0.690
tan 254 0.630,q 0.254 0.705

(2) Range of speed when F = 20N.
(a) For minimum condition

895 Mg F
N12 mg 1 q1
h1m g 2
895 70 9.81 20
10 9.81 1 0.705
0.224 10 9.81 2
27144
N1 164.8 rpm
Here
h 0.224 h
1
tan
q1 tan 0.705

F 20 N
(b) For maximum condition
895 Mg F
N22 mg 2 1 q2
h2m g
895 70 9.81 20
10 9.81 1 0.705
0.224 10 9.81 2
28533
N2 169 rpm
Here
h 0.224 h
2

q2 q 0.705
F 20 N
Range of speed N2 N1
169 164.8
4.2 rpm
Problem 5:-A loaded Porter governor has four links each 250 mm long, two revolving
masses each of 3 kg and a central dead weight of mass 20 kg. All the links are attached to
respective sleeves at radial distances of 40 mm from the axis of rotation. The masses
revolve at a radius of 150mm at minimum speed and at a radius of 200 mm at maximum
speed. Determine the range of speed.

Solution:
PB BD 250
m 3 kg
M 20 kg
DH 40 mm
r1 150 mm
r2 200 mm
N2 N1 ?
Let
895 M
N12 m 2 1 q
h1 m
895 20
3 2
0.306 3 2
22424
N1 150 rpm
tan
Here q 1
tan
110
and sin 1 26.10
250
150
tan26.10 h h1 0.306 m
1
Then
895 M
N22 m 2 1 q
h2 m
895 20
3 2 28590
0.240 3 2
N2 169 rpm

tan
Here q 1
tan
160
and sin 2 2 39.8
250
200
tan39.8 h h2 0.240 m
2
Range of speed N2 N1
169 150 19 rpm
Problem 6:-In a spring controlled governor, the curve of controlling force is a straight
line. When balls are 400 mm apart, the controlling force is 1200 N and when 200 mm apart,
the controlling force is 450 N. At what speed will the governor run when the balls are 250
mm apart? What initial tension on the spring would be required for isochronism and what
would then be the speed? The mass of each ball is 9 kg.
Solution:
When r2 200 mm FC2 1200 N
r1 100 mm FC1 450 N
FC 450
r 0.1 4500

1200 6000

0.2
FC
increase as r increase so far stability
r
conditionFC ar b
(1) For the stability of spring controlled governor

FC ar b
When r r1 100 mm
0.1m
450 a 0.1 b .......(1)
and r r2 200 mm
0.2 m
1200 a 0.2 b .......(2)
By solving equation (1) & (2)
a 7500
b 300
Now we have

250
FC ar b 7500 0.125 300 r 125 given
2
637.5N
FC m r
2
637.5 9 2 0.125
23.80 rad / sec
2N
N 227.3rpm
60
(2) Initial tension on spring for Isochronism
An Isochronism governor, the controlling force line passed through the origin (i.e. b=0). The
value of b is made zero by increasing the initial tension of spring to 300 N.
Initial tension on the spring for Isochronism = 300 N
(3) Isochronism speed

For Isochronism...... FC ' ar
m '2 r ar
2
2N'
9 7500
60
N' 275 rpm

5
Introduction to Dynamics
Course Contents
5.1 Force Convention
5.2 Free-Body Diagrams
5.3 Equilibrium of Two-And-Three
Force Members
5.4 Member with Two Forces and
a Torque
5.5 Equilibrium of Four-Force
Members
5.6 Superposition
5.7 Mass Moments and Products
of Inertia
5.8 Inertia Forces and Dalem-
berts Principle
5.9 The Principle of Superposi-
tion
5.10 Measuring Mass Moment of
Inertia

5. Introduction to Dynamics Theory of Machines (2151902)
5.1 Force Convention
The force exerted by the member i on the member i is represented by Fij.
(a) Points of application of forces F1 and F2 to a rigid body may or may not be important. (b) The
rectangular components of a force vector.
5.2 Free-Body Diagrams
A free-body diagram is a sketch or diagram of a part isolated from the mechanism in order to
determine the nature of forces acting on it.

