Volume 1, Special Edition | Current Kampo Medicine 2005
History of Kampo Medicine
Hiromichi Yasui, Japan Institute of TCM
Kampo medicine is the descriptive term used in
Japan for TCM (in a broad sense Kampo medicine refers
to the entirety of traditional Chinese medicine practiced
in Japan, and in a narrow sense specifically to herbal
medicine). This form of medicine differs from the Chinese
form of TCM and is characterized by many unique
theories and therapies. It is necessary to review the
1500-year history since the introduction of this system
into Japan and thereby illuminate the characteristics of
Kampo medicine.
Introduction and imitation of Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine was brought to Japan
in the 5th century via the Korean peninsula. At that time
Japan maintained an extensive exchange with the
Korean peninsula and immigrants from the peninsula
(some Korean physicians had been invited to Japan) had
provided the people of the ruling class in Japan with a
certain degree of insight into Chinese medicine. From the
end of the 6th century direct exchange with China started
and by the 7th century the Japanese government sent
scholars for foreign studies with their ambassadors to
China in the Sui and Tang periods. Some studied the
Chinese medicine before their return to Japan.
In 701 the government enacted laws (including items
related to the medical system) modeled according to the
Chinese system used in the Tang period. For the purpose
of medical education a curriculum was established, where
the textbooks included classics like the "Huang-Di
Nei-Jing" (Yellow Emperors Classic of Internal Medicine),
medical encyclopedias, textbooks of pharmacology, pulse
diagnosis and the like. The duration required for the
study of medicine was set at 6 years. This was a period of
imitation during which almost no original contributions
introduced by Japanese were observed, but in 984 the
oldest Japanese medical encyclopedia, the "Ishinpo" was
compiled (the contents of which are, however, mostly
citations from Chinese medical textbooks).
This system of medical affairs served the ruling class
of the government and functioned as long as the
aristocracy controlled the government until the end of the
12th century. After the warrior class seized political
power and moved the capital from Kyoto to Kamakura
the system was perfunctorily handed down (this
government is called the Kamakura Shogunate).
Medicine was handed down in specialized families and in
extremely confined conditions. Yet, during this period,
Buddhism, concentrating on salvatational activities,
suddenly flourished and people involved were looking for
a new medicine, breaking free of the Kyoto medical
community. The representative priest and physician of
the time was Shozen Kajiwara (1266-1337), who wrote
The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
two large medical encyclopedias between 1302 and 1327.
In these works an enormous amount of Chinese medical
books are cited as references.
Early development
In the 15th century the second government of the
warrior class, the Ashikaga Shogunate, placed great
importance on trade with China of the Ming period and
dispatched many trading vessels. Beside these there was
a significant number of private vessels scuttling between
China and Japan. While this led to the import of many
Chinese articles, it simultaneously also increased the
number of people visiting Japan. Moreover, since
Buddhist priests and intellectuals had found an interest
in medicine, the merchant vessels imported large
quantities of medical references and drugs. Yet, during
that time the trade partners of the Japanese were
Chinese merchants and information pertaining to the
capital, Beijing, was scarce. The imported medical books
tended to be slightly biased. They did not represent the
most advanced medicine of the Ming period, but the
majority of the books were rather of the preceding Sung
period. For this reason Japanese medicine adapted itself
to that period.
This situation was changed by Dosan Manase
(1507-1594) who was born in Kyoto. After studying in a
Buddhist temple, he headed for the seat of learning in
east Japan, the Ashikaga Gakko (Ashikaga school) for
further studies (the Ashikaga school was introduced to
the world in 1550 by Francisco de Xavier as the "largest
and most famous general university in Japan").
Koga, located close to this school, was the seat of the
Ashikaga Shogunate regional government in East Japan.
In its vicinity lived excellent physicians together with
many intellectuals. Manase studied first under
physicians in charge of important government officials as
well as priests who had returned from studying medicine
in China and later the contemporarily most advanced
medicine of the Ming period. Because he was exceedingly
sagacious he understood almost all of the material. As a
result he acquired a level of medical learning and skills
that matched the physicians of the Ming dynasty.
Following his return to Kyoto in 1545 he applied this
knowledge, referring to a large number of books, to create
his own unique medical system. The fruit of his labor
culminated in his main work, the "Keiteki Shu". The
purpose of this compilation was to unify the process from
diagnosis to therapy based on traditional medical
theories. This structure resembles very closely the
current form of TCM. A school building, the "Keiteki In",
was erected in which the medical system he had founded
was taught to students gathering there from all over the
country. This system became the Japanese medical
standard of the day and spread throughout the country.
During the latter half of the 16th century the power
of the Ashikaga Shogunate declined, and in the course of
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multiple civil wars over a period of several decades, the
Tokugawa Shogunate was established in 1603. This
government transferred the capital to Edo (present day
Tokyo) in order to govern the country, divided the country
into more than 200 small feudal domains and appointed
feudal lords (daimyo) to rule those particular domains,
while the shogun maintained a central authorative
government. The government of the Emperor in Kyoto
continued to exist as a government without any real
powers to which perfunctory government officials were
appointed. The same situation applied to medicine.
Each feudal domain had an administrative
organization resembling that of the central government.
Initially the medical system was not exceptional. During
that period there had not yet been any attempts at state
regulated educational systems, so that people who
studied in private medical schools were free to open
offices in the cities and establish their practice there. The
leaders of the private schools had studied in Manase's
school and most were excellent physicians.
Many of the private schools were found in Kyoto and
Edo (present day Tokyo), so that students intending to
study medicine gathered in these two cities. The
publication of medical books gradually increased, and in
addition, the classics and books of the Ming period,
reprints and commentaries trying to render difficult
medical issues easier to understand circulated. These
various commentaries became very important for the
tradition of Japanese Kampo medicine.
Following the late 16th century new situations arose
between Japan and the continent. One of those events
was the attempt of Hideyoshi Toyotomi, for a short period
the supreme ruler of Japan, to invade the Korean
peninsula. The invaders plundered cultural artifacts
including medical books and technical experts (including
physicians) throughout the various parts of the peninsula
and brought them back to Japan. In particular, the
experts on wood block printing made important
contributions to the Japanese publishing business.
Publication of medical books relied largely on the
technical expertise of these people.
Another event occurring a little later was the
downfall of the Ming dynasty. People being attacked by
the Manchurians (of the later Qing period) fled to the
south and a small minority of these people
(approximately 20-30,000) sought refuge in Japan. Here
they were accepted by the Tokugawa Shogunate newly
formed in 1603. Among these people were excellent
physicians who taught the Japanese the newest level of
Chinese medicine of the day.
These two events greatly promoted during the 17th
century the introduction and spread of the latest medical
knowledge from China and the Korean peninsula to
Japan.
As stated above, the conceptual world of Japan at the
time regarded Confucian studies to be of highest priority
4 The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
and studies of Neo-Confucianism, as the conceptual basis
of the Tokugawa Shogunate, were promoted (serious
introduction of Neo-Confucianism to Japan occurred
during the latter half of the 16th century). Yet, by the
latter half of the 17th century, new trends were observed
in this branch of learning. Some of the progressive
scholars denied Neo-Confucianism and attempted to
return to the original Confucian views. Thus, the classics
of the Confucian area were no longer interpreted along
the Neo-Confucian lines of thought, but the trend among
these scholars was to interpret the classics according to
their own views. This also influenced the practice of
medicine, which always stood under the strong influence
of conceptual Confucianism. That is why the medical
original classic "Sho Kan Ron" (Shang han lun) was
interpreted according to the views of the medical scholars
and not according to the interpretations prevailing during
the Ming period in the same way that the Confucianists
emphasized Confucius's original texts. This led to the
spread of a movement, placing the utmost importance on
clinical applications.