Fig. (a) Shows a four-link mechanism. The free-body diagrams of its members 2, 3 and 4 are shown
in Figs (b) (c) and (d) respectively. Various forces acting on each member are also shown. As the
mechanism is in static equilibrium, each of its members must be in equilibrium individually.
Member 4 is acted upon by three forces F, F34 and F14.

Member 3 is acted upon by two forces F23 and F43.
Member 2 is acted upon by two forces F32 and F12 and a torque T.
Initially, the direction and the sense of some of the forces may not be known.
Assume that the force F on the member 4 is known completely. To know the other two forces
acting on this member completely, the direction of one more force must be known.
Link 3 is a two-force member and for its equilibrium, F23 and F43 must act along BC. Thus. F34,
being equal and opposite to F43, also acts along BC. For the member 4 to be in equilibrium, F14
passes through the intersection of F and F34, by drawing a force triangle (F is completely known),
magnitudes of F14 and F34 can be known [(e)].
Now, F34 = F43 = F23 = F32
Member 2 will be in equilibrium if F12 is equal, parallel and opposite to F32 and
T = F12 = F32
5.3 Equilibrium of Two-And-Three Force Members
A member under the action of two forces will be in equilibrium if
The forces are of the same magnitude,

The force acting along the same line, and
The forces are in opposite directions.
Figure shows such a member. A member under the action of three forces will be in equilibrium if
The resultant of the forces is zero, and The lines of action of the forces intersect at a point (known
as point of concurrency).

(a) Two-force member not in equilibrium; (b) two-force member in equilibrium if FA and FB are
equal, opposite, and share the same line of action; (c) three-force member not in equilibrium; and
(d) three-force member in equilibrium if FA, FB, and FC are coplanar, if their lines of action intersect
at a common point O, and if their vector sum is zero.
Figure (a) shows a member acted upon by three forces F1, F2, and F3 and is in equilibrium as the
lines of action of forces intersect at one point O and the resultant is zero. This is verified by adding
the forces vector ally [(b)]. As the head of the last vector F3 meets the tail of the first vector F1,
the resultant is zero. It is not necessary to add the three vectors in order to obtain the resultant
as is shown in Fig. (c) in which F2 is added to F3 and then F1 is taken.
Figure shows a case where the magnitudes and directions of the forces are the same as before, but
the lines of action of the forces do not intersect at one point. Thus, the member is not in
equilibrium.
Consider a member in equilibrium in which the force F1 is completely known, F2 is known in

direction only and F3 is completely unknown. The point of application of F1, F2, and F3 are A, B
and C respectively. To solve such a problem, first find the point of concurrency O from the two
forces with known directions, i.e., from F1 and F2. Joining O with C gives the line of action of the
third force F3. To know the magnitudes of the forces F2 and F3, take a vector of proper magnitude
and direction to represent the force F1. From its two ends, draw lines parallel to the lines of action
of the forces F2 and F3 forming of force triangle. Mark arrowheads on F2 and F3 so that F1, F2

and F3 are in the same order.
If the lines of the action of the two forces are parallel then the point of concurrency lies at infinity
and, therefore, the third force is also parallel to the first two.
5.4 Member with Two Forces and a Torque
A member under the action of two forces and an applied torque will be in equilibrium if The forces
are equal in magnitude, parallel in direction and opposite in sense, and The forces form a couple
which is equal and opposite to the applied torque.
Figure shows a member acted upon by two equal forces F1 and F2 and an applied torque T. For
equilibrium, T = F1 * h = F2 * h
Where T, F1 and F2 are the magnitudes of T, F1 and F2 respectively is clockwise whereas coupled
formed by F1 and F2 is counter clockwise.
5.5 Equilibrium of Four-Force Members
Normally, in most of the cases the above conditions for equilibrium of a member are found to be
sufficient. However, in some problems, it may be found that the number of forces on a member is
four or even more than that. In such cases, first look for the forces completely known and combine
them into a single force repenting the sum of the known forces. This may reduce the number of
forces acting on a body to two or three. However, in planer mechanism, a four-force system is also
solvable if one force is known completely along with lines of action of the others. The following
example illustrates the procedure.
5.6 Superposition
In linear systems, if a number of loads act on a system of forces, the net effect is equal to the
superposition of the effects of the individual loads taken one at a time. A linear system is one in
which the output force is directly proportional to the input force, i.e., in mechanisms where
coulomb or dry friction is neglected.