One cannot disregard the extensive studies of the
Chinese "Shang han lun". In China the "Zhung-Jing's
Encyclopedia" of 1599 (this included the "Shang han lun"
and "Jin gui yao liu") was published. Around this time
research on the "Shang han lun" started. This boom soon
caught fire in Japan and in 1659 the Japanese re-print of
"Zhung-Jing's Encyclopedia" and a number of other
classic texts were published. Moreover, during this period
research scriptures dealing with the Chinese "Shang han
lun" were brought to Japan, immediately receiving much
attention and motivated many people to study this world.
The second trend motivated the Japanese physicians
to emphasize the original medical text of the "Shang han
lun". This was a characteristic Japanese event and this
school of thought later was designated the "classic school"
(Koho Ha). The origin of the classic school was the revival
of ancient medical saints (medical arts) in modern times,
but the actual manifestation varied with each individual
and through the different periods.
Creative Period
While the physicians of the classic school studied the
"Shang han lun", they criticized at the same time
traditional medical theories. Later, these concepts formed
the characteristics of this school. During the early period
there were influential people among the members of this
school, their problem awareness was based on the "Riki
Nigen Ron" (Two Principle theory) of the
Neo-Confucianism. They considered "qi" (spirit) to be
more important than "li" (reason) and thus established
theories emphasizing "yang qi" or the "movement of qi".
These concepts received much attention as new
hypotheses of physiology and pathology, but did not
develop beyond that, so that there was little hope, as will
be stated later, for the appearance of new theories.

The "Shang han lun" may have been considered by
this school of thought as the one and only classic and gave
rise to an enormous number of research books. The most
outstanding methodologic characteristic of their study
was that they tried to explain this classic through the
rules it provided itself. Todo Yoshimasu (1702-1773) was
the one person who promoted this methodology to its
extreme limits. His appearance on the scene abruptly
changed the form of Japanese Kampo medicine.
Yoshimasu gave his own experiences and the entries
in the classic a lot of thought and came up with the
concept that "all diseases arise from a single toxin"
(Manbyo Ichidoku Setsu = single toxin hypothesis of
diseases) and thus arrived at a view of pathology entirely
new and different from the common one. Drugs were
supposed to expel this toxin and he set forth that the
prescriptions listed in "Shang han lun" and "Jin gui yao
liu" were highly effective for this purpose. Although there
was only one toxin, it could reach various different places,
causing a multitude of different symptoms. Abdominal
examination was given great importance as the one
diagnostic method of choice to determine the location of
the toxin. Abdominal examination is a uniquely Japanese
examination procedure. Its origin reaches back to the
16th century and Todo Yoshimasu inheriting its
tradition, relied for his use available prescriptions.
Moreover, he insisted that "prescriptions were the most
important thing in medicine" and studied how individual
prescriptions could be used for the expulsion of the toxin.
For this purpose he temporarily broke up the "Shang
han lun" and "Jin gui yao liu", reassembled them
classified by drugs and termed this work "Ruiju Ho" or
"Lei Shu Fang" (in Chinese). In this book the individual
paragraphs are arranged according to prescriptions,
which served to facilitate clear comprehension of the
indications for each drug. This arrangement does not
depend on traditional theories, but allowed one to
administer appropriate treatment provided a set of
symptoms could be identified. This "treatment system of
specific prescriptions for specific symptom complexes" is
called "prescription-symptom relation". Later this system
continued to play an important role in the Japanese
Kampo medical system.
Yoshimasu also tried to deduce a posteriori the action
of the individual drugs from the entry text in the "Shang
han lun". When regarding prescriptions containing
several crude drugs he searched for shared meanings in
the text pertaining to the indications, identified the
actions of the individual drugs and detailed them in his
book "Yakuchou" or "Yao Chang" (in Chinese). In this way
he supported his theories with pharmacology.
The "single toxin hypothesis of diseases" hypothesis
did not worry about the right qi, but concentrated solely
on the presence of evil forces and his treatment was
characterized by dispelling this evil. Yoshimasu's
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Volume 1, Special Edition | Current Kampo Medicine 2005
concepts gave rise to extensive discussion and quickly
spread throughout Japan. This resulted after a short
while in the collapse of the Manase school of medicine.
However, while the single toxin hypothesis was one of the
defining characteristics of Yoshimasu's medicine, it too
gradually fell into disuse after his death and only the
"prescription-symptom relation" was passed down to
future generations.
The classic school of medicine was, as stated above,
not uniform, but had several other special characteristics
such as emphasizing the "Shang han lun", rejecting the
traditional medical theories, and attempt to find
treatment principles out of the "Shang han lun".
Eclectic Period
Until the early 18th century the theories of
traditional medicine formed the roots of medicine,
including the Manase school of basic theories, but were
rejected by the advocates of the classic school. Instead
speculation was given up and therapies that could be
based entirely on directly verifiable things became the
mainstream. Symptoms were minutely examined,
symptom patterns identified and treatments
administered matching those patterns. The physicians of
the time founded their practices under these
circumstances on their own personal experiences,
experience based personal hypotheses and the integration
of therapeutic methods from other fields (like folk
medicines and blood letting) and practiced their own
individual eclectic styles. The result was that from the
later half of the 18th century until the early 19th century
an abundance of experiences was accumulated using this
method. These people were called eclectics.
During this time the completely rejected traditional
medical concepts by Todo Yoshimasu again came into use
because of their clinical necessity. The eight principles of
yin-yang, exterior-interior, cold-heat, deficiency-excess, or
greater yang disease, brighter yang disease and similar
terms revived the six channel concepts of the "Shang han
lun". Also, a child of Todo Yoshimasu, Nangai Yoshimasu,
proposed the hypothesis that although there is only one
toxin, this may superimpose on qi, blood or water and
thereby cause the symptoms of disease. These technical
terms appear on first sight to be the traditional medical
terms used previously, but actually refer to completely
different things. They possess almost no meaning related
to physiology or pathology, but are instead characterized
in that they are used simply as indices of classifications.
Also, during this period academic conflicts arose
between Kyoto and the capital Edo (present day Tokyo).
The physicians of Kyoto placed their greatest
emphasis on the epoch of the "Shang han lun" and
frequently used prescriptions listed in this classic. A
representative figure of the contemporary eclectics was
Tokaku Wada (1742-1803) from Kyoto. He acquired the
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skill to use a relatively small number of prescriptions (a
few dozen) for their respective indications through
experience and was very skillful in applying these
prescriptions to various different pathologic conditions.
Kinkei Nakagami (1744-1833) also came from Kyoto and
classified therapies most suitable for individual diseases,
not restricting himself to Chinese herbal medicine, but
also successfully used folk medicines, acupuncture and
moxibustion, blood letting, affusions, and the like, for the
treatment of diseases.
Conversely, Kakuryo Katakura (1751-1822) from Edo
had referred to Chinese medicine up to the Sung dynasty,
fitting specific prescriptions to the various conditions,
thus achieving excellent results. He is known to have
performed in 1794 the world's first resection of a nasal
polyp with a snare.
In the latter half of the 18th century new trends
appeared in Confuscianism and the study of historical
artifacts flourishing in China of the Qing period was
introduced to Japan. Medicine too came under the
influence of this trend and the study of historical artifacts
began to flourish in Japan. Classic texts like the
"Huang-Di Nei-Jing" and "Shang han lun" were subject to
strict criticism, which led to the preparation and
publication of the correct texts. These movements were
initially propagated by individual persons, but later also
acknowledged by the Tokugawa Shogunate that
established a national medical research institute (Edo
Medical House). Here research and education were
performed simultaneously. The third director of the
institute, Genkan Taki (1754-1810), has left the world
many great achievements. Among these his comments on
the most important classic texts of traditional Chinese
medicine "Huang-Di Nei-Jing", "Shang han lun" and "Jin
gui yao liu" are of particular excellence. Later, while the
institute was responsible for a portion of medical
administration, the Taki family made remarkable
achievements in the study of historical artifacts. The
result was that the study of historical artifacts became
the mainstream academic trend in Edo.
The serious introduction of western scientific
medicine presented in Dutch to Japan began in the 19th
century. In the middle part of the 18th century, during
the period of Yoshimasu's activity, the gradual
introduction of western medicine had already begun.