5.7 Mass Moments and Products of Inertia
Another problem that often arises when forces are distributed over an area or volume is that of
calculating their moment about a specified point or axis of rotation. Sometimes the force intensity
varies according to its distance from the point or axis of rotation. Although we will save a more
through derivation of this equation until previous Section and later, we will point out here that
such problems always give rise to integrals of the form ()2
In three-dimensional problems, three such integrals are defined as follows:
() = ( )( ) = [(Ry )2 + (Rz )2 ]
() = ( )( ) = [(Rz )2 + (Rx )2 ]
() = ( )( ) = [(Rx )2 + (Ry )2 ]
These three integrals are called the mass moment for inertia of the body. Another three similar
integrals are
() = () = ( )( ) = ( )
() = () = ( )( ) = ( )
() = () = ( )( ) = ( )
And these three integrals are called the mass products of inertia of body. Sometimes it is
convenient to arrange these mass moments of inertia and the mass product of inertia into a
symmetric square array or matrix format called the inertia tensor of the body:

= [ ]

A careful look at the above integrals will indicate that they represents the mass distribution of the
body with respect to the coordinate system about which they are determine, but that they change
if evaluated in a different coordinate system.to keep their meaning direct and simple ,we assume
that the coordinate system chosen for each body is attached to that body in a convenient location
and orientation .therefore, for rigid bodies ,the mass moments and products of inertia are

constant properties of body and its mass distribution and they do not changed when the body is
moves; they do ,however ,depend on the coordinate system chosen.
An interesting property of these integrals is that it is always possible to choose the coordinate
system so that it is origin it located at the center of mass of the body and oriented such that all of
the mass product of inertia become zero such choice of coordinate axes of the body is called is its
principal axes, and the corresponding values of eqs. (14.7) are then called the principal mass
moment of inertia. A variety of simple geometric solid, the orientation of their principal axes, and
formulas for their principal mass moments of inertia are included in Appendix A.
If we note that mass moments of inertia have units of mass times distance squared, it seems
natural to define a radius value of the body as

= 2 =

This distance k is called the radius of gyration of the bodies, and it is always calculated or means
med from the center of mass of the part about one of the principal axes. For three-dimensional
motions of parts there are three radii of gyration kx, ky and kz associated with the three principal
axes, Ixx, Iyy and Izz.
It is often necessary to determine the moments and products of inertia of bodies, which are
composed of several simpler sub shapes for which formula are known, such as those given in table
5 in Appendix A. The easiest method of finding these is to compute the mass moment about the
principal axes of each sub shape, then to shift the origins of each to the mass center of the
composite body, and then to sum the results .This require that we develop methods of redefining
mass moments and products of inertia when the axes are translated to a new position. The form
of the transfer, or parallel-axis theorem for mass moment of inertia, is written
= + 2
Where IG is one of the principal mass moments of inertia about some known principal axis and I
is mass moment of inertia about a parallel axis at distance d from that principal axis. Equation
must be used for translation of inertia axes starting from a principal axis. Also, the rotation of
these axes results in the introduction of product of inertia terms. More will be said in general
transformation of inertia in section.
Only one mass moment of inertia Izz was requested or terminated. This does not mean that Ixx and

Iyy are zero , but rather that will likely not be needed for further analysis .In problems with only
planer motion, only Izz is needed because Ixx and Iyy are used only rotation out of the xy plan. These
other mass moment and products of inertia are used in a section and later, where we treat
problems with spatial motion, and they are determine in identical fashion.
5.8 Inertia Forces and Dalemberts Principle
Next, let us consider a moving rigid body of mass m acted upon by any system of forces, say F1,
F2, and F3, as illustrated in fig. We designate the center of mass of the body as point G, and we find
the resultant of the system of forces from the equation
F = 1 + 2 + 3
(a) An unbalanced set of forces on a rigid body. (b) The accelerations that result from the
unbalanced forces.
In the general case, the line of action of this resultant will not be through the mass center but will
be displaced by some distance, illustrated in fig. (a) as distance h. We demonstrated in Eq. that the
effect of this unbalanced force system is to produce an acceleration of the center of mass of the
body:
In a very similar way, it has been proven that the unbalanced moment effect of this resultant force
about the center of mass causes angular acceleration of the body that obeys the equation:

However, this equation is restricted to use in taking moments about the center of mass G. It cannot
be used for taking moments about an arbitrary point.
The quantity F is the resultant of all external forces acting upon the body, and MG is the sum
of all applied external moments and the moments of all externally applied forces about point G.
The mass moment of inertia is designated as IG, Signifying that it must be taken with respect to
the mass center G.
Equations demonstrate that when an unbalanced system of forces acts upon a rigid body, the body
experiences a rectilinear acceleration AG of its mass center in the same direction as the resultant
force F. The body also experiences an angular acceleration in the same direction as the
resultant moment MG, caused by the moments of the forces and the torques about the mass
center. This situation is illustrated in fig. (b). If the forces and moments are known, Eqs. may be
used to determine the resulting acceleration pattern that is, the resulting motion of the body.
During engineering design, however, the motions of the machine members are often specified in
advance by other machine requirements. The problem then is this: given the motions of the
machine elements, what forces are required to produce these motions? The problem requires (1)
a kinematic analysis to determine the translational and rotational accelerations of the various
members and (2) definitions of the actual shapes, dimensions, and material specifications to
determine the centroids and mass moments of inertia of the members. In the examples presented
here, only the results of the kinematic analysis are included because methods of finding these have
been presented in previous Chapter. The selection of the materials, shapes and many of the
dimensions of machine members form the subject of machine design and are not further
discussed here.
In the dynamic analysis of machines, the acceleration vectors are usually known; therefore, an
alternative form of Equations. Are often convenient in determining the forces required to produce
these known accelerations. Thus, we can write
+ ( ) = 0
And
+ ( ) = 0
Both of these are vector equations applying to the planar motion of a rigid body. Equation states
that vector sum of all external forces acting upon the body plus the fictitious force -mAG sum to

zero. This new fictitious force -mAG is called an inertia force. It has the same line of action as the
absolute acceleration AG, but is opposite in sense. Equation states that the sum of all external
moments and the moments of all external forces acting upon the body about an axis through G
and perpendicular to the plane of motion plus the fictitious torque -IG sum to zero. This new
fictitious torque -IG is called an inertia torque. The inertia torque is opposite in sense to the
angular acceleration vector . We recall that Newtons first law states that a body perseveres in
its state of uniform motion except when compelled to change by impressed; in other words, bodies
resist any change in motion. In a sense, we can picture the fictitious inertia force and inertia torque
vectors as resistances of the body to the change of motion required by the net unbalanced forces.
(a) Unbalanced forces and resulting accelerations. (b) Inertia force and inertia couple. (c) Inertia
force offset from center of mass.
Equations are known as dAlemberts principle, because dAlembert was the first to call attention
to the fact that addition of the inertia force and inertia torque to the real system of forces and
torques enables a solution from the equations of static equilibrium. We note that the equations
can also be written
= 0 M = 0
Where it is understood that both the external and the inertia forces and torques are to be included
in the summations. Equations are useful because they permit us to take the summation of
moments about any axis perpendicular to the plane of motion.
DAlemberts principle is summarized as follows: The vector sum of all external forces and inertia
forces acting upon a system of rigid bodies is zero. The vector sum of all external moments and
inertia torques acting upon a system of rigid bodies is also separately zero.
When a graphical solution by a force polygon is desired, Eqs. can be combined. In Fig. (a), link 3 is
acted upon by the external forces F23 and F43. The resultant F23 + F43 produces an acceleration