While few in number, some medical books of highly
advanced content had been imported and progressively
minded physicians studied and translated these. The first
translation of such a book was the "Ontleedkundige
Tafelen" by the German Johan Adam Kulmus. This
edition expanded the view of the Japanese, who had
previously known only traditional Chinese medicine. All
of a sudden a view of European trends was available.
Initially only anatomy and surgery in western
medicine were introduced and started to gain ground, but
6 The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
soon internal medicine and other clinical applications
started to spread. In particular a form of integrative
medicine was practiced in the field of surgery. The
representative person of this era, Hanaoka Seishu,
resected in 1805 a breast cancer under the world's first
general anaesthesia. Moreover, nearing the end of the
Shogunate, western scientific medicine gained a lot more
momentum, so that a western medical doctor was
assigned as the physician responsible for the Shogun. A
demonstration of this medicine's effectiveness in form of
smallpox vaccinations made clear that Kampo medicine
was not necessarily any longer the only form of medicine.
The Meiji government later succeeded in adopting
German medicine, because Japan had shown that it had
been able to assimilate and apply western medicine of the
highest level worldwide.
The ranks of Kampo physicians working in the field
of internal medicine having difficulties in integrating
both medical systems according to Hanaoka's approach,
assumed a hostile attitude toward western medicine and
tried to reject it. But their attempt at opposing the trends
of the time failed and western medicine spread still
further, leading to the feared decline of Kampo medicine.
Under these circumstances, many physicians
believing in the superiority of Kampo medicine, appeared
and tried to develop it further. At that time many
physicians conducted their clinical practice along the
lines of Yoshimasu's concepts and among these Yodo Odai
(1799-1870) practiced a consequent Yoshimasu style
medicine and became renowned for his excellent
treatment. He added his personal experiences in the form
of comments to Yoshimasu's "Ruiju Ho" and published his
own book "Ruiju Ho Kogi". His book detailed explicitly
how the prescriptions of the "Shang han lun" should be
applied to the various pathologic conditions (The "Ruiju
Ho Kogi" was a popular piece of reading during the
renaissance of Kampo medicine in the 1930s and
developed into a clinical guide. Its influence continues to
the present day).
Gyoko Yamada (1808-1881) was one of the clinicians
contributing to actual clinical practice. He was an
outstanding personality who also had an academic side
that led to his assignment as a teacher at the Edo medical
research institute. He integrated the study of historical
artifacts in clinical practice and applied past clinical
descriptions and case reports into present clinical
practice.
Another remarkable person was Sohaku Asada
(1815-1894). He established a unique system based
mainly on the "Shang han lun" and the medical theories
of the Sung period. He was entrusted with important
posts by the Tokugawa Shogunate and the new Meiji
government. He is also known for having treated many
important government officials and ministers of many
foreign countries. His medical system was a broad-based

system combining the Kyoto and Edo schools and he is
also well known for episodes describing his dealing with a
sciatica attack in the French envoy, Leon Roche; or
inducing recovery in the Taisho Emperor during a critical
illness in his infancy.
While Kampo medicine developed, it divided into
various coexisting schools by the middle of the 19th
century. The study of historical documents achieved an
unprecedented development. Before this background
clinical experiences were accumulated in a preparatory
step for further development. Yet, these trends came to a
sudden standstill, as outlined in further detail below,
because of changes in the political environment.
Decline and Revival
Until the middle of the 19th century Kampo medicine
made enormous contributions to the health of ordinary
people. During this time there was both technical
progress and academic development. Yet, when the new
Meiji government (where the emperor again assumed the
highest position in a constitutional monarchy) replaced
the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, the circumstances
relevant to medicine changed completely.
The new government was modeled after the political
systems of America and various other countries,
establishing guidelines that westernized politics,
economy, education, military and various other
institutions. While it suffered from unequal treaties with
America and various other countries, it initiated a
build-up of national strength according to the motto
national prosperity and defense.