of the center of mass AG and an angular acceleration of link 3 because the line of action of the
resultant does not pass through the center of mass. Representing the inertia torque -IG3 as a
couple, as illustrated in Fig. (b), we intentionally choose the two forces of this couple to +be m3AG.
For the moment of the couple to be of magnitude -IG, the distance between the forces of the
couple must be
3
=
m3 A G
Because of this particular choice for the couple, one force of the couple exactly balances the inertia
forces itself and leaves only a single forces, as illustrated in Fig. (c). This force includes the
combined effects of the inertia force and the inertia torque, yet appears as only a single inertia
force offset by the distance h to give the effect of the inertia torque.
5.9 The Principle of Superposition
Linear systems are those in which effect is proportional to cause. This means that the response or
output of a linear system is directly proportional to the drive or input to the system. An example
of a linear system is a spring, where the deflection (output) is directly proportional to the force
(input) exerted on the spring.
The principle of superposition may be used to solve problems involving linear systems by
considering each of the inputs to the systems separately. If the system is linear, the responses to
each of these inputs can be summed or superposed on each other to determine the total response
of the system.
Thus, the principle of superposition states that for a linear system the individual responses to
several disturbances, or driving functions, can be superposed on each other to obtain the total
response of the system.
The principle of superposition does not apply to non-linear systems. Some examples of non-linear
systems, where superposition may not be used, are systems with static or Coulomb friction,
systems with clearances or backlash, or systems with springs that change stiffness as they are
deflected.
We have now reviewed all of the principles necessary for making a complete dynamic-force
analysis of a planar motion mechanism. The steps in using the principle of superposition for

making such an analysis are summarized as follows:
1. Perform a kinematic analysis of the mechanism. Locate the centre of mass of each link and
find its acceleration; also find the angular acceleration of each link.
2. If the inertia forces are attached to all links simultaneously, along with other applied forces
and moments, then there are often no two-or-three-force members and it may become diffi-
cult to find the lines of action of unknown constraint forces. Instead of doing this, it is some-
times more convenient to ignore the masses and applied forces and moments on all but one
or two links and to leave other links as two-or-three-force members. By choosing in this man-
ner, a solution may become possible for the constraint forces caused by the masses or applied
forces and moments being considered, but without those caused by the masses and applied
forces and moments being ignored.
3. Those masses and applied forces and moments considered in Step 2 can now be ignored while
a solution is obtained for additional constraint force components caused by some of the pre-
viously ignored masses or applied forces and moments. This process can be continued until
constraint force components caused by all masses and all applied forces and moments are
found.
4. The results of Steps 2 and 3 can now be vectorially added to obtain the resultant forces and
torques on each link caused by the combined effects of all masses and all applied forces and
moments.
5.10 Measuring Mass Moment of Inertia
(a) Simple pendulum. (b) Torsional pendulum.
Sometimes the shapes of machine parts are so complicated that it is extremely tedious and time

consuming to calculate the mass moment(s) of inertia. Consider, for example, the problem of
finding the mass moment of inertia of an automobile body about a vertical axis through its center
of mass. For such problems it is usually possible to determine the mass moment of inertia of a
body by observing its dynamic behavior caused by a known rotational disturbance.
Many bodies, connecting rods and cranks for example, are shaped so that their masses can be
assumed to lie in a single plane. Once such bodies have been weighed and their mass centers
located, they can be suspended like a pendulum and caused to oscillate. The mass moment of
inertia of such a body can then be computed from an observation of its period or frequency of
oscillation. For best experimental results, the part should be suspended with the pivot located
close to, but not coincident with, the center of mass. If is not usually necessary to drill a hole to
suspend the body; for example, a spoked wheel or a gear can be suspended on a knife edge at its
rim.
When the body of Fig. a is displaced through an angle , a gravity force mg acts at G. Summing
moments about the pivot O gives
0 = ( sin ) 0
We intend that the pendulum be displaced only through a small angle, so that sin can be
approximated by . Equation (a) can then be written as

+ =0
0
This second- order, linear differential equation has the well- known solution

= 1 sin + 2 cos
0 0
Where c1 and c2 are constants of integration.
We shall start pendulum motion by displacing it through a small angle 0 and releasing it with no
initial velocity from this position. Thus, at time t = 0, we obtain = 0 and = 0. Substituting these
conditions into Eq. (c) and its first time derivative enables the two constants. They are c1 = 0 and
c2 = 0. Therefore,


= 0 cos
0
Because a cosine function repeats itself every 360 or 2 radians, the period of the motion is
0
= 2