Regarding medicine, there was a need for military
medicine and for that purpose it was decided to adopt the
most advanced German medical system. German medical
educators were invited and highly advanced, specialized
education started at the universities. All medical
facilities of the former government were requisitioned by
the new government or else abolished. After that, all
practicing Kampo physicians had to terminate their
profession in one generation (the profession of a physician
was often hereditary) and regardless of how zealously
their children or disciples practiced, they were not able to
become physicians any longer.
People aspiring to become physicians were obliged to
study western medicine at universities or specialized
organizations and then pass an examination for
practicing physicians. Although the curriculum did not
include Kampo medicine, the people in charge of the
relevant department at that time, did not reject Kampo
medicine in itself. There was still room left to study
traditional medicine after formally becoming a physician.
This measure later led to the revival of Kampo medicine.
Kampo medicine was considered not to be proper
medicine and as such banished from any official capacity.
Social survival was permitted only for acupuncture and
The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
Volume 1, Special Edition | Current Kampo Medicine 2005
moxibustion with permission of the regional government
(refer to the special edition of "Japanese Acupuncture" for
further details). The research of the constituent crude
drugs of Kampo prescriptions (pharmacognosy) was at
the time the most advanced academic subject and
enthusiastically conducted in pharmacologic faculties of
universities. The isolation of ephedrine from the ephedra
herb by Nagayoshi Nagai is just one such example. In this
way the traditional Japanese pharmacology was
inherited and led to modern scientific research in Kampo
medicine.
Having received a major blow from the government,
Kampo medicine was now completely removed from the
mainstream of medicine. In spite of the opposing
movement of actual Kampo medicine practitioners (this
movement is in terms of medical history very intriguing),
there was almost no reflection on this situation at all
during the 1900s. However, the small number of
physicians who studied by the end of the Tokugawa
Shogunate under the few remaining Kampo physicians
(most of which had degrees in western medicine) started
new research into Kampo medicine and applied this
clinically.
During this period the Kampo physicians could
grossly be divided into three different groups.
The first group was the successors of Shuhaku Asada,
who practiced by the end of the preceding century. They
handed the medical teaching of their master down while
practicing in Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto and these disciples
in turn trained their own students in their devotion for
further development. This school belonged to the so-called
eclectics.
The second group were followers of Wada Keijuro,
who himself still being a young boy, saw his sister
radically improve through Kampo medicine and thus
decided to become a Kampo physician himself, later
making great efforts in his attempt at facilitating the
development in this field of learning. In 1910 he
published the book "Ikai no Tettsui" (The Iron Hammer of
the Medical World) wherein he used western medicine as
academic background. The book provides an outstanding
description of Kampo medicine as a form of clinical
medicine and by which he pioneered the social revival of
Kampo medicine. The basic style of the book was the
same as that of Todo Yoshimasu and based mainly on the
"Shang han lun" and "Jin gui yao liu". He and his
successors formed a group of people belonging to the
classic school.
Third, was the group of followers of Dohaku Mori,
who was also a religious figure with his disciples. Mori
entered into an apprenticeship with a not famous, but a
very capable Kampo physician, where he acquired his
medical skills. Adding his own personal ideas he created
a unique classification of physical constitutions and later
instructed younger generations. His treatment was
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outstanding and in 1918, during the so-called Spain
influenza epidemic, he classified this disease into three
types, assigned different prescriptions to these types and
thereby achieved great therapeutic success. His school
belonged to the Gosei Ha (new world school).
Second generation followers of these schools
cooperated later in the 1930s to establish the Japanese
Kampo medical system. The results of these efforts found
their common expression in the book "Practice of Clinical
Kampo Medicine" (1941). This book was prepared for the
purpose of offering the "busy clinician the possibility of
acquiring Kampo medical skills without any background
knowledge". It later became the archetype of literature on
Japanese Kampo medicine.
The methodology outlined in this book closely
resembles that put forward by Todo Yoshimasu. Specific
prescriptions were assigned for specific symptom
complexes and the concept therefore followed the
tradition of the "prescription-symptom relation" (fang
zheng xiang dui) where the prescription matches the
Kampo diagnosis. It may be said to have developed based
on the hypothesis that "prescriptions are the most
important thing in medicine".
The revived Kampo medicine followed the lines of
medicine as it had been practiced during the Edo period.
It promoted a form of treatment that put little emphasis
on the pathologic factors and mechanisms at work in the
patients and therefore facilitated its application within
the framework of western medicine. Later this
contributed both positively and negatively to the future
development of Kampo medicine. Put in another way, this
form of medicine could be put to practical use from that
time onward, provided there was a basic background
knowledge in western medicine. Doubtlessly this was
very convenient for physicians who had received only a
western medical education but would like to give the use
of Kampo medicine a try.
Actually, the application of health insurance to the
prescription of Kampo medical formulas was introduced
in 1976 on this basis and later saw a surprising growth,
thus supporting this methodology. Conversely, the loss of
traditional ways of thinking obstructed theoretical
developments. This became a major obstacle in academic
exchanges with China and Korea and various other
countries with the similar traditional medical systems
(and theoretical systems) by creating major systematic
differences.
Application of medical insurance to specific Kampo
medical extracts
Currently, even though Kampo medicine is not
taught in medical school, herbal medicines are sold in
pharmacies and traditional prescriptions in use (many of
which are manufactured by small scale, by family
8 The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
business type companies) are in use. Their constituents
are actively studied as materials for new drugs.
Furthermore, since the establishment of the Japanese
health insurance system, health insurance currently
covers more than 160 herbal formulas. While the policy of
the Meiji government superficially had abolished Kampo
medicine, it had survived among the people.
In 1976 the Ministry of Health and Welfare adapted
the opinions from the chairman of the Japanese Medical
Association, Taro Takemi who had a deep understanding
of Kampo medicine, demonstrated strong political
leadership, and made remarkable contributions to the
medical administrative management of the Japanese
government, which led to the approval of health
insurance for Kampo medical prescriptions.
A number of pharmaceutical companies have started
to manufacture these formulas. The sales strategies for
these companies at the time were to use Kampo
medicines based on names of diseases. Thus, while
yin-yan, deficiency-excess and similar pathologic factors
and mechanisms were largely neglected, identification of
the symptom patterns called "Sho" was the only concept
barely being accepted and used. This resulted in the use
or large quantities of Chinese herbal extracts covered by
health insurance in the clinical setting and a quick
spread of these in the medical world.
These circumstances led to the appearance of a small
number of physicians using Kampo medicine in a
disorderly manner, yet did not entirely drive the
development of Kampo medicine into an undesirable
direction. A substantial amount of clinical research
(including DB-RCT cumulative research) and
pharmacologic research was conducted, also developing
new applications and indications like relief of side effects
of radiation therapy or chemotherapy. In this way a
number of applications for a number of fields have been
developed.
At the same time, limitations of this kind of
application became evident. Already in the 1980s a
number of problems had emerged. The first of which was
the efficacy of Kampo medicine (extracts) for medical use.
While the dose of Japanese Kampo prescriptions is quite
small, the amount of extract contained in the extracts is
even smaller. Regarding efficacy, this was reason why
these formulas were thought of as possibly not being
sufficiently effective. Following communication of this
fact to the Ministry of Health and Welfare in 1985, the
situation improved. However, the fact that the used doses
were small, remained unchanged.
The second problem was that ready-made formulas
could not be individually adjusted, preventing the
prescriptions made to order for individual patients. To
circumvent this problem a number of extracts were
combined to provide a limited amount of freedom, yet this
did not constitute a fundamental solution.

For the solution of this second problem a significant
number of physicians adopted the original application
form of these drugs, namely decoctions.
Thirdly, and this is the most important problem,
limitations became clear, when Kampo medicines were
prescribed according to western medical diagnoses and
disease names instead of the original Kampo medical
concepts.
A number of solutions to these problems have
emerged.