Therefore, the mass moment of inertia of the body about the pivot O is
2
0 = ( )
2
This equation demonstrates that the body must be weighted to get mg, the distance rG must be
measured, and then pendulum must be suspended and oscillated so that the period can be
observed; Eq. can then be solved to give I0 about O. If the moment of inertia about the mass center
is desired, it can be obtained by using the parallel axis theorem, Eq.
Figure b illustrates how the mass moment of inertia can be determined without actually weighing
the body. The body is connected to a slender rod or wire at the mass center. The torsional stiffness
kt of the rod or wire is defined as the torque necessary to twist the rod through a unit angle. If the
body of Fig. b is turned through a small angle and released, the equation of motion becomes

+ =0

This is similar to Eq. (b) and, with the same starting conditions, has the solution

= 0 cos

The period of oscillation is then

= 2

and

2
= ( )
2
The torsional stiffness is often known or can be computed from knowledge of the length and
diameter of the rod or wire and its material. Then the oscillation of the body can be observed and
Eq. can be used to compute the mass moment of inertia IG. Alternatively, when the torsional
stiffness kt is unknown, a body with known mass moment of inertia IG can be mounted and Eq.
can be used to determine kt.
A trifilar pendulum, also called a three-string torsional pendulum, illustrated in Fig., can provide
a very accurate method of measuring mass moment of inertia. Three strings of equal length
support a lightweight platform and are equally spaced about its center. A round platform serves
just as well as the triangular one shown. The part whose mass moment of inertia is to be
determined is carefully placed on the platform so that the center of mass of the object coincides
with the platform center. The platform is then made to oscillate, and the number of oscillations is
counted over a specified period of time.
The notation for the three-string torsional pendulum analysis is as follows.
= mass of the platform
= mass moment of inertia of the part
= mass moment of inertia of the platform
= string angular displacement
= vertical axis through the center of the platform
We begin by writing the summation of moments about the z axis. This gives
= ( + ) sin ( + ) = 0
Because we are assuming small displacements, the sine of an angle can be approximated by the
angle itself. Therefore,

And Eq. becomes
( + ) 2
+ =0
( + )
This equation can be solved in the same manner as Eq. (b). The result is
( + ) 2
+ = ( )
2
This equation should be used first with an empty platform to find Ip. With mp and Ip known, the
equation can then be used to find IG of the part being measured.


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1

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.1 Principle of Gyroscope

1.2 Angular Velocity

The angular velocity of a rotating body is specified by

the magnitude of velocity

Angular velocity is represented by a vector in the following manner:

(i) Magnitude of the velocity is represented by the length of the vector.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.3 Angular Acceleration

(i) ac representing angular velocity change in a plane normal to ac or x-axis, and

Change of angular velocity,

Rate of change of angular velocity

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Change of angular velocity,

Rate of change of angular velocity

Total angular acceleration,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.4 Gyroscopic Torque (Couple)

Change in the angular velocity,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

For the configuration of Fig.(a)

Ox is known as the axis of spin

Oz is known as the axis of precession

Oy is known as the axis of gyroscopic couple 00

yz is plane of gyroscopic couple

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.5 Gyroscopic Effect on Aeroplanes

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.6 Gyroscopic Effect on Naval Ships

Bow is the fore or the front end.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Gyroscopic Effect during Turning

Gyroscopic Effect on Pitching

Angular velocity of precession,

This is maximum when

Therefore, maximum angular velocity of precession

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Maximum angular acceleration

Gyroscopic Effect on Rolling

1.7 Stability of an Automobile

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Effect of Gyroscopic Couple

Gyroscopic couple due to four wheels,

= mass moment of inertia of each wheel

= linear velocity of the vehicle

Gyroscopic couple due to engine rotating parts,

Where G is the gear ratio,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

Total gyroscopic couple,

Effect of Centrifugal Couple

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

1.8 Stability of two-wheel vehicle

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria

= radius of the wheel

= moment of inertia of each wheel

= moment of inertia of rotating parts of the engine

= total mass of the vehicle and the rider

= angular velocity of the wheel

= angular velocity of rotating parts of engine

Spin vector (horizontal) = cos = (2 + ) cos

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Subhesh Pansuria