The first of which was the reintroduction of a system
similar to that used by the Japanese 400 years ago in
modern traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Because the
traditional body concepts (anatomy, physiology, etc.)
similar to those originally adopted by the Chinese and
later used by the Japanese, had been replaced in a little
over a century by western medical body concepts,
comprehension of traditional TCM theories based on said
traditional body concepts became almost impossible. This
resulted in the necessity for physicians to relearn the
TCM theories. A rather difficult undertaking. Even
though identical Chinese characters are used in both
systems, correct comprehension is currently quite
difficult. A large number of relevant textbooks and
references have been published.
Even though TCM has again become a subject of
research among Japanese physicians, the Japanese have
difficulties in grasping the abstract TCM theories, which
makes a complete mastering of the subject difficult.
Recently, Yoichiro Ebe developed a theory integrating
these abstract theories with practical elements to
facilitate their explanation. This theory is called "Keiho
Igaku" (Classical formulation (jing fang) medicine) and
assigns particular importance to the attempt at obtaining
a detailed and concrete understanding of the functions of
"qi" within the body.
Another problem is the adoption of modern medical
research methods. In order to enable various practical
clinical applications of Kampo medical extracts covered
by the health insurance, cumulative research, including
DB-RCT, have been performed and the formulations
applied clinically based on these studies.
In this field the research into clinical epidemiology is
particularly noteworthy. The research group of Hajime
Haimoto examined more than 100 conditions for which
patients received Kampo medicines, analyzed this data
with a computer and calculated the odds ratio. One of the
findings of their research particularly well known is that
the use of Poria Powder with Five Herbs for headaches
associated with a drop in atmospheric pressure carries a
probability of being effective of more than 90% (see this
journal, Vol. 1, No. 1).
In Japan, the study of galenicals has been a family
tradition for more than 100 years. Application of modern
methods in this field has led to further developments and
The Journal of Kampo, Acupuncture and Integrative Medicine (KAIM)
Volume 1, Special Edition | Current Kampo Medicine 2005
now similar studies performed for Kampo medicines have
yielded corresponding results. Studies trying to identify
the components of crude drugs or formulas are in the
limelight of recent attention. However, the new
techniques trying to identify "compounds in serum",
following the intake of Kampo herbal formulas, are the
most significant with application of this so-called serum,
Kampo pharmacology attempts to clarify the
pharmacodynamics of the crude drug components in the
body. It gradually becomes clear that the enteric bacterial
flora apparently plays an important role in the absorption
of these components.
In Japan, there is another research area that the
country can pride itself with before the world, and this is
research into medical history, classical texts and
bibliography. In the first half of the 19th century the Edo
Gakko (Edo Medical House) led research efforts in this
area to a culmination point, but after the adoption of
German medicine, it lost its necessity and rapidly
declined. Yet, this area of research has in recent years
seen a renaissance and Hiroshi Kosoto, et al. of the
Department of Medical History Research at the Oriental
Medicine Research Center of the Kitasato Institute have
published a series of new research results. The research
into medical history on first view does not appear to have
any direct bearing on clinical practice, but it plays an
important role in the establishment of the foundation of
Kampo medicine. Also, critical text analysis often
provides hints for new clinical applications.
From a clinical point of view, the most important
feature of Japanese Kampo medicine is the extensive
accumulation of experiences in the use of "Shang han lun"
prescriptions (including the "Jin gui yao liu"). In the past,
Japanese physicians have been using these for conditions
that are basically indications for different prescriptions.
This successfully contributed to the demonstration of the
inherently great potential of these drugs, indicated new
forms of clinical applications and has thus also provided
material for further studies. Researchers of Japanese
Kampo medicine work with the above described various
different research methods and clinical applications, but
agree with each other regarding the importance placed on
the "Shang han lun" prescriptions. The achievements
associated with this accumulation of experiences are both
Japan's pride and asset.
In modern Japan, highly diverse forms of Kampo
medicine coexist and their presence has a historical
background.
Yet, this diversity represents the real nature of
Japanese Kampo medicine and comprises new research
methodologies and applications found only in Japan.
Even though the future worldwide development of TCM is
largely influenced by the prevailing trends in its birth
place, China; Japanese Kampo medicine will contribute
significantly to that development.
